Space Mechanics by Lokesh Kumar

ORBITAL
MECHANICS
Conic Sections
Orbital Elements
Types of Orbits
Newton's Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation
Uniform Circular Motion
Motions of Planets and Satellites
Launch of a Space Vehicle
Position in an Elliptical Orbit
Orbit Perturbations
Orbit Maneuvers
The Hyperbolic Orbit
Orbital mechanics, also called flight mechanics, is the study of the motions of artificial
satellites and space vehicles moving under the influence of forces such as gravity,
atmospheric drag, thrust, etc. Orbital mechanics is a modern offshoot of celestial
mechanics which is the study of the motions of natural celestial bodies such as the moon
and planets. The root of orbital mechanics can be traced back to the 17th century when
mathematician Isaac Newton (1642-1727) put forward his laws of motion and
formulated his law of universal gravitation. The engineering applications of orbital
mechanics include ascent trajectories, reentry and landing, rendezvous computations,
and lunar and interplanetary trajectories.
Conic Sections
A conic section, or
just conic, is a
curve formed by
passing a plane
through a right
circular cone. As
shown in Figure
4.1, the angular
orientation of the
plane relative to
the cone
determines
whether the conic
section is a circle,
ellipse, parabola,
or hyerbola. The
circle and the
ellipse arise when
the intersection of
cone and plane is a
bounded curve. The circle is a special case of the ellipse in which the plane is
perpendicular to the axis of the cone. If the plane is parallel to a generator line of the
cone, the conic is called a parabola. Finally, if the intersection is an unbounded curve
and the plane is not parallel to a generator line of the cone, the figure is a hyperbola. In
the latter case the plane will intersect both halves of the cone, producing two separate
curves.
We can define all conic sections in terms of the eccentricity. The type of conic section is
also related to the semi-major axis and the energy. The table below shows the
relationships between eccentricity, semi-major axis, and energy and the type of conic
section.
Conic Section Eccentricity, e Semi-major axis Energy
Circle
= radius
<0
Ellipse
0<e<1
>0
<0
Parabola
infinity
Hyperbola
>1
<0
>0
Satellite orbits can be any of the four conic sections. This page deals mostly with
elliptical orbits, though we conclude with an examination of the hyperbolic orbit.
Orbital Elements
To mathematically describe an orbit one must define six quantities, called orbital
elements. They are
Semi-Major Axis, a
Eccentricity, e
Inclination, i
Argument of Periapsis,
Time of Periapsis Passage, T
Longitude of Ascending Node,
An orbiting satellite follows an oval shaped path

known as an ellipse with the body being orbited,
called the primary, located at one of two points
called foci. An ellipse is defined to be a curve
with the following property: for each point on an
ellipse, the sum of its distances from two fixed
points, called foci, is constant (see Figure 4.2).
The longest and shortest lines that can be
drawn through the center of an ellipse are
called the major axis and minor axis,
respectively. The semi-major axis is one-half of
the major axis and represents a satellite's mean
distance from its primary. Eccentricity is the
distance between the foci divided by the length
of the major axis and is a number between zero
and one. An eccentricity of zero indicates a
circle.
Inclination is the angular distance between a satellite's orbital plane and the equator of
its primary (or the ecliptic plane in the case of heliocentric, or sun centered, orbits). An
inclination of zero degrees indicates an orbit about the primary's equator in the same
direction as the primary's rotation, a direction called prograde (or direct). An inclination
of 90 degrees indicates a polar orbit. An inclination of 180 degrees indicates a retrograde
equatorial orbit. A retrograde orbit is one in which a satellite moves in a direction
opposite to the rotation of its primary.
Periapsis is the point in an orbit closest to the primary. The opposite of periapsis, the
farthest point in an orbit, is called apoapsis. Periapsis and apoapsis are usually modified
to apply to the body being orbited, such as perihelion and aphelion for the Sun, perigee
and apogee for Earth, perijove and apojove for Jupiter, perilune and apolune for the
Moon, etc. The argument of periapsis is the angular distance between the ascending
node and the point of periapsis (see Figure 4.3). The time of periapsis passage is the
time in which a satellite moves through its point of periapsis.
Nodes are the points where an orbit crosses a plane, such as a satellite crossing the
Earth's equatorial plane. If the satellite crosses the plane going from south to north, the
node is the ascending node; if moving from north to south, it is the descending node.
The longitude of the ascending node is the node's celestial longitude. Celestial longitude
is analogous to longitude on Earth and is measured in degrees counter-clockwise from
zero with zero longitude being in the direction of the vernal equinox.
In general, three observations of an object in orbit are required to calculate the six
orbital elements. Two other quantities often used to describe orbits are period and true
anomaly. Period, P, is the length of time required for a satellite to complete one orbit.
True anomaly, , is the angular distance of a point in an orbit past the point of
periapsis, measured in degrees.
Types Of Orbits
For a spacecraft to achieve Earth orbit, it must be launched to an elevation above the
Earth's atmosphere and accelerated to orbital velocity. The most energy efficient orbit,
that is one that requires the least amount of propellant, is a direct low inclination orbit.
To achieve such an orbit, a spacecraft is launched in an eastward direction from a site
near the Earth's equator. The advantage being that the rotational speed of the Earth
contributes to the spacecraft's final orbital speed. At the United States' launch site in
Cape Canaveral (28.5 degrees north latitude) a due east launch results in a "free ride" of
1,471 km/h (914 mph). Launching a spacecraft in a direction other than east, or from a
site far from the equator, results in an orbit of higher inclination. High inclination orbits
are less able to take advantage of the initial speed provided by the Earth's rotation, thus
the launch vehicle must provide a greater part, or all, of the energy required to attain
orbital velocity. Although high inclination orbits are less energy efficient, they do have
advantages over equatorial orbits for certain applications. Below we describe several
types of orbits and the advantages of each:
Geosynchronous orbits (GEO) are circular orbits around the Earth having a period of
24 hours. A geosynchronous orbit with an inclination of zero degrees is called a
geostationary orbit. A spacecraft in a geostationary orbit appears to hang motionless
above one position on the Earth's equator. For this reason, they are ideal for some types
of communication and meteorological satellites. A spacecraft in an inclined
geosynchronous orbit will appear to follow a regular figure-8 pattern in the sky once
every orbit. To attain geosynchronous orbit, a spacecraft is first launched into an
elliptical orbit with an apogee of 35,786 km (22,236 miles) called a geosynchronous
transfer orbit (GTO). The orbit is then circularized by firing the spacecraft's engine at
apogee.
Polar orbits (PO) are orbits with an inclination of 90 degrees. Polar orbits are useful for
satellites that carry out mapping and/or surveillance operations because as the planet
rotates the spacecraft has access to virtually every point on the planet's surface.
Walking orbits: An orbiting satellite is subjected to a great many gravitational
influences. First, planets are not perfectly spherical and they have slightly uneven mass
distribution. These fluctuations have an effect on a spacecraft's trajectory. Also, the sun,
moon, and planets contribute a gravitational influence on an orbiting satellite. With
proper planning it is possible to design an orbit which takes advantage of these
influences to induce a precession in the satellite's orbital plane. The resulting orbit is
called a walking orbit, or precessing orbit.
Sun synchronous orbits (SSO) are walking orbits whose orbital plane precesses with
the same period as the planet's solar orbit period. In such an orbit, a satellite crosses
periapsis at about the same local time every orbit. This is useful if a satellite is carrying
instruments which depend on a certain angle of solar illumination on the planet's
surface. In order to maintain an exact synchronous timing, it may be necessary to
conduct occasional propulsive maneuvers to adjust the orbit.
Molniya orbits are highly eccentric Earth orbits with periods of approximately 12 hours
(2 revolutions per day). The orbital inclination is chosen so the rate of change of perigee
is zero, thus both apogee and perigee can be maintained over fixed latitudes. This
condition occurs at inclinations of 63.4 degrees and 116.6 degrees. For these orbits the
argument of perigee is typically placed in the southern hemisphere, so the satellite
remains above the northern hemisphere near apogee for approximately 11 hours per
orbit. This orientation can provide good ground coverage at high northern latitudes.
Hohmann transfer orbits are interplanetary trajectories whose advantage is that they
consume the least possible amount of propellant. A Hohmann transfer orbit to an outer
planet, such as Mars, is achieved by launching a spacecraft and accelerating it in the
direction of Earth's revolution around the sun until it breaks free of the Earth's gravity
and reaches a velocity which places it in a sun orbit with an aphelion equal to the orbit of
the outer planet. Upon reaching its destination, the spacecraft must decelerate so that
the planet's gravity can capture it into a planetary orbit.
To send a spacecraft to an inner planet, such as Venus, the spacecraft is launched and
accelerated in the direction opposite of Earth's revolution around the sun (i.e.
decelerated) until it achieves a sun orbit with a perihelion equal to the orbit of the inner
planet. It should be noted that the spacecraft continues to move in the same direction as
Earth, only more slowly.
To reach a planet requires that the spacecraft be inserted into an interplanetary

trajectory at the correct time so that the spacecraft arrives at the planet's orbit when the
planet will be at the point where the spacecraft will intercept it. This task is comparable
to a quarterback "leading" his receiver so that the football and receiver arrive at the
same point at the same time. The interval of time in which a spacecraft must be
launched in order to complete its mission is called a launch window.
Newton's Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation

