Lec9 PDF

EE2022 Electrical Energy Systems
Lecture 9: Electric Power Generation –

Operating Considerations of a Generator
14/02/2013
Panida Jirutitijaroen
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 1

Detailed Syllabus
31/01/2013 Three-phase power systems: Introduction to three-phase circuit. Balanced three-phase
systems. Delta-Wye connection. Relationship between phase and line quantities
05/02/2013 Three-phase power systems: Per-phase analysis. Three-phase power calculation. Examples.
07/02/2013 Generation: Simple generator concept. Equivalent circuit of synchronous generators
14/02/2013 Generation: Operating consideration of synchronous generators, i.e. excitation voltage
control, real power control, and loading capability
19/02/2013 1st Mid-term test @ LT6
AC circuit, power factor, power factor correction, 3-phase circuit (Tutorials 1-3)
21/02/2013 Generation: Principle of asynchronous generators. Examples.
Transmission: Overhead VS Underground cable.
05/03/2013 Transmission: Four basic parameters of transmission line.
07/03/2013 Transmission: Long transmission line model, Medium-length transmission line model, Short
transmission line model.
12/03/2013 Transmission: Operating consideration of transmission lines i.e. voltage regulation, line
loadability, efficiency. Examples.
14/03/2013 Distribution: Principle of transformer. Ideal transformer. Reflected load. Impedance
matching. Practical transformer. Three-phase transformer. Examples
19/03/2013 Per unit analysis: Single-phase per unit analysis.
21/03/2013 Per unit analysis: Three-phase per unit analysis. Examples.
02/04/2013 2nd Mid-term test @ LT6
Generators, transmission lines, and transformers (Tutorials 4-6)
2/13/2013 EE2022: Three-phase circuit by P. Jirutitijaroen 2
1st Mid-Term Test
• Date: Tuesday February 19th, 2013.
• Time: 45 minutes from 12:00pm to 12:45pm.
• Venue: LT6
• Format: Closed book, Q&A, 3-4 questions.
• Materials: Lecture 1-7, tutorial 1-3
– AC circuit analysis
– Apparent power, power factor correction
– Three-phase voltage and current
– Three-phase complex power

A simple AC generator
REVIEW

Main Components of a Power Plant
Fossil-fuel
High
(coal/NG),
Pressure&
Nuclear,
Temp steam
Biomass Prime
Mover-
Turbine
Wind,
Tidal,
Hydro
Solar energy systems are different, you will see why in the
later part of this module.
A Simple AC Generator
Rotor/Stator
Electromagnetic induction
Single-Phase AC generator
Rotor speed (rpm) VS frequency (Hz)
1 revolution 60 sec
n (rpm)   f (cycles/sec) 
p min
cycles
2
np f: voltage frequency (Hz)
f  n: rotor speed (rpm)
Three-Phase AC generator 120 p: number of poles
Generator Operation
• In order for a generator to work, we need two
inputs:-
1. Magnetic field at the rotor.
2. Mechanical power to turn the rotor.
Magnetic Field
Electrical Power
Generator
Mechanical Power
For large generators, we use AC electrical power output and pass it through a rectifier to
create DC currents to supply magnetic field circuit.
An Equivalent Circuit
• R = resistance in the armature winding.
• X = synchronous reactance, representing flux
linkage losses with a leakage reactance in the
airgap, Xl and the armature reaction, Xa.
I R X
+
+
E - V
-

Learning outcomes
Outline
References
IN THIS LECTURE

Learning Outcomes
• Use electrical engineering principles to explain
the basic operation of the electrical
generator, transmission line and transformer
in an electrical energy system and able to
identify and construct their equivalent
circuits appropriately.

Outline
• Operating consideration of synchronous
generators
– Excitation voltage control
– Real power control
– Loading capability

Reference
• Pieter Schavemaker and Lou Van Der Sluis,
“Electrical Power System Essentials”. Chapter
2 and Appendix C,D.

