PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

Format

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

KAMPUS NEGERI SEMBILAN

Assessment:
(1%)

Procedure

(2%)

Results

(2%)

Discussion

(1.5%)

Conclusion

(1.5%)

Analysis

(2%)

Lab
Techniques

(10%)

& Skills

PHY360

TOTAL (20%)

Physics Laboratory (Instrumentation

and Application)
EXPERIMENT 1:
DETERMINATION OF CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR
ENERGY

Experiment A: Wavelength of Light that hits a Solar Cell

Experiment B: Solar Cell Series Circuits
Experiment C: Solar Cell Parallel Circuits
Experiment D: Measuring the power output of a PV solar panel and its
efficiency

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

1.

Introduction

Photovoltaic (PV) materials and devices convert sunlight into electrical energy, and PV cells are
commonly known as solar cells. Photovoltaics can literally be translated as light-electricity. The
electrical power produced is in Direct Current (DC) form.
First used in about 1890, "photovoltaic" has two parts: photo, derived from the Greek word for light,
and volt, relating to electricity pioneer Alessandro Volta. And this is what photovoltaic materials and
devices dothey convert light energy into electrical energy, as French physicist Edmond Becquerel
discovered as early as 1839.
Becquerel discovered the process of using sunlight to produce an electric current in a solid material.
But it took more than another century to truly understand this process. Scientists eventually learned
that the photoelectric or photovoltaic effect caused certain materials to convert light energy into
electrical energy at the atomic level.
1.1 Experiment A: Wavelength of Light that hits a Solar Cell
Solar cells generate an electrical current when light hits their surface. White light that we see from
the Sun includes all colours of the visible spectrum and ranges in wavelength from about 400
nanometers (nm) to about 780 nm. Solar cells vary in their response to different wavelengths, or
colour of light.
Table 1.1: Colour and Wavelength of Light
Colour
White

Approximate
Wavelength (nm)
390-780

Violet

390-455

Blue

455-495

Green

495-575

Yellow

575-600

Orange

600-625

Red

625-780

Currently available solar cells respond to some, but not all, wavelengths. There is continuing
research to develop solar cells that will respond to the largest range of wavelengths as possible.

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

1.1.1.

Objective

To demonstrate how a solar cells responds differently to different wavelengths of light. You
will develop this idea by covering the solar cell with color light filters and observing any
changes in solar cell amperage output.
1.1.2. Hypothesis
A solar panel will output different levels of power depending on the colour and wavelength of
the incoming light.
1.1.3. Materials
1. Encapsulated Solar cell of 10W.
2. Metal Halide or Tungsten Halogen Discharged lamp.
3. Multimeter to measure Milli-Amps.
4. Colour Filter (blue, cyan, green, magenta, yellow, red)

Figure 1.1: Solar Panel Setup

1.1.4. Procedure
1. Set up the colour filters in front of the lamp. Make sure it is attached on the clip.
2. Find a bright spot in front of the lamp. Attach the solar cell in front of the colour filter (the
colour filter should be between the lamp and solar cell). The distance between solar cell and
the lamps is 10cm.
3. Connect the ammeter to the solar panel. Set the ammeter output so that it will read milliamps (mA). Begin your testing by measuring the output of the solar cell under a full beam of
bright light without filter. Record the mA reading from your ammeter.

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

4. Test each colour filter by covering the solar cell. Each time record the colour and the mA
reading from your ammeter.
1.1.5. Expected Results
You should see changes in the solar cell output depending on the colour filter that you see.
In general, with this experiment, you will only be able to prove that The output power of a
solar cell will change with the colour (wavelength) of incoming light.
Keep in mind that you may see linear trends and you may not. It depends on the type of solar
cell you have. Different solar cells are designed to operate efficiently at different wavelengths
depending on the materials used to manufacture them. Research in the area of solar cells
continues with an interest to develop cells that will operate at the widest range of wavelengths.
1.1.6. Result
Table 1.2: Wavelength of Light that Hits a Solar Cell.
Colour
White (full beam)

Approximate
Wavelength (nm)
390-780

Blue

455-495

Green

495-575

Yellow

575-600

Red

625-780

Cyan

490-520

Magenta

500-530

Solar Cell output

(mA)

1.1.7. Questions:
1. Which colour filter causes the greatest change in the solar cell output?
2. Which colour filter causes the smallest change in the solar cell output?
3. Do you think solar cells should be designed to operate well for all wavelengths or just a
few? Explain your answer.