Newton's laws of motion describe the relationship between the motion of a particle and
the forces acting on it.
The first law states that if no forces are acting, a body at rest will remain at rest, and a
body in motion will remain in motion in a straight line. Thus, if no forces are acting, the
velocity (both magnitude and direction) will remain constant.
The second law tells us that if a force is applied there will be a change in velocity, i.e. an
acceleration, proportional to the magnitude of the force and in the direction in which the
force is applied. This law may be summarized by the equation
where F is the force, m is the mass of the particle, and a is the acceleration.
The third law states that if body 1 exerts a force on body 2, then body 2 will exert a
force of equal strength, but opposite in direction, on body 1. This law is commonly
stated, "for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction".
In his law of universal gravitation, Newton states that two particles having masses m1
and m2 and separated by a distance r are attracted to each other with equal and
opposite forces directed along the line joining the particles. The common magnitude F of
the two forces is
where G is an universal constant, called the constant of gravitation, and has the value
6.67259x10-11 N-m2/kg2 (3.4389x10-8 lb-ft2/slug2).
Let's now look at the force that the Earth exerts on an object. If the object has a mass
m, and the Earth has mass M, and the object's distance from the center of the Earth is r,
then the force that the Earth exerts on the object is GmM /r2 . If we drop the object, the
Earth's gravity will cause it to accelerate toward the center of the Earth. By Newton's
second law (F = ma), this acceleration g must equal (GmM /r2)/m, or
At the surface of the Earth this acceleration has the valve 9.80665 m/s 2 (32.174 ft/s2).
Many of the upcoming computations will be somewhat simplified if we express the
product GM as a constant, which for Earth has the value 3.986005x10 14 m3/s2
(1.408x1016 ft3/s2). The product GM is often represented by the Greek letter .
For additional useful constants please see the appendix Basic Constants.
For a refresher on SI versus U.S. units see the appendix Weights & Measures.
Uniform Circular Motion

In the simple case of free fall, a particle accelerates toward the center of the Earth while
moving in a straight line. The velocity of the particle changes in magnitude, but not in
direction. In the case of uniform circular motion a particle moves in a circle with constant
speed. The velocity of the particle changes continuously in direction, but not in
magnitude. From Newton's laws we see that since the direction of the velocity is
changing, there is an acceleration. This acceleration, called centripetal acceleration is
directed inward toward the center of the circle and is given by
where v is the speed of the particle and r is the radius of the circle. Every accelerating
particle must have a force acting on it, defined by Newton's second law (F = ma). Thus,
a particle undergoing uniform circular motion is under the influence of a force, called
centripetal force, whose magnitude is given by
The direction of F at any instant must be in the direction of a at the same instant, that is
radially inward.
A satellite in orbit is acted on only by the forces of gravity. The inward acceleration
which causes the satellite to move in a circular orbit is the gravitational acceleration
caused by the body around which the satellite orbits. Hence, the satellite's centripetal
acceleration is g, that is g = v2/r. From Newton's law of universal gravitation we know
that g = GM /r2. Therefore, by setting these equations equal to one another we find that,
for a circular orbit,
Click here for example problem #4.1

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Motions of Planets and Satellites

Through a lifelong study of the motions of bodies in the solar system, Johannes Kepler
(1571-1630) was able to derive three basic laws known as Kepler's laws of planetary
motion. Using the data compiled by his mentor Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), Kepler found
the following regularities after years of laborious calculations:
1. All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.
2. A line joining any planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.
3. The square of the period of any planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of
the planet's mean distance from the sun.
These laws can be deduced from Newton's laws of motion and law of universal
gravitation. Indeed, Newton used Kepler's work as basic information in the formulation
of his gravitational theory.
As Kepler pointed out, all planets move in elliptical orbits, however, we can learn much
about planetary motion by considering the special case of circular orbits. We shall
neglect the forces between planets, considering only a planet's interaction with the sun.
These considerations apply equally well to the motion of a satellite about a planet.
Let's examine the case of two bodies of masses M and
m moving in circular orbits under the influence of each
other's gravitational attraction. The center of mass of
this system of two bodies lies along the line joining
them at a point C such that mr = MR. The large body of
mass M moves in an orbit of constant radius R and the
small body of mass m in an orbit of constant radius r,
both having the same angular velocity . For this to
happen, the gravitational force acting on each body
must provide the necessary centripetal acceleration.
Since these gravitational forces are a simple actionreaction pair, the centripetal forces must be equal but
opposite in direction. That is, m 2r must equal M 2R.
The specific requirement, then, is that the gravitational
force acting on either body must equal the centripetal force needed to keep it moving in
its circular orbit, that is
If one body has a much greater mass than the other, as is the case of the sun and a
planet or the Earth and a satellite, its distance from the center of mass is much smaller
than that of the other body. If we assume that m is negligible compared to M, then R is
negligible compared to r. Thus, equation (4.7) then becomes
If we express the angular velocity in terms of the period of revolution,

obtain
= 2 /P, we
where P is the period of revolution. This is a basic equation of planetary and satellite
motion. It also holds for elliptical orbits if we define r to be the semi-major axis (a) of
the orbit.
A significant consequence of this equation is that it predicts Kepler's third law of
planetary motion, that is P2~r3.

In celestial mechanics where we are dealing with planetary or stellar sized bodies, it is often the case that
the mass of the secondary body is significant in relation to the mass of the primary, as with the Moon and
Earth. In this case the size of the secondary cannot be ignored. The distance R is no longer negligible
compared to r and, therefore, must be carried through the derivation. Equation (4.9) becomes
More commonly the equation is written in the equivalent form
where a is the semi-major axis. The semi-major axis used in astronomy is always the primary-tosecondary distance, or the geocentric semi-major axis. For example, the Moon's mean geocentric distance
from Earth (a) is 384,403 kilometers. On the other hand, the Moon's distance from the barycenter (r) is
379,732 km, with Earth's counter-orbit (R) taking up the difference of 4,671 km.
Kepler's second law of planetary motion must, of course, hold true for circular orbits. In
such orbits both and r are constant so that equal areas are swept out in equal times by
the line joining a planet and the sun. For elliptical orbits, however, both and r will vary
with time. Let's now consider this case.
Figure 4.5 shows a particle revolving around C along
some arbitrary path. The area swept out by the radius
vector in a short time interval t is shown shaded.
This area, neglecting the small triangular region at
the end, is one-half the base times the height or
approximately r(r
t)/2. This expression becomes
more exact as t approaches zero, i.e. the small
triangle goes to zero more rapidly than the large one.
The rate at which area is being swept out
instantaneously is therefore
For any given body moving under the influence of a central force, the value
constant.
r2 is
Let's now consider two points P1 and P2 in an orbit with radii r1 and r2, and velocities v1
and v2. Since the velocity is always tangent to the path, it can be seen that if is the
angle between r and v, then
where vsin is the transverse component of v.