No load operation
Loaded operation
Phasor diagram
Complex power supplied by a generator
OPERATIONS OF A SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

No Load Operation
Assume that the resistance ‘R’ in the

armature winding is negligible.
No power exchange with the grid
Load

Loaded Operation
Assume that the resistance ‘R’ in the Generator injects power into the grid
armature winding is negligible.
E
Load δ X|I|
θ V
I
δ is called ‘power angle’, we’ll see why.
Grid Interaction
No power exchange Generator injects power into the grid

Phasor Diagram at
Different Operating Conditions
Assume that the resistance ‘R’ in the armature winding is negligible.
E E I E
δ X|I| X|I| X|I|
δ θ δ
θ V
I V V
I
Lagging pf load Unity pf load Leading pf load
θ=0
‘E’ Internal EMF; ‘V’ Terminal voltage; ‘I’ Armature current

Example 1
• Given an equivalent circuit of three-phase
wye-connected synchronous generator with a
terminal voltage of 600 V per phase, stator
reactance of 6 Ω per phase and an armature
resistance of 0.15 Ω per phase. If the machine
is connected to a resistive load that draws 20
A, find the internal EMF and draw a Phasor
diagram.

Example 1
R = 0.15 X = j6 I = 20 A
E
+
E +
- V = 6000 Vx = XI
δ = 11.26˚
-
I V VR = IR
E  I ( R  jX )  VT  200.15  j 6   600 0  614 .8211.26

Complex Power Supplied
• Complex power ‘S’ supplied by
a generator can be calculated.
• Using the equivalent circuit to
find complex power in terms of
excitation voltage ‘E’, terminal
(grid) voltage ‘V’, and
synchronous reactance ‘X’.
• Typically, the resistance ‘R’ in
the armature winding is Load
negligible when compared to a
synchronous reactance. In this
analysis, we omit the
resistance.

Complex Power Supplied Per Phase
E
Load δ X|I|
θ V
I
From S1  VI *.
The grid voltage magnitude V is usually known so we let I 
E V ,
then we can write, jX
V E 
V E V 
2

S1  sin    j  cos   
X 
 X X 
Three-Phase Complex Power Supplied
• We have,
V E 
 V E V 
2

S 3  3 sin    j 3 cos   3 
X 
 X X 

V E
P3  3 sin  
X
2
V E V
Q3  3 cos   3
X X

Steady state operation of a generator
Real power output
Power angle
Maximum power transfer
Reactive power output
REAL AND REACTIVE POWER

OUTPUT

Steady State Operation
Magnetic Field
Electrical Power
Generator
Mechanical Power
V E
Pmech.     P3  3 sin  
X
• When electrical load is increased, we need to increase
mechanical power input.
• The speed of the rotor (ω) needs to be constant because
rotor speed determines the voltage frequency and the
frequency needs to be kept constant.
• We can only increase the mechanical ‘Torque’ to supply
additional electrical load while maintaining the same speed.

Real Power Output
• From V E
P3  3 sin  
X
• |V| and X are constant values.
• |E| depends on the magnitude of magnetic field
at the rotor.
• When the magnetic field is kept constant and
mechanical power input is increased, the
electrical power output will be increased.
• Since |V|, |E|, and X are kept constant, power
angle will be increased.

Power Angle
• From V E
P3  3 sin  
X
• Consider three cases:
Power angle Real power output Operation mode
δ>0 P>0 Supply power as generator
δ=0 P=0 No power exchange
δ<0 P<0 Absorb power as a motor
This is why δ is called ‘power angle’!

Maximum Power Transfer
• In theory, the power angle δ ≤ 90 degree.
• This limitation is called “Steady-state stability limit”.
• Above 90 degree, generator will lose synchronism.
• The maximum power transfer is the real power output when the
power angle is 90 degrees.
Under this region, when the
V E
P3  3 sin   mechanical power input increases,
the power angle increase BUT the
X electrical power output decreases.
Pmax In order to balance mechanical
Under this region, when the power input to electrical power
mechanical power input output, the machine will adjust its
increases, the power angle rotational speed, hence out of
increase and as a result the synchronism.
electrical power output
increases δ
90 degree
Reactive Power Output
2
• From Q  3 V E cos   3 V
3
X X
3
V
E cos   V 
X
• Reactive power control is done by adjusting |E|. (Although the
power angle also affects the reactive power output, internal voltage
magnitude dominates the final output.)
• Consider three cases,
Cases Reactive power output Operation mode
|E|cos δ > |V| Q>0 Supply reactive power. This
mode is called ‘Overexcited’.
|E|cos δ = |V| Q=0 No reactive power exchange
|E|cos δ < |V| Q<0 Absorb reactive power. This
mode is called ‘Underexcited’.