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

1.2. Experiment B: Solar Cell Series Circuits.
Solar cells, like batteries, each have a rated value of voltage (V or volts) and amperage (A or
amps). The total power in wattage (W or watts) delivered is the voltage times the amperage.
Volts x Amps = Power (Watts) or V x A = W
1.2.1. Objective
To demonstrate how solar cells and panels are connected, like batteries, to achieve certain
ratings of voltage and amperage. You will develop this idea by measuring the no-load voltage
and amperage of solar cells connected in series.
1.2.2. Materials
1. Two Encapsulated Solar cell of 10W.
2. Metal Halide or Tungsten Halogen Discharged lamp.
3. Digital Multimeter

Figure 1.2: Solar panel Setup (2)

1.2.3. Procedure
1. Find a bright spot in front of the lamp to work.
2. Connect the meter to one solar panel as shown in Schematic Diagram 1 and set the solar
panel so that it gets a good amount of light.

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

3. Measure the DC volts and record your data.
4. Measure the DC amps and record your data.

Figure 1.3: Solar Panel Serial Setup

5. Connect the meter to two solar cells as shown in Schematic Diagram 2 and set the solar
cells so that they get a good amount of light.
6. Measure the DC volts and record your data.
7. Measure the DC amps and record your data.
1.2.4. Expected Results
In series, the voltage is additive and the amperage is constant.
Vtotal = V1 + V2
So, the value of DC volts should be double for the series circuit while the value for DC amps
should be the same for both one panel and two panels connected in series.
Try This:
Use the set up for Schematic Diagram 2. Block the light to one of the panels. Measure the
voltage and amperage. What happens? Why?

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

1.3. Experiment C: Solar Cell Parallel Circuits.
Solar cells, like batteries, each have a rated value of voltage (V or volts) and amperage (A or
amps). The total power in wattage (W or watts) delivered is the voltage times the amperage.
Volts x Amps = Power (Watts) or V x A = W
1.3.1. Objective
To demonstrate how solar cells and panels are connected, like batteries, to achieve certain
ratings of voltage and amperage. You will develop this idea by measuring the no-load voltage
and amperage os solar cells connected in parallel.
1.3.2. Materials
1. Two Encapsulated Solar cell of 10W.
2. Metal Halide or Tungsten Halogen Discharged lamp.
3. Digital Multimeter

Figure 1.4: Encapsulated Solar Panel

1.3.3. Procedure
1. Find a bright spot in front of the lamp to work.
2. Connect the meter to one solar panel as shown in Schematic Diagram 1 and set the solar
panel so that it gets a good amount of light.
3. Measure the DC volts and record your data.
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PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

4. Measure the DC amps and record your data.

Figure 1.5: Solar Panel Parallel Setup (2)

5. Connect the meter to two solar cells as shown in Schematic Diagram 2 and set the solar
cells so that they get a good amount of light.
6. Measure the DC volts and record your data.
7. Measure the DC amps and record your data.
1.3.4. Expected Results

In parallel, the amperage is additive and the voltage is constant.

Atotal = A1 + A2
So, the value of DC amps should be double for the parallel circuit while the value for DC volts
should be the same for both one panel and two panels connected in parallel.
Try This:
Use the set up for Schematic Diagram 2. Block the light to one of the panels. Measure the
voltage and amperage. What happens? Why?
Worksheet:

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

Table 1.3: Solar Cells: Series & Parallel Circuits.
Circuit

Solar Cell Output

Solar Cell Output

(DC volts (V))

(DC amps (A))

Single Solar Cell

Multiply single solar cell
readings by 2
Series Solar Cells
Parallel Solar Cells

Questions:
If power is in watts (W) and is calculated by multiplying V x A = W:
a. What is the power of the single solar cell?
b. What is the power of the solar cells in series?
c. What is the power of the solar cells in parallel?