Multiplying through by r, we have
or, for two points P1 and P2 on the orbital path
Note that at periapsis and apoapsis,

points we get
= 90 degrees. Thus, letting P1 and P2 be these two
Let's now look at the energy of the above particle at points P1 and P2. Conservation of
energy states that the sum of the kinetic energy and the potential energy of a particle
remains constant. The kinetic energy T of a particle is given by mv2/2 while the potential
energy of gravity V is calculated by the equation -GMm/r. Applying conservation of
energy we have
From equations (4.14) and (4.15) we obtain
Rearranging terms we get

The eccentricity e of an orbit is given by
If the semi-major axis a and the eccentricity e of an orbit are known, then the periapsis
and apoapsis distances can be calculated by
Launch of a Space Vehicle

The launch of a satellite or space vehicle consists
of a period of powered flight during which the
vehicle is lifted above the Earth's atmosphere
and accelerated to orbital velocity by a rocket, or
launch vehicle. Powered flight concludes at
burnout of the rocket's last stage at which time
the vehicle begins its free flight. During free
flight the space vehicle is assumed to be
subjected only to the gravitational pull of the
Earth. If the vehicle moves far from the Earth,
its trajectory may be affected by the
gravitational influence of the sun, moon, or
another planet.
A space vehicle's orbit may be determined from
the position and the velocity of the vehicle at the beginning of its free flight. A vehicle's
position and velocity can be described by the variables r, v, and , where r is the
vehicle's distance from the center of the Earth, v is its velocity, and is the angle
between the position and the velocity vectors, called the zenith angle (see Figure 4.7). If
we let r1, v1, and 1 be the initial (launch) values of r, v, and , then we may consider
these as given quantities. If we let point P2 represent the perigee, then equation (4.13)
becomes
Substituting equation (4.23) into (4.15), we can obtain an equation for the perigee
radius Rp.
Multiplying through by -Rp2/(r12v12) and rearranging, we get
Note that this is a simple quadratic equation in the ratio (Rp/r1) and that 2GM /(r1 v12)
is a nondimensional parameter of the orbit.
Solving for (Rp/r1) gives
Like any quadratic, the above equation yields two answers. The smaller of the two
answers corresponds to Rp, the periapsis radius. The other root corresponds to the
apoapsis radius, Ra.
Please note that in practice spacecraft launches are usually terminated at either perigee
or apogee, i.e. = 90. This condition results in the minimum use of propellant.
Equation (4.26) gives the values of Rp and Ra from which the eccentricity of the orbit can
be calculated, however, it may be simpler to calculate the eccentricity e directly from the
equation

To pin down a satellite's orbit in space, we need to know the angle
from the periapsis point to the launch point. This angle is given by

In most calculations, the complement of the zenith
angle is used, denoted by . This angle is called the
flight-path angle, and is positive when the velocity
vector is directed away from the primary as shown in
Figure 4.8. When flight-path angle is used, equations
(4.26) through (4.28) are rewritten as follows:
, the true anomaly,
The semi-major axis is, of course, equal to (Rp+Ra)/2, though it may be easier to
calculate it directly as follows:

If e is solved for directly using equation (4.27) or (4.30), and a is solved for using
equation (4.32), Rp and Ra can be solved for simply using equations (4.21) and (4.22).
Orbit Tilt, Rotation and Orientation
Above we determined the size and shape of the orbit, but to determine the orientation of
the orbit in space, we must know the latitude and longitude and the heading of the space
vehicle at burnout.
Figure 4.9 above illustrates the location of a space vehicle at engine burnout, or orbit
insertion. is the azimuth heading measured in degrees clockwise from north, is the
geocentric latitude (or declination) of the burnout point,
is the angular distance
between the ascending node and the burnout point measured in the equatorial plane,
and is the angular distance between the ascending node and the burnout point
measured in the orbital plane. 1 and 2 are the geographical longitudes of the
ascending node and the burnout point at the instant of engine burnout. Figure 4.10
pictures the orbital elements, where i is the inclination,
is the longitude at the
ascending node, is the argument of periapsis, and is the true anomaly.
If , , and
relationships:
are given, the other values can be calculated from the following
In equation (4.36), the value of is found using equation (4.28) or (4.31). If is

positive, periapsis is west of the burnout point (as shown in Figure 4.10); if is
negative, periapsis is east of the burnout point.
The longitude of the ascending node,
, is measured in celestial longitude, while 1 is
geographical longitude. The celestial longitude of the ascending node is equal to the local
apparent sidereal time, in degrees, at longitude 1 at the time of engine burnout.
Sidereal time is defined as the hour angle of the vernal equinox at a specific locality and
time; it has the same value as the right ascension of any celestial body that is crossing
the local meridian at that same instant. At the moment when the vernal equinox crosses
the local meridian, the local apparent sidereal time is 00:00. See this sidereal time
calculator.
Geodetic Latitude, Geocentric Latitude, and Declination
Latitude is the angular distance of a point on Earth's
surface north or south of Earth's equator, positive
north and negative south. The geodetic latitude (or
geographical latitude), , is the angle defined by
the intersection of the reference ellipsoid normal
through the point of interest and the true equatorial
plane. The geocentric latitude, ', is the angle
between the true equatorial plane and the radius
vector to the point of intersection of the reference
ellipsoid and the reference ellipsoid normal passing
through the point of interest. Declination, , is the
angular distance of a celestial object north or south
of Earth's equator. It is the angle between the
geocentric radius vector to the object of interest and
the true equatorial plane.
R is the magnitude of the reference ellipsoid's geocentric radius vector to the point of interest on its
surface, r is the magnitude of the geocentric radius vector to the celestial object of interest, and the altitude
h is the perpendicular distance from the reference ellipsoid to the celestial object of interest. The value of
R at the equator is a, and the value of R at the poles is b. The ellipsoid's flattening, f, is the ratio of the
equatorial-polar length difference to the equatorial length. For Earth, a equals 6,378,137 meters, b equals
6,356,752 meters, and f equals 1/298.257.

When solving problems in orbital mechanics, the measurements of greatest usefulness are the magnitude
of the radius vector, r, and declination, , of the object of interest. However, we are often given, or
required to report, data in other forms. For instance, at the time of some specific event, such as "orbit
insertion", we may be given the spacecraft's altitude along with the geodetic latitude and longitude of the
sub-vehicle point. In such cases, it may be necessary to convert the given data to a form more suitable for
our calculations.
The relationship between geodetic and geocentric latitude is,
The radius of the reference ellipsoid is given by,
The length r can be solved from h, or h from r, using one of the following,
And declination is calculated using,
For spacecraft in low earth orbit, the difference between and ' is very small, typically not more than
about 0.00001 degree. Even at the distance of the Moon, the difference is not more than about 0.01 degree.
Unless very high accuracy is needed, for operations near Earth we can assume ' and r R + h.
It is important to note that the value of h is not always measured as described and illustrated above. In
some applications it is customary to express h as the perpendicular distance from a reference sphere, rather
than the reference ellipsoid. In this case, R is considered constant and is often assigned the value of Earth's
equatorial radius, hence h = r a. This is the method typically used when a spacecraft's orbit is expressed
in a form such as "180 km 220 km". The example problems presented in this web site also assume this
method of measurement.
Position in an Elliptical Orbit