Reactive Power Exchange
• We can vary the magnitude of excitation voltage to either
supply or absorb variable amount of reactive power.
Lagging pf load Unity pf load Leading pf load

E E I E
X|I| X|I|
δ X|I| δ θ δ
θ V
I V V
I
Supply reactive No reactive Absorb reactive
power  power exchange power 
Overexcited Underexcited.
Adjusting Excitation Voltage
Magnetic field will still

rotate at the same
frequency with higher
magnitude.
The magnetic field can be intensified with higher field current

magnitude. As a result, excitation voltage of a generator will be
increased when we increase the magnitude of magnetic field.

Example 2
This voltage is line-to-line voltage.
• A 50-MVA, 30kV, three-phase, wye-connected 60 Hz

synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance of 9 Ω
per phase and a negligible resistance. The generator is
supplying to the system a rated power at 0.8 p.f. lagging at
the rated terminal voltage.
– (a) Determine the excitation voltage per phase (E) and the
power angle (δ).
– (b) With the excitation held constant at the value found in (a),
the driving torque is reduced until the generator is delivering 25
MW. Determine the armature current and the new power factor.
– (c) what is the maximum power transfer by this generator at the
current excitation?

Example 2(a) Excitation Voltage
= j9 I = ? Line-to-line voltage
30 10 3
V 0 V
Load 3
E  I ( jX )  V
 Need to find the current I!!

Hint: The generator is E=?
delivering rated power to
δ=??
X|I|
the system at a 0.8 power θ V
factor lagging. I
Example 2(a) Armature Current
• From,
S3  3VI * S 3  3 V I
• We can find the current magnitude,
S 3 50 10 6
I    962.25
3V  30 10 
3
Line-to-neutral voltage
3  
 

 3 
• Since the angle of terminal voltage is assumed to be
zero, current angle is found from power factor,
I   cos 1
 p. f .  36.87
Example 2(a) Excitation Voltage
• We can now find the excitation voltage,
E  I ( jX )  V
 962.25  36.87  990  17320 0
 23558 .4317.1
Power angle = 17.1 degree

Example 2(b) New Power Angle
• With the excitation held constant at the value found in (a)
(|E| = 23558 V), the driving torque is reduced until the
generator is delivering 25 MW.
V E
P3  3 sin    25 MW.
X
• The new power angle is found from,

1 P3 , new X
  25  10 6
 9 
 new  sin    sin 

1
 3 17320  23558   10.6
 3V E   

Example 2(b) Armature Current
• We can now find the armature current.
E  V 2355810.6  17320 0

I   807  53.4
jX 990
• This means that the power factor has changed too!!
p. f .  cosV  I   cos0   53.43  0.596
• Note that changing power angle affects the reactive
power output.

Example 2(c) Maximum Power Transfer
Pmax V E
P3  3 sin  
X
δ
17320  23558
V E
P3,max 3 3  136 MW
X 9
This is a maximum possible value in theory, you can see that this
value exceeds the machine’s limit of 50 MVA!

Example 2: Points to Note
• From (b), when we adjust only mechanical power
input, we see that the current magnitude and power
factor has changed.
I  962.25  36.87 I  807  53.4

• If we want to keep the power factor constant, we
need to adjust the excitation voltage magnitude too!
• We will illustrate this effect using Phasor diagram in
the next section.

Control of complex power output
Loading capability of a generator
CONTROL OF REAL AND REACTIVE

POWER OUTPUT
2/13/2013 EE2022: Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 39

Real Power Output: Summary
Magnetic Field
Electrical Power
Generator
Mechanical Power
V E
Pmech.     P3  3 sin  
X
• Mechanical power input is increased by increasing the torque (τ).
This results in a larger power angle and higher electrical power
output.
• Steady-state stability limit is reached when power angle becomes
90 degrees.
Control of Real Power Output
E Increase
E
mechanical
δ X|I| power input
X|I’|
θ δ’>δ
V  Power angle V
I is increased! θ’
I’
• |E|, |V| remains unchanged.
• Power angle increases as a result of higher mechanical power input.
• Load current |I| increases because the electrical power output is
increased.
• The power factor will now changed because the power angle is
increased while the internal voltage magnitude is kept constant.
• We need to adjust the excitation voltage to keep the power factor
constant.
Reactive Power Output: Summary
Magne tic Field