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

1.4. Experiment D: Measuring the power output of a PV solar panel and its efficiency
Most PV solar panels are labelled with their peak power output this is the maximum power
(measured in Watts) which that panel can generate in full sunlight. If this label is missing, or if
you would like to confirm that the figures provided are accurate, you can physically measure the
power of any solar panel with a quick experiment.
1.4.1. Solar Panel Power Output
The power output of a solar panel depends on the resistance of the electrical load to which it is
connected. In an open circuit situation (infinite resistance) the voltage of the solar panel will
be high, but no current will flow and therefore no power is generated. In a short circuit
situation (zero resistance) current flow, but with zero voltage and so again no power is
generated. These results all follow from Ohms Law which gives the relationships between
voltages, current, resistance, and power.
1.4.2. Measuring Solar Panel Power Output

Figure 1.6: Power Resistor

A collection of power resistors of different values are required. A power resistor is a resistor
which can cope with high power (and therefore heat) without being damaged. A standard or
watt resistor will not do the job as it will overheat and be destroyed. Picture above is a 1
Ohm resistor rated up to 250 Watts of power.
1.4.3. Objective
To determine the operating point of a PV solar panel and its peak power.
1.4.4. Materials
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Two pieces of solar PV cells

DC Milliammeter/Voltmeter/Multimeter
Light source L (tungsten bulb rated at least 40 W)
Variable resistance box VR ranging from 0 to 10 000
Alligator clip connecting wires
Meter rule P
Test pen

10

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

Figure 1.7: Circuit Diagram

1.4.5. Experimental Procedure

Determination of the IV characteristic graph of a solar PV cell.
Students will be measuring the efficiency of a solar cell at conditions simulating the sun. Use
the following set up for the simulated condition:
1) Connect one solar cell SC1 to the milliammeter mA using two separate connecting
wires.
2) Place the cell SC1 so that its active surface is facing normal to the bulb in the light box
with a distance x = 10 cm. Switch on the light and record the milliammeter reading as
the short circuit current reading Isc. The resistance at this point is 0 .
3)

Disconnect the milliammeter and replace it with a voltmeter. Repeat steps 1) and 2)
above and record the voltmeter reading as the open circuit voltage Voc. The resistance
at this point is .

4) Now assemble the complete set based on the circuit shown in Figure 1.7.
5) Set the variable resistor VR1 = 10 000 and distance x = 10 cm. Switch on the light L
and record the values of current I1 and voltage V1 in Table 1.4.
6) Change the resistance value VR2 = 9 000 and record the respective readings of
current I2 and voltage V2.
7) Repeat step 6) in similar increments until the resistance VR = 1 000 .
8) Plot a graph of current I (mA) versus voltage V (V) based on data from Table 1.4 and
determine the operating point of the solar panel.
9) Plot a graph of power output versus resistance and determine the value of resistance
for the highest power output.

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PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

Table 1.4: PV Table
No

Resistance R ()

Isc

DC Current I (mA)

DC voltage V (V)

Power (mW)

Voc
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Relationship between power generated by a solar cell with distance from a light source.
1) Using the assembly based on Figure 1.7, connect the second solar cell SC2 in series with SC1.
2) Set the distance x1 = 10 cm making sure that the active surfaces of both solar cells are normal
to the light rays. Read and record the respective values of current I1 and voltage V1 in Table
1.5.
3) Change the distance x2 = 15 cm and record the respective values of current I2 and voltage V2.
4) Repeat step 3) in similar increments until the distance x9 = 50 cm.
5) Plot a graph of power P (mW) versus distance x (m) based on data from Table 1.5

Table 1.5: DC Power generated

No

Distance x (m)

Power P = IV (mW)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

12

PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

1.4.6. Analyse the results
If we now plot a graph of the measured voltage against the current, the results are very
interesting:

Figure 1.8: PV Output

The curve above is typically of all PV solar panels. The operating point for the solar panel is
the mid-point of the bend in the curve. This is the point at which the solar panel generates its
peak power output.
The graph below shows this operating point.

Figure 1.9: Determine the Peak Power Output

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PHY360: PHYSICS LABORATORY (INSTRUMENTATION AND APPLICATION)

Since power is given by multiplying voltage and current, the rectangle with the largest area
which can be drawn under the plotted curve has its upper right hand corner at the operating
point. It is impossible to fit a rectangle with a larger area under the curve.
1.4.7. Calculating Peak power Output for a Solar Panel
Multiply the values of voltage and current at the operating point to calculate the peak power
for the solar panel.
1.4.8. Questions
1. Under what condition did the solar cell exhibit the highest power output? Which
condition led to the lowest power output?
2. What factors do you think cause the differences in efficiency of the cell?

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