Johannes Kepler was able to solve the problem of relating position in an orbit to the
elapsed time, t-to, or conversely, how long it takes to go from one point in an orbit to
another. To solve this, Kepler introduced the quantity M, called the mean anomaly,
which is the fraction of an orbit period that has elapsed since perigee. The mean
anomaly equals the true anomaly for a circular orbit. By definition,
where Mo is the mean anomaly at time to and n is the mean motion, or the average
angular velocity, determined from the semi-major axis of the orbit as follows:
This solution will give the average position and velocity, but satellite orbits are elliptical
with a radius constantly varying in orbit. Because the satellite's velocity depends on this
varying radius, it changes as well. To resolve this problem we can define an intermediate
variable E, called the eccentric anomaly, for elliptical orbits, which is given by
where is the true anomaly. Mean anomaly is a function of eccentric anomaly by the
formula
For small eccentricities a good approximation of true anomaly can be obtained by the
following formula (the error is of the order e 3):
The preceding five equations can be used to (1) find the time it takes to go from one
position in an orbit to another, or (2) find the position in an orbit after a specific period
of time. When solving these equations it is important to work in radians rather than
degrees, where 2 radians equals 360 degrees.
At any time in its orbit, the magnitude of a spacecraft's position vector, i.e. its distance
from the primary body, and its flight-path angle can be calculated from the following
equations:
And the spacecraft's velocity is given by,
Orbit Perturbations
The orbital elements discussed at the beginning of this section provide an excellent
reference for describing orbits, however there are other forces acting on a satellite that
perturb it away from the nominal orbit. These perturbations, or variations in the orbital
elements, can be classified based on how they affect the Keplerian elements. Secular
variations represent a linear variation in the element, short-period variations are periodic
in the element with a period less than the orbital period, and long-period variations are
those with a period greater than the orbital period. Because secular variations have longterm effects on orbit prediction (the orbital elements affected continue to increase or
decrease), they will be discussed here for Earth-orbiting satellites. Precise orbit
determination requires that the periodic variations be included as well.
Third-Body Perturbations
The gravitational forces of the Sun and the Moon cause periodic variations in all of the
orbital elements, but only the longitude of the ascending node, argument of perigee, and
mean anomaly experience secular variations. These secular variations arise from a
gyroscopic precession of the orbit about the ecliptic pole. The secular variation in mean
anomaly is much smaller than the mean motion and has little effect on the orbit,
however the secular variations in longitude of the ascending node and argument of
perigee are important, especially for high-altitude orbits.
For nearly circular orbits the equations for the secular rates of change resulting from the
Sun and Moon are
Longitude of the ascending node:
Argument of perigee:
where i is the orbit inclination, n is the number of orbit revolutions per day, and
and
are in degrees per day. These equations are only approximate; they neglect the variation
caused by the changing orientation of the orbital plane with respect to both the Moon's
orbital plane and the ecliptic plane.
Perturbations due to Non-spherical Earth
When developing the two-body equations of motion, we assumed the Earth was a
spherically symmetrical, homogeneous mass. In fact, the Earth is neither homogeneous
nor spherical. The most dominant features are a bulge at the equator, a slight pear
shape, and flattening at the poles. For a potential function of the Earth, we can find a
satellite's acceleration by taking the gradient of the potential function. The most widely
used form of the geopotential function depends on latitude and geopotential coefficients,
Jn, called the zonal coefficients.
The potential generated by the non-spherical Earth causes periodic variations in all the
orbital elements. The dominant effects, however, are secular variations in longitude of
the ascending node and argument of perigee because of the Earth's oblateness,
represented by the J2 term in the geopotential expansion. The rates of change of
and
due to J2 are
where n is the mean motion in degrees/day, J2 has the value 0.00108263, RE is the
Earth's equatorial radius, a is the semi-major axis in kilometers, i is the inclination, e is
the eccentricity, and
and are in degrees/day. For satellites in GEO and below, the J 2
perturbations dominate; for satellites above GEO the Sun and Moon perturbations
dominate.
Molniya orbits are designed so that the perturbations in argument of perigee are zero.
This conditions occurs when the term 4-5sin2i is equal to zero or, that is, when the
inclination is either 63.4 or 116.6 degrees.
Perturbations from Atmospheric Drag
Drag is the resistance offered by a gas or liquid to a body moving through it. A
spacecraft is subjected to drag forces when moving through a planet's atmosphere. This
drag is greatest during launch and reentry, however, even a space vehicle in low Earth
orbit experiences some drag as it moves through the Earth's thin upper atmosphere. In
time, the action of drag on a space vehicle will cause it to spiral back into the
atmosphere, eventually to disintegrate or burn up. If a space vehicle comes within 120
to 160 km of the Earth's surface, atmospheric drag will bring it down in a few days, with
final disintegration occurring at an altitude of about 80 km. Above approximately 600
km, on the other hand, drag is so weak that orbits usually last more than 10 years beyond a satellite's operational lifetime. The deterioration of a spacecraft's orbit due to
drag is called decay.
The drag force FD on a body acts in the opposite direction of the velocity vector and is
given by the equation
where CD is the drag coefficient, is the air density, v is the body's velocity, and A is the
area of the body normal to the flow. The drag coefficient is dependent on the geometric
form of the body and is generally determined by experiment. Earth orbiting satellites
typically have very high drag coefficients in the range of about 2 to 4. Air density is
given by the appendix Atmosphere Properties.
The region above 90 km is the Earth's thermosphere where the absorption of extreme
ultraviolet radiation from the Sun results in a very rapid increase in temperature with
altitude. At approximately 200-250 km this temperature approaches a limiting value, the
average value of which ranges between about 600 and 1,200 K over a typical solar cycle.
Solar activity also has a significant affect on atmospheric density, with high solar activity
resulting in high density. Below about 150 km the density is not strongly affected by
solar activity; however, at satellite altitudes in the range of 500 to 800 km, the density
variations between solar maximum and solar minimum are approximately two orders of
magnitude. The large variations imply that satellites will decay more rapidly during
periods of solar maxima and much more slowly during solar minima.
For circular orbits we can approximate the changes in semi-major axis, period, and
velocity per revolution using the following equations:
where a is the semi-major axis, P is the orbit period, and V, A and m are the satellite's
velocity, area, and mass respectively. The term m/(CDA), called the ballistic coefficient,
is given as a constant for most satellites. Drag effects are strongest for satellites with
low ballistic coefficients, this is, light vehicles with large frontal areas.
A rough estimate of a satellite's lifetime, L, due to drag can be computed from
where H is the atmospheric density scale height. A substantially more accurate estimate
(although still very approximate) can be obtained by integrating equation (4.53), taking
into account the changes in atmospheric density with both altitude and solar activity.
Perturbations from Solar Radiation
Solar radiation pressure causes periodic variations in all of the orbital elements. The
magnitude of the acceleration in m/s2 arising from solar radiation pressure is
where A is the cross-sectional area of the satellite exposed to the Sun and m is the mass
of the satellite in kilograms. For satellites below 800 km altitude, acceleration from
atmospheric drag is greater than that from solar radiation pressure; above 800 km,
acceleration from solar radiation pressure is greater.
Orbit Maneuvers
At some point during the lifetime of most space vehicles or satellites, we must change
one or more of the orbital elements. For example, we may need to transfer from an
initial parking orbit to the final mission orbit, rendezvous with or intercept another
spacecraft, or correct the orbital elements to adjust for the perturbations discussed in
the previous section. Most frequently, we must change the orbit altitude, plane, or both.
To change the orbit of a space vehicle, we have to change its velocity vector in
magnitude or direction. Most propulsion systems operate for only a short time compared
to the orbital period, thus we can treat the maneuver as an impulsive change in velocity
while the position remains fixed. For this reason, any maneuver changing the orbit of a
space vehicle must occur at a point where the old orbit intersects the new orbit. If the
orbits do not intersect, we must use an intermediate orbit that intersects both. In this
case, the total maneuver will require at least two propulsive burns.
Orbit Altitude Changes

The most common type of in-plane
maneuver changes the size and energy of an
orbit, usually from a low-altitude parking
orbit to a higher-altitude mission orbit such
as a geosynchronous orbit. Because the
initial and final orbits do not intersect, the
maneuver requires a transfer orbit. Figure
4.11 represents a Hohmann transfer orbit. In
this case, the transfer orbit's ellipse is
tangent to both the initial and final orbits at
the transfer orbit's perigee and apogee
respectively. The orbits are tangential, so the
velocity vectors are collinear, and the
Hohmann transfer represents the most fuelefficient transfer between two circular,
coplanar orbits. When transferring from a smaller orbit to a larger orbit, the change in
velocity is applied in the direction of motion; when transferring from a larger orbit to a
smaller, the change of velocity is opposite to the direction of motion.
The total change in velocity required for the orbit transfer is the sum of the velocity
changes at perigee and apogee of the transfer ellipse. Since the velocity vectors are
collinear, the velocity changes are just the differences in magnitudes of the velocities in
each orbit. If we know the initial and final orbits, rA and rB, we can calculate the total
velocity change using the following equations:
Note that equations (4.59) and (4.60) are the same as equation (4.6), and equations
(4.61) and (4.62) are the same as equation
(4.45).
Ordinarily we want to transfer a space
vehicle using the smallest amount of
energy, which usually leads to using a
Hohmann transfer orbit. However, sometimes we may need to transfer a satellite

between orbits in less time than that required to complete the Hohmann transfer. Figure
4.12 shows a faster transfer called the One-Tangent Burn. In this instance the transfer
orbit is tangential to the initial orbit. It intersects the final orbit at an angle equal to the
flight path angle of the transfer orbit at the point of intersection. An infinite number of
transfer orbits are tangential to the initial orbit and intersect the final orbit at some
angle. Thus, we may choose the transfer orbit by specifying the size of the transfer orbit,
the angular change of the transfer, or the time required to complete the transfer. We
can then define the transfer orbit and calculate the required velocities.
For example, we may specify the size of the transfer orbit, choosing any semi-major axis
that is greater than the semi-major axis of the Hohmann transfer ellipse. Once we know
the semi-major axis of the ellipse, atx, we can calculate the eccentricity, angular distance
traveled in the transfer, the velocity change required for the transfer, and the time
required to complete the transfer. We do this using equations (4.59) through (4.63) and
(4.65) above, and the following equations:

Another option for changing the size of an orbit is to use electric propulsion to produce a
constant low-thrust burn, which results in a spiral transfer. We can approximate the
velocity change for this type of orbit transfer by
where the velocities are the circular velocities of the two orbits.
Orbit Plane Changes
To change the orientation of a satellite's
orbital plane, typically the inclination, we
must change the direction of the velocity
vector. This maneuver requires a component
of V to be perpendicular to the orbital plane
and, therefore, perpendicular to the initial
velocity vector. If the size of the orbit
remains constant, the maneuver is called a
simple plane change. We can find the required change in velocity by using the law of
cosines. For the case in which Vf is equal to Vi, this expression reduces to
where Vi is the velocity before and after the burn, and
is the angle change required.