Electrical Power
Generator
Mechanical Power
2
V E V
Q3 3 cos   3
X X
• When we increase field current, the magnetic field is intensified. As
a result, internal excitation voltage is increased. The reactive power
output is increased.
• Two operating conditions of a generator: supplying reactive power
is called overexcited and absorbing reactive power is called
underexcited.
Control of Reactive Power Output
E
• |V|and power angle
remains unchanged. δ’
X|I’|
• The current magnitude and
θ’ V
angle, θ (power factor) will I’
change as a result of the Increase field current
change in excitation voltage  Excitation voltage
magnitude. magnitude is
increased!
• We can now adjust the
excitation voltage to
E’
maintain the power factor
δ’
X|I”|
of the original load.
θ V
2/13/2013 EE2022: Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen
I” 43
Control of Complex Power Supplied
E
δ X|I| Vary the mechanical power input  change
θ V
I in power angle.
E
>δ
X|I’|
θ’ V
I’
E
Vary the field current  change in >δ X|I’’|
θ V
excitation voltage magnitude.
I’’
Loading Capability of a Generator
• Generator’s loading capability is characterized by
three main factors.
1. Rotor heating limit: This limit is caused by the
heating limit of a conductor in field winding at the
rotor.
2. Stator heating limit: This limit is caused by the
heating limit of a conductor in armature winding at
the stator.
3. Stability limit: This limit is caused by the maximum
power angle of 90 degrees before the machine runs
out of synchronism.

Loading Capability of a Generator
• Rotor heating limit (field
winding)
E
• Stator heating limit
δ X|I|
V
(armature winding)
• Stability limit (power angle)
Static stability limit

Rotor heating limit Stator heating limit
Area within these
lines are the
loading capability
Source: http://www.ece.ualberta.ca/~knight/ee332/synchronous/ratings/power_limits.html
Power Limits of a Generator
Multiply 2
V E V
cos   3
by 3V/Xs
Q3  3
X X
V E
P3  3 sin  
X
Rotate by
90 degree
Flip the
counter
P clockwise Q graph Q
P P
Q
Source: http://www.ece.ualberta.ca/~knight/ee332/synchronous/ratings/power_limits.html

Generator Loading Capability
Overexcited
operation
Underexcited
operation

Generator Capability: Overexcited
Source: FACILITIES
INSTRUCTIONS,
STANDARDS,AND
TECHNIQUES Volume
1-4 “PERMISSIBLE
LOADING
OFGENERATORS AND
LARGE MOTORS”,
FACILITIES
ENGINEERING
BRANCH DENVER
OFFICE DENVER,
COLORADO, UNITED
STATES DEPARTMENT
OF THE
INTERIORBUREAU OF
RECLAMATIONREVISE
D MARCH 1991

Generator Capability: Underexcited
Source: FACILITIES
INSTRUCTIONS,
STANDARDS,AND
TECHNIQUES Volume
1-4 “PERMISSIBLE
LOADING
OFGENERATORS AND
LARGE MOTORS”,
FACILITIES
ENGINEERING
BRANCH DENVER
OFFICE DENVER,
COLORADO, UNITED
STATES DEPARTMENT
OF THE
INTERIORBUREAU OF
RECLAMATIONREVISE
D MARCH 1991

Summary
• Complex power supplied by a generator
• Control of complex power.
– Adjust power angle to change real power output.
– Adjust field current (the excitation voltage) to change reactive
power output.
– The following formulas apply when the armature resistance is
negligible.
2
V E
P3  3 sin   Q3  3
V E
cos   3
V
X X X
• Generator loading capability
– rotor heating, stator heating and stability limit
– Steady-state stability limit (δ=90°) implies maximum power
transfer by the machine.
Next Lecture
• Principle of asynchronous generators
• Types of transmission lines

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EE2022 Electrical Energy Systems

Lecture 9: Electric Power Generation –

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Assume that the resistance ‘R’ in the

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No power exchange Generator injects power into the grid

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 16

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 17

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 18

E  I ( R  jX )  VT  200.15  j 6   600 0  614 .8211.26

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2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 22

REAL AND REACTIVE POWER

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2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 24

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 25

This is why δ is called ‘power angle’!

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 28

Lagging pf load Unity pf load Leading pf load

Magnetic field will still

The magnetic field can be intensified with higher field current

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 30

• A 50-MVA, 30kV, three-phase, wye-connected 60 Hz

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 31

 Need to find the current I!!

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 34

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 35

E  V 2355810.6  17320 0

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 36

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 37

I  962.25  36.87 I  807  53.4

2/13/2013 EE2022: Electric Power Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 38

CONTROL OF REAL AND REACTIVE

2/13/2013 EE2022: Generation by P. Jirutitijaroen 39

Magne tic Field

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Static stability limit

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