3.

0 METABOLISM

3.1 ANABOLISM AND CATABOLISM

Anabolism builds things and consumes energy by making bigger things out of smaller things
and using up energy in the process. Anabolism, or biosynthesis, allows the body to grow new
cells and maintain all the tissues. Catabolism breaks things down and gives out energy. Using
bigger things to make smaller things and releasing energy in the process. Catabolism provides
the energy our bodies need for physical activity, from a cellular level right up to whole body
movements. When we eat our body breaks down the organic nutrients. This breaking down
process releases energy, which is stored inside molecules of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in
the body.

3.2 The production of energy

3.2.1 Three stages:

Proteins, Carbohydrates and Fats are broken down during digestion and absorption
into smaller units: amino acids, monosaccharide and fatty acids.

These smaller compounds are further broken down into 2-carbon compounds.

Compounds are degraded into CO2 and H20.

3.2.2 The production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in the body.

1. Glycolusis (pyruvate production)
There are two phases of Glycolysis. The first is known as the "priming phase," because
it requires an input of energy in the form of 2 ATPs per glucose molecule. The second
phase is known as the "pay off phase," because energy is released in the form of 4 ATPs,
2 per glyceraldehyde molecule.

The overall process of glycolysis is:

Glucose + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi 2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O

The end result of Glycolysis is two new pyruvate molecules which can then be fed into the
Citric Acid cycle
3.2.2.Krebs cycle
In order for pyruvate from glycolysis to enter the Kreb's Cycle it must first be converted into
acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex which is an oxidative process wherein
NADH and CO2 are formed

3.2.2.1 Step In Krebs Cycle

Acetyl-CoA enters the Kreb Cycle when it is joined to oxaloacetate by citrate synthase to
produce citrate. Citrate is then converted into isocitrate by the enzyme aconitase. This is
accomplished by the removal and addition of water to yield an isomer.Isocitrate is converted
into alpha-ketogluterate by isocitrate dehydrogenase. The byproducts of which are NADH
and CO2.Apha-ketogluterate is then converted into succynl-CoA by alpha-ketogluterate
dehydrogenase. NADH and CO2 are once again produced.Succynl-CoA is then converted
into succinate by succynl-CoA synthetase which yields one ATP per succynl-CoA.Succinate
coverts into fumerate by way of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase and [FAD] is reduced
to [FADH2] which is a prosthetic group of succinate dehydrogenase. Succinate
dehydrogenase is a direct part of the Electron Transport Chain. It is also known as electron
carrier II.Fumerate is then converted to malate by hydration with the use of fumerase. Malate
is converted into oxaloacetate by malate dehydrogenase the byproducts of which are NADH.

3.2.3 Beta-oxidation
Beta-oxidation is a metabolic pathway that converts fatty acids into ATP. The metabolism of
fats involves both catabolism to form ATP and anabolism to produce phospholipids. Proteins
are broken up into their constituent amino acids in many different pathways, beginning with
digestion and continuing with processing at the cellular level
3.2.3.1 Process of fatty acids entering mitochondria in Beta-Oxidation
Before entering the mitochondrion, fatty acids must be activated The activation reaction
happens in the cytoplasm, and it consists on the transformation of the fatty acid into its acylCoa derivative Thioester bonds are very energetic. Therefore, an ATP gets hydrolyzed (to
AMP, which is equivalent to the hydrolysis of 2 ATP to 2 ADP) in the process The
mithochondrial inner membrane is impermeable to acyl-CoAs. In order to get inside, these
will react with a "special" aminoacid, carnitine, releasing CoA Sterified carnitine is
transported into the mitochondial matrix by a specific membrane-bound transport complex
Inside the mitochondrion, carnitine transfers the acyl group to another CoA molecule. Free

carnitine

returns

to

the

cytoplasm

through

the

same

transporter

complex.

Once the fatty acid is inside the mitochondrial matrix, Beta Oxidation can begin. It has 4
steps. First, Long chain fatty acid is dehydrogenated to create a trans double bond between
C2 and C3. This is catalyzed by the fatty acyl CoA dehydrogenase to produce trans-delta 2enoyl CoA. It uses FAD as an electron acceptor and it is reduced to FADH2. Second , Transdelta2-enoyl CoA is hydrated at the double bond to produce L-B-hydroxyacyl CoA. This is
catalyzed by enoyl CoA hydratase. Third , L-B-hydroxyacyl CoA is dehydrogenated again to
create B-ketoacyl CoA by B-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase. This enzyme uses NAD as an
electron acceptor. Forth, Thiolysis occurs between C2 and C3 (alpha and beta carbons) of Bketoacyl CoA. Thiolase enzyme catalyzes the reaction when a new molecule of coenzyme A
breaks the bond by nucleophilic attack on C3. This releases the first two carbon units, as
acetyl CoA, and a fatty acyl CoA minus two carbons. The process continues until all of the
carbons in the fatty acid are turned into acetyl CoA.

3.3 METABOLISM AND BODY WEIGHT

Carbohydrate metabolism is but one component of energy production and storage. In fact, a
much larger percentage of the total energy reserves in animals is lipids in the form of fat
deposits consisting of energy-rich fatty acids. There are three basic sources of fatty acids in
animals that can be used for energy conversion processes, first, fatty acids present in
triacylglycerols which obtained from the diet, second, fatty acids stored as triacylglycerols
in adipose tissue that are released by hydrolysis following hormone stimulation (glucagon or
epinephrine signaling), and third, fatty acids synthesized in the liver from excess
carbohydrates and exported as triacylglycerols. Fatty acids in dietary triacylglycerols are

transported from the intestines to the rest of the body by large lipoprotein particles called
chylomicrons. Hormone signaling releases fatty acids from adipose tissue that bind to an
abundant transport protein in serum called albumin. Lastly, fatty acids synthesized in the liver
are carried through the body as triacylglycerols by very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)
particles. Palmitate is a C16 saturated fatty acid that can be carried through the body as a
protein fatty acid complex.

Fat is stored in fat cells (adipocytes). Obesity, can be due to both more fat storage per cell,
and to a larger number of adipocytes .In contrast, in normal healthy adults, the onset of old
age and reduced metabolic rates leads to weight gain resulting primarily from storing more
fat per cell (although adults can also add more fat cells if they become obese)
In simple terms, our body weight is a result of catabolism minus anabolism. In other words,
the amount of energy we release into our bodies (catabolism) minus the amount of energy our
bodies use up (anabolism).The excess energy is stored either as fat or glycogen (stored as
carbohydrate mostly in the liver, and also in the muscles).One gram of fat produces
9 calories (kcal), compared to 4 kcal from protein or carbohydrate.
Although becoming overweight is mostly a result of the body storing energy as fat because
there is an excess of it, sometimes hormonal problems or an underlying medical condition
may affect metabolism.
It is a common belief that slim people have a "high metabolism" while overweight/obese
people

have

"low

metabolism".

However,

underlying

conditions,

such

as hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) are not the most common causes of obesity. Weight
gain is mainly due to energy imbalance.

REFERENCES

Ebenhh O, Heinrich R (2001). "Evolutionary optimization of metabolic pathways.

Theoretical reconstruction of the stoichiometry of ATP and NADH producing
systems". Bull Math Biol 63 (1): 2155

Garrett, R.; Grisham, C. M. (2005). Biochemistry (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson
Brooks/Cole. p. 584.