From equation (4.73) we see that if the angular change is equal to 60 degrees, the
required change in velocity is equal to the current velocity. Plane changes are very
expensive in terms of the required change in velocity and resulting propellant
consumption. To minimize this, we should change the plane at a point where the velocity
of the satellite is a minimum: at apogee for an elliptical orbit. In some cases, it may
even be cheaper to boost the satellite into a higher orbit, change the orbit plane at
apogee, and return the satellite to its original orbit.
Typically, orbital transfers require changes in both the size and the plane of the orbit,
such as transferring from an inclined parking orbit at low altitude to a zero-inclination
orbit at geosynchronous altitude. We can do this transfer in two steps: a Hohmann
transfer to change the size of the orbit and a simple plane change to make the orbit
equatorial. A more efficient method (less total change in velocity) would be to combine
the plane change with the tangential burn at apogee of the transfer orbit. As we must
change both the magnitude and direction of the velocity vector, we can find the required
change in velocity using the law of cosines,
where Vi is the initial velocity, Vf is the final velocity, and is the angle change required.
Note that equation (4.74) is in the same form as equation (4.69).
As can be seen from equation (4.74), a small plane change can be combined with an
altitude change for almost no cost in V or propellant. Consequently, in practice,
geosynchronous transfer is done with a small plane change at perigee and most of the
plane change at apogee.
Another option is to complete the maneuver using three burns. The first burn is a
coplanar maneuver placing the satellite into a transfer orbit with an apogee much higher
than the final orbit. When the satellite reaches apogee of the transfer orbit, a combined
plane change maneuver is done. This places the satellite in a second transfer orbit that is
coplanar with the final orbit and has a perigee altitude equal to the altitude of the final
orbit. Finally, when the satellite reaches perigee of the second transfer orbit, another
coplanar maneuver places the satellite into the final orbit. This three-burn maneuver
may save propellant, but the propellant savings comes at the expense of the total time
required to complete the maneuver.
When a plane change is used to modify inclination only, the magnitude of the angle
change is simply the difference between the initial and final inclinations. In this case, the
initial and final orbits share the same ascending and descending nodes. The plane
change maneuver takes places when the space vehicle passes through one of these two
nodes.
In some instances, however, a plane change is used to alter an orbit's longitude of

ascending node in addition to the inclination. An example might be a maneuver to
correct out-of-plane errors to make the orbits of two space vehicles coplanar in
preparation for a rendezvous. If the orbital elements of the initial and final orbits are
known, the plane change angle is determined by the vector dot product. If ii and
i are
the inclination and longitude of ascending node of the initial orbit, and if and
f are the
inclination and longitude of ascending node of the final orbit, then the angle between the
orbital planes, , is given by

The plane change maneuver takes place at one of two nodes where the initial and final
orbits intersect. The latitude and longitude of these nodes are determined by the vector
cross product. The position of one of the two nodes is given by
Knowing the position of one node, the second node is simply

Orbit Rendezvous
Orbital transfer becomes more complicated when the object is to rendezvous with or
intercept another object in space: both the interceptor and the target must arrive at the
rendezvous point at the same time. This precision demands a phasing orbit to
accomplish the maneuver. A phasing orbit is any orbit that results in the interceptor
achieving the desired geometry relative to the target to initiate a Hohmann transfer. If
the initial and final orbits are circular, coplanar, and of different sizes, then the phasing
orbit is simply the initial interceptor orbit. The interceptor remains in the initial orbit until
the relative motion between the interceptor and target results in the desired geometry.
At that point, we would inject the interceptor into a Hohmann transfer orbit.
Launch Windows
Similar to the rendezvous problem is the launch-window problem, or determining the

appropriate time to launch from the surface of the Earth into the desired orbital plane.
Because the orbital plane is fixed in inertial space, the launch window is the time when
the launch site on the surface of the Earth rotates through the orbital plane. The time of
the launch depends on the launch site's latitude and longitude and the satellite orbit's
inclination and longitude of ascending node.
Orbit Maintenance
Once in their mission orbits, many satellites need no additional orbit adjustment. On the
other hand, mission requirements may demand that we maneuver the satellite to correct
the orbital elements when perturbing forces have changed them. Two particular cases of
note are satellites with repeating ground tracks and geostationary satellites.
After the mission of a satellite is complete, several options exist, depending on the orbit.
We may allow low-altitude orbits to decay and reenter the atmosphere or use a velocity
change to speed up the process. We may also boost satellites at all altitudes into benign
orbits to reduce the probability of collision with active payloads, especially at
synchronous altitudes.
V Budget
To an orbit designer, a space mission is a series of different orbits. For example, a
satellite might be released in a low-Earth parking orbit, transferred to some mission
orbit, go through a series of resphasings or alternate mission orbits, and then move to
some final orbit at the end of its useful life. Each of these orbit changes requires energy.
The V budget is traditionally used to account for this energy. It sums all the velocity
changes required throughout the space mission life. In a broad sense the V budget
represents the cost for each mission orbit scenario.
The Hyperbolic Orbit

The discussion thus far has focused on the elliptical orbit, which will result whenever a
spacecraft has insufficient velocity to escape the gravity of its primary. There is a
velocity, called the escape velocity, Vesc, such that if the spacecraft is launched with an
initial velocity greater than Vesc, it will travel away from the planet and never return. To
achieve escape velocity we must give the spacecraft enough kinetic energy to overcome
all of the negative gravitational potential energy. Thus, if m is the mass of the
spacecraft, M is the mass of the planet, and r is the radial distance between the
spacecraft and planet, the potential energy is -GmM /r. The kinetic energy of the
spacecraft, when it is launched, is mv2/2. We thus have
which is independent of the mass of the spacecraft.

A space vehicle that has

exceeded the escape velocity
of a planet will travel a
hyperbolic path relative to the
planet. The hyperbola is an
unusual and interesting conic
section because it has two
branches. The arms of a
hyperbola are asymptotic to
two intersecting straight line
(the asymptotes). If we
consider the left-hand focus, f,
as the prime focus (where the
center of our gravitating body
is located), then only the left
branch of the hyperbola
represents the possible orbit.
If, instead, we assume a force
of repulsion between our
satellite and the body located
at f (such as the force between
two like-charged electric
particles), then the right-hand
branch represents the orbit.
The parameters a, b and c are
labeled in Figure 4.14. We can
see that c2 = a2+ b2 for the
hyperbola. The eccentricity is,
The angle between the

asymptotes, which represents
the angle through which the
path of a space vehicle is
turned by its encounter with a
planet, is labeled . This
turning angle is related to the
geometry of the hyperbola as
follows:
If we let equal the angle between the periapsis vector and the departure asymptote,
i.e. the true anomaly at infinity, we have
If we know the radius, r, velocity, v, and flight path angle, , of a point on the orbit (see
Figure 4.15), we can calculate the eccentricity and semi-major axis using equations
(4.30) and (4.32) as previously presented. Note that the semi-major axis of a hyperbola
is negative.
The true anomaly corresponding to known valves of r, v and can be calculated using
equation (4.31), however special care must be taken to assure the angle is placed in the
correct quadrant. It may be easier to first calculate e and a, and then calculate true
anomaly using equation (4.43), rearranged as follows:
Whenever is positive,
be taken as negative.
should be taken as positive; whenever
is negative,
should
The impact parameter, b, is the distance of closest approach that would result between a
spacecraft and planet if the spacecraft trajectory was undeflected by gravity. The impact
parameter is,
Closet approach occurs at periapsis, where the radius distance, ro, is equal to
p is a geometrical constant of the conic called the parameter or semi-latus rectum, and
is equal to

At any known true anomaly, the magnitude of a spacecraft's radius vector, its flight-path
angle, and its velocity can be calculated using equations (4.43), (4.44) and (4.45).
Early we introduced the variable eccentric anomaly and its use in deriving the time of
flight in an elliptical orbit. In a similar manner, the analytical derivation of the hyperbolic
time of flight, using the hyperbolic eccentric anomaly, F, can be derived as follows:
where,
Whenever is positive, F should be taken as positive; whenever

be taken as negative.
Hyperbolic Excess Velocity
is negative, F should
If you give a space vehicle exactly

escape velocity, it will just barely
escape the gravitational field,
which means that its velocity will
be approaching zero as its distance
from the force center approaches
infinity. If, on the other hand, we
give our vehicle more than escape
velocity at a point near Earth, we would expect the velocity at a great distance from
Earth to be approaching some finite constant value. This residual velocity the vehicle
would have left over even at infinity is called hyperbolic excess velocity. We can
calculate this velocity from the energy equation written for two points on the hyperbolic
escape trajectory a point near Earth called the burnout point and a point an infinite
distance from Earth where the velocity will be the hyperbolic excess velocity, v. Solving
for v we obtain
Note that if v = 0 (as it is on a parabolic trajectory), the burnout velocity, vbo, becomes
simply the escape velocity.
It is, or course, absurd to talk about a space vehicle "reaching infinity" and in this sense
it is meaningless to talk about escaping a gravitational field completely. It is a fact,
however, that once a space vehicle is a great distance from Earth, for all practical
purposes it has escaped. In other words, it has already slowed down to very nearly its
hyperbolic excess velocity. It is convenient to define a sphere around every gravitational
body and say that when a probe crosses the edge of this sphere of influence it has
escaped. Although it is difficult to get agreement on exactly where the sphere of
influence should be drawn, the concept is convenient and is widely used, especially in
lunar and interplanetary trajectories. For most purposes, the radius of the sphere of
influence for a planet can be calculated as follows:
where Dsp is the distance between the Sun and the planet, Mp is the mass of the planet,
and Ms is the mass of the Sun. Equation (4.89) is also valid for calculating a moon's
sphere of influence, where the moon is substituted for the planet and the planet for the
Sun.
Compiled, edited and written in part by Robert A. Braeunig, 1997, 2005, 2007, 2008,
2011, 2012, 2013.
Bibliography
Back Home Next
EXAMPLE
PROBLEMS
PROBLEM 1.1
A spacecraft's engine ejects mass at a rate of 30 kg/s with an exhaust
velocity
of 3,100 m/s. The pressure at the nozzle exit is 5 kPa and the exit area
is
0.7 m2. What is the thrust of the engine in a vacuum?
SOLUTION,
Given:
q = 30 kg/s
Ve = 3,100 m/s
Ae = 0.7 m2
Pe = 5 kPa = 5,000 N/m2
Pa = 0
Equation (1.6),
F = q Ve + (Pe - Pa) Ae
F = 30 3,100 + (5,000 - 0) 0.7
F = 96,500 N
PROBLEM 1.2
The spacecraft in problem 1.1 has an initial mass of 30,000 kg. What is
the
change in velocity if the spacecraft burns its engine for one minute?
SOLUTION,
Given:
M = 30,000 kg
q = 30 kg/s
Ve = 3,100 m/s
t = 60 s
Equation (1.16),
V = Ve LN[ M / (M - qt) ]
V = 3,100 LN[ 30,000 / (30,000 - (30 60)) ]
V = 192 m/s
PROBLEM 1.3
A spacecraft's dry mass is 75,000 kg and the effective exhaust gas velocity
of its main engine is 3,100 m/s. How much propellant must be carried if
the
propulsion system is to produce a total
v of 700 m/s?
SOLUTION,
Given:
Mf = 75,000 kg
C = 3,100 m/s
V = 700 m/s
Equation (1.20),
Mo = Mf e(V / C)
Mo = 75,000 e(700
Mo = 94,000 kg
/ 3,100)
Propellant mass,
Mp = Mo - Mf
Mp = 94,000 - 75,000
Mp = 19,000 kg
PROBLEM 1.4
A 5,000 kg spacecraft is in Earth orbit traveling at a velocity of 7,790
m/s.
Its engine is burned to accelerate it to a velocity of 12,000 m/s placing
it
on an escape trajectory. The engine expels mass at a rate of 10 kg/s and
an
effective velocity of 3,000 m/s. Calculate the duration of the burn.
SOLUTION,
Given:
M = 5,000 kg
q = 10 kg/s
C = 3,000 m/s
V = 12,000 - 7,790 = 4,210 m/s
Equation (1.21),
t = M / q [ 1 - 1 / e(V / C) ]
t = 5,000 / 10 [ 1 - 1 / e(4,210
/ 3,000)
t = 377 s
PROBLEM 1.5
A rocket engine burning liquid oxygen and kerosene operates at a mixture
ratio
of 2.26 and a combustion chamber pressure of 50 atmospheres. If the nozzle
is
expanded to operate at sea level, calculate the exhaust gas velocity
relative
to the rocket.
SOLUTION,
Given:
O/F = 2.26
Pc = 50 atm
Pe = Pa = 1 atm
From LOX/Kerosene Charts we estimate,

Tc = 3,470 K
M = 21.40
k = 1.221
Equation (1.22),
Ve = SQRT[ (2 k / (k - 1)) (R* Tc / M) (1 - (Pe / Pc)(k-1)/k) ]
Ve = SQRT[ (2 1.221 / (1.221 - 1)) (8,314.46 3,470 / 21.40)
(1 - (1 / 50)(1.221-1)/1.221) ]
Ve = 2,749 m/s
PROBLEM 1.6
A rocket engine produces a thrust of 1,000 kN at sea level with a
propellant
flow rate of 400 kg/s. Calculate the specific impulse.
SOLUTION,
Given:
F = 1,000,000 N
q = 400 kg/s
Equation (1.23),
Isp = F / (q g)
Isp = 1,000,000 / (400 9.80665)
Isp = 255 s (sea level)
PROBLEM 1.7
A rocket engine uses the same propellant, mixture ratio, and combustion
chamber
pressure as that in problem 1.5. If the propellant flow rate is 500 kg/s,
calculate the area of the exhaust nozzle throat.
SOLUTION,
Given:
Pc = 50 0.101325 = 5.066 MPa

Tc = 3,470<sup.o< sup=""> K
M = 21.40
k = 1.221
q = 500 kg/s
Equation (1.27),
Pt = Pc [1 + (k - 1) / 2]-k/(k-1)
Pt = 5.066 [1 + (1.221 - 1) / 2]-1.221/(1.221-1)
Pt = 2.839 MPa = 2.839106 N/m2
Equation (1.28),
Tt = Tc / (1 + (k - 1) / 2)
Tt = 3,470 / (1 + (1.221 - 1) / 2)
Tt = 3,125 K
Equation (1.26),
At = (q / Pt) SQRT[ (R* Tt) / (M k) ]
At = (500 / 2.839106) SQRT[ (8,314.46 3,125) / (21.40 1.221) ]
At = 0.1756 m2
</sup.o<>
PROBLEM 1.8
The rocket engine in problem 1.7 is optimized to operate at an elevation of
2000
meters. Calculate the area of the nozzle exit and the section ratio.
SOLUTION,
Given:
Pc = 5.066 MPa
At = 0.1756 m2
k = 1.221
From Atmosphere Properties,

Pa = 0.0795 MPa
Equation (1.29),
Nm2 = (2 / (k - 1)) [(Pc / Pa)(k-1)/k - 1]
Nm2 = (2 / (1.221 - 1)) [(5.066 / 0.0795)(1.221-1)/1.221 - 1]
Nm2 = 10.15
Nm = (10.15)1/2 = 3.185
Equation (1.30),
Ae = (At / Nm) [(1 + (k - 1) / 2 Nm2)/((k + 1) / 2)](k+1)/(2(k-1))
Ae = (0.1756 / 3.185) [(1 + (1.221 - 1) / 2 10.15)/((1.221 + 1) /
2)](1.221+1)/(2(1.221-1))
Ae = 1.426 m2
Section Ratio,
Ae / At = 1.426 / 0.1756 = 8.12
PROBLEM 1.9
For the rocket engine in problem 1.7, calculate the volume and dimensions
of a
possible combustion chamber. The convergent cone half-angle is 20 degrees.
SOLUTION,
Given:
At = 0.1756 m2 = 1,756 cm2

Dt = 2 (1,756/ )1/2 = 47.3 cm
= 20o
From Table 1,
L* = 102-127 cm for LOX/RP-1, let's use 110 cm
Equation (1.33),
Vc = At L*
Vc = 1,756 110 = 193,160 cm3
From Figure 1.7,
Lc = 66 cm (second-order approximation)
Equation (1.35),
Dc = SQRT[(Dt3 + 24/ tan
Vc) / (Dc + 6 tan
Lc)]
3
Dc = SQRT[(47.3 + 24/
tan(20) 193,160) / (Dc + 6 tan(20)
66)]
Dc = 56.6 cm (four interations)
PROBLEM 1.10
A solid rocket motor burns along the face
10
meters long and 1 meter in diameter. The
coefficient
of 5.5, a pressure exponent of 0.4, and a
the
burn rate and the product generation rate
MPa.
of a central cylindrical channel

propellant has a burn rate
density of 1.70 g/ml.
Calculate
when the chamber pressure is 5.0
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 5.5
n = 0.4
Pc = 5.0 MPa
p = 1.70 g/ml
Ab =
1 10 = 31.416 m2
Equation (1.36),
r = a Pcn
r = 5.5 5.00.4 = 10.47 mm/s
Equation (1.37),
q = p Ab r
q = 1.70 31.416 10.47 = 559 kg/s
PROBLEM 1.11
Calculate the ideal density of a solid rocket propellant consisting of 68%
ammonium perchlorate, 18% aluminum, and 14% HTPB by mass.
SOLUTION,
Given:
wAP = 0.68
wAl = 0.18
wHTPB = 0.14
From Properties of Rocket Propellants we have,

= 1.95 g/ml
Al = 2.70 g/ml
HTPB = 0.93 g/ml
AP
Equation (1.38),
p = 1 /
(w /
)i
p = 1 / [(0.68 / 1.95) + (0.18 / 2.70) + (0.14 / 0.93)]

p = 1.767
PROBLEM 1.12
A two-stage rocket has
120,000
kg, 1st-stage dry mass
stage
dry mass 3,000 kg, and
1st and 2nd stages are
rocket's
total V.
the following masses:
1st-stage propellant mass
9,000 kg, 2nd-stage propellant mass 30,000 kg, 2ndpayload mass 3,000 kg. The specific impulses of the
260 s and 320 s respectively. Calculate the
SOLUTION,
Given:
Mo1 = 120,000 + 9,000 + 30,000 + 3,000 + 3,000 = 165,000 kg

Mf1 = 9,000 + 30,000 + 3,000 + 3,000 = 45,000 kg
Isp1 = 260 s
Mo2 = 30,000 + 3,000 + 3,000 = 36,000 kg
Mf2 = 3,000 + 3,000 = 6,000 kg
Isp2 = 320 s
Equation (1.24),
C1 = Isp1g
C1 = 260 9.80665 = 2,550 m/s
C2 = Isp2g
C2 = 320 9.80665 = 3,138 m/s
Equation (1.39),
V1 = C1 LN[ Mo1 / Mf1 ]
V1 = 2,550 LN[ 165,000 / 45,000 ]
V1 = 3,313 m/s
V2 = C2 LN[ Mo2 / Mf2 ]
V2 = 3,138 LN[ 36,000 / 6,000 ]
V2 = 5,623 m/s
Equation (1.40),
VTotal = V1 + V2
VTotal = 3,313 + 5,623
VTotal = 8,936 m/s
PROBLEM 4.1
Calculate the velocity of an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth in a
circular orbit at an altitude of 200 km above the Earth's surface.
SOLUTION,
From Basics Constants,
Radius of Earth = 6,378.14 km
GM of Earth = 3.9860051014 m3/s2
Given:
r = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
Equation (4.6),
v = SQRT[ GM / r ]
v = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 6,578,140 ]
v = 7,784 m/s
PROBLEM 4.2
Calculate the period of revolution for the satellite in problem 4.1.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r = 6,578,140 m
Equation (4.9),
P2 = 4
r3 / GM
P = SQRT[ 4
P = SQRT[ 4
P = 5,310 s
2
2
r3 / GM ]
6,578,1403 / 3.9860051014 ]
PROBLEM 4.3
Calculate the radius of orbit for a Earth satellite in a geosynchronous
orbit,
where the Earth's rotational period is 86,164.1 seconds.
SOLUTION,
Given:
P = 86,164.1 s
Equation (4.9),
P2 = 4
r3 / GM
2
r = [ P2 GM / (4
) ]1/3
r = [ 86,164.12 3.9860051014 / (4
r = 42,164,170 m
) ]1/3
PROBLEM 4.4
An artificial Earth satellite is in an elliptical orbit which brings it to
an altitude of 250 km at perigee and out to an altitude of 500 km at
apogee.
Calculate the velocity of the satellite at both perigee and apogee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
Rp = (6,378.14 + 250) 1,000 = 6,628,140 m

Ra = (6,378.14 + 500) 1,000 = 6,878,140 m
Equations (4.16) and (4.17),

Vp = SQRT[ 2 GM Ra / (Rp (Ra + Rp)) ]
Vp = SQRT[ 2 3.9860051014 6,878,140 / (6,628,140 (6,878,140 +
6,628,140)) ]
Vp = 7,826 m/s
Va = SQRT[ 2 GM Rp / (Ra (Ra + Rp)) ]
Va = SQRT[ 2 3.9860051014 6,628,140 / (6,878,140 (6,878,140 +
6,628,140)) ]
Va = 7,542 m/s
PROBLEM 4.5
A satellite in Earth orbit passes through its perigee point at an altitude
of
200 km above the Earth's surface and at a velocity of 7,850 m/s. Calculate
the
apogee altitude of the satellite.
SOLUTION,
Given:
Rp = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

Vp = 7,850 m/s
Equation (4.18),
Ra = Rp / [2 GM / (Rp Vp2) - 1]
Ra = 6,578,140 / [2 3.9860051014 / (6,578,140 7,8502) - 1]
Ra = 6,805,140 m
Altitude @ apogee = 6,805,140 / 1,000 - 6,378.14 = 427.0 km
PROBLEM 4.6
Calculate the eccentricity of the orbit for the satellite in problem 4.5.
SOLUTION,
Given:
Rp = 6,578,140 m
Vp = 7,850 m/s
Equation (4.20),
e = Rp Vp2 / GM - 1
e = 6,578,140 7,8502 / 3.9860051014 - 1
e = 0.01696
PROBLEM 4.7
A satellite in Earth orbit has a semi-major axis of 6,700 km and an
eccentricity
of 0.01. Calculate the satellite's altitude at both perigee and apogee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 6,700 km
e = 0.01
Equation (4.21) and (4.22),

Rp = a (1 - e)
Rp = 6,700 (1 - .01)
Rp = 6,633 km
Altitude @ perigee = 6,633 - 6,378.14 = 254.9 km
Ra = a (1 + e)
Ra = 6,700 (1 + .01)
Ra = 6,767 km
Altitude @ apogee = 6,767 - 6,378.14 = 388.9 km
PROBLEM 4.8
A satellite is launched into Earth orbit where its launch vehicle burns out
at
an altitude of 250 km. At burnout the satellite's velocity is 7,900 m/s
with the
zenith angle equal to 89 degrees. Calculate the satellite's altitude at
perigee
and apogee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r1 = (6,378.14 + 250) 1,000 = 6,628,140 m

v1 = 7,900 m/s
= 89o
Equation (4.26),
(Rp / r1)1,2 = ( -C SQRT[ C2 - 4 (1 - C) -sin2
]) / (2 (1 -
C))
where
C = 2 GM / (r1 v12)
C = 2 3.9860051014 / (6,628,140 7,9002)
C = 1.927179
(Rp / r1)1,2 = ( -1.927179 SQRT[ 1.9271792 - 4 -0.927179 sin2(89) ]) / (2 -0.927179)

(Rp / r1)1,2 = 0.996019 and 1.082521
Perigee Radius, Rp = Rp1 = r1 (Rp / r1)1
Rp = 6,628,140 0.996019
Rp = 6,601,750 m
Altitude @ perigee = 6,601,750 / 1,000 - 6,378.14 = 223.6 km
Apogee Radius, Ra = Rp2 = r1 (Rp / r1)2
Ra = 6,628,140 1.082521
Ra = 7,175,100 m
Altitude @ agogee = 7,175,100 / 1,000 - 6,378.14 = 797.0 km
PROBLEM 4.9
Calculate the eccentricity of the orbit for the satellite in problem 4.8.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r1 = 6,628,140 m
v1 = 7,900 m/s
= 89o
Equation (4.27),
e = SQRT[ (r1 v12 / GM - 1)2 sin2
+ cos2
]
2
e = SQRT[ (6,628,140 7,900 / 3.9860051014 - 1)2 sin2(89) +
cos2(89) ]
e = 0.0416170
PROBLEM 4.10
Calculate the angle
in problem 4.8.
from perigee point to launch point for the satellite
SOLUTION,
Given:
r1 = 6,628,140 m
v1 = 7,900 m/s
= 89o
Equation (4.28),
tan
- 1]
tan
tan
= (r1 v12 / GM) sin
cos
/ [(r1 v12 / GM) sin2
= (6,628,140 7,9002 / 3.9860051014) sin(89) cos(89)

/ [(6,628,140 7,9002 / 3.9860051014) sin2(89) - 1]
= 0.48329
= arctan(0.48329)
= 25.794o
PROBLEM 4.11
Calculate the semi-major axis of the orbit for the satellite in problem
4.8.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r1 = 6,628,140 m
v1 = 7,900 m/s
Equation (4.32),
a = 1 / ( 2 / r1 - v12 / GM )
a = 1 / ( 2 / 6,628,140 - 7,9002 / 3.9860051014) )
a = 6,888,430 m
PROBLEM 4.12
For the satellite in problem 4.8, burnout occurs 2000-10-20, 15:00 UT. The
geocentric coordinates at burnout are 32o N latitude, 60o W longitude, and
the
azimuth heading is 86o. Calculate the orbit's inclination, argument of
perigee,
and longitude of ascending node.
SOLUTION,
= 86o
= 32o
o
2 = -60
Given:
From problem 4.10,

= 25.794o
Equation (4.33),
cos(i) = cos( ) sin( )
cos(i) = cos(32) sin(86)
i = 32.223o
tan( ) = tan( ) / cos( )
tan( ) = tan(32) / cos(86)
= 83.630o
=
= 83.630 - 25.794
= 57.836o
tan(
tan(
1
1
1
) = sin( ) tan( )
) = sin(32) tan(86)
= 82.483o
=
2 = -60 - 82.483
= -142.483o
= Sidereal time at -142.483 longitude, 2000-10-20, 15:00 UT
= 7h 27' 34" = 111.892o
PROBLEM 4.13
A satellite is in an orbit with a semi-major axis of 7,500 km and an
eccentricity
of 0.1. Calculate the time it takes to move from a position 30 degrees
past
perigee to 90 degrees past perigee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 7,500 1,000 = 7,500,000 m

e = 0.1
tO = 0
/180 = 0.52360 radians
O = 30 deg
= 90 deg
/180 = 1.57080 radians
Equation (4.40),
cos E = (e + cos
) / (1 + e cos
Eo = arccos[(0.1 + cos(0.52360)) / (1 + 0.1 cos(0.52360))]

Eo = 0.47557 radians
E = arccos[(0.1 + cos(1.57080)) / (1 + 0.1 cos(1.57080))]
E = 1.47063 radians
Equation (4.41),
M = E - e sin E
Mo = 0.47557 - 0.1 sin(0.47557)
Mo = 0.42978 radians
M = 1.47063 - 0.1 sin(1.47063)
M = 1.37113 radians
Equation (4.39),
n = SQRT[ GM / a3 ]
n = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 7,500,0003 ]
n = 0.00097202 rad/s
Equation (4.38),
M - Mo = n (t - tO)
t = tO + (M - Mo) / n
t = 0 + (1.37113 - 0.42978) / 0.00097202
t = 968.4 s
PROBLEM 4.14
The satellite in problem 4.13 has a true anomaly of 90 degrees.
be the
satellite's position, i.e. it's true anomaly, 20 minutes later?
What will
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 7,500,000 m
e = 0.1
tO = 0
t = 20 60 = 1,200 s
/180 = 1.57080 rad
O = 90
From problem 4.13,

Mo = 1.37113 rad
n = 0.00097202 rad/s
Equation (4.38),
M - Mo = n (t - tO)
M = Mo + n (t - tO)
M = 1.37113 + 0.00097202 (1,200 - 0)
M = 2.53755
METHOD #1, Low Accuracy:
Equation (4.42),
~ M + 2 e sin M + 1.25 e2 sin 2M
~ 2.53755 + 2 0.1 sin(2.53755) + 1.25 0.12 sin(2 2.53755)
~ 2.63946 = 151.2 degrees
METHOD #2, High Accuracy:
Equation (4.41),
M = E - e sin E
2.53755 = E - 0.1 sin E
By iteration, E = 2.58996 radians
Equation (4.40),
cos E = (e + cos
) / (1 + e cos
Rearranging variables gives,

cos
= (cos E - e) / (1 - e cos E)
= arccos[(cos(2.58996) - 0.1) / (1 - 0.1 cos(2.58996)]

= 2.64034 = 151.3 degrees
PROBLEM 4.15
For the satellite in problems 4.13 and 4.14, calculate the length of its
position
vector, its flight-path angle, and its velocity when the satellite's true
anomaly
is 225 degrees.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 7,500,000 m
e = 0.1
= 225 degrees

r = a (1 - e2) / (1 + e cos
)
r = 7,500,000 (1 - 0.12) / (1 + 0.1 cos(225))
r = 7,989,977 m
= arctan[ e sin
/ (1 + e cos
)]
= arctan[ 0.1 sin(225) / (1 + 0.1 cos(225))]
= -4.351 degrees
Equation (4.45),
v = SQRT[ GM (2 / r - 1 / a)]
v = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 (2 / 7,989,977 - 1 / 7,500,000)]
v = 6,828 m/s
PROBLEM 4.16
Calculate the perturbations in longitude of the ascending node and argument
of
perigee caused by the Moon and Sun for the International Space Station
orbiting
at an altitude of 400 km, an inclination of 51.6 degrees, and with an
orbital
period of 92.6 minutes.
SOLUTION,
Given:
i = 51.6 degrees
n = 1436 / 92.6 = 15.5 revolutions/day
Equations (4.46) through (4.49),

Moon
= -0.00338 cos(i) / n
Moon
Moon
Sun
Sun
Sun
Moon
Moon
Moon
Sun
Sun
Sun
= -0.00338 cos(51.6) / 15.5

= -0.000135 deg/day
= -0.00154 cos(i) / n
= -0.00154 cos(51.6) / 15.5
= -0.0000617 deg/day
= 0.00169 (4 - 5 sin2 i) / n
= 0.00169 (4 - 5 sin2 51.6) / 15.5
= 0.000101 deg/day
= 0.00077 (4 - 5 sin2 i) / n
= 0.00077 (4 - 5 sin2 51.6) / 15.5
= 0.000046 deg/day
PROBLEM 4.17
A satellite is in an orbit with a semi-major axis of 7,500 km, an
inclination
of 28.5 degrees, and an eccentricity of 0.1. Calculate the J2
perturbations in
longitude of the ascending node and argument of perigee.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = 7,500 km
i = 28.5 degrees
e = 0.1

J2
J2
J2
J2
J2
J2
= -2.064741014 a-7/2 (cos i) (1 - e2)-2

= -2.064741014 (7,500)-7/2 (cos 28.5) (1 - (0.1)2)-2
= -5.067 deg/day
= 1.032371014 a-7/2 (4 - 5 sin2 i) (1 - e2)-2
= 1.032371014 (7,500)-7/2 (4 - 5 sin2 28.5) (1 - (0.1)2)-2
= 8.250 deg/day
PROBLEM 4.18
A satellite is in a circular Earth orbit at an altitude of 400 km. The
satellite
has a cylindrical shape 2 m in diameter by 4 m long and has a mass of 1,000
kg.
The satellite is traveling with its long axis perpendicular to the velocity
vector and it's drag coefficient is 2.67. Calculate the perturbations due
to
atmospheric drag and estimate the satellite's lifetime.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = (6,378.14 + 400) 1,000 = 6,778,140 m

A = 2 4 = 8 m2
m = 1,000 kg
CD = 2.67
From Atmosphere Properties,

= 2.6210-12 kg/m3
H = 58.2 km
Equation (4.6),
V = SQRT[ GM / a ]
V = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 6,778,140 ]
V = 7,669 m/s
arev = (-2
CD A
a2) / m
arev = (-2
2.67 8 2.6210-12 6,778,1402) / 1,000
arev = -16.2 m
Prev = (-6
Prev = (-6
2
2
CD A
a2) / (m V)
2.67 8 2.6210-12 6,778,1402) / (1,000
7,669)
Prev = -0.0199 s
Vrev = ( CD A
a V) / m
Vrev = ( 2.67 8 2.6210-12 6,778,140 7,669) / 1,000
Vrev = 0.00914 m/s
Equation (4.56),
L ~ -H /
arev
L ~ -(58.2 1,000) / -16.2
L ~ 3,600 revolutions
PROBLEM 4.19
A spacecraft is in a circular parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km.
Calculate the velocity change required to perform a Hohmann transfer to a
circular orbit at geosynchronous altitude.
SOLUTION,
Given:
rA = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
From problem 4.3,

rB = 42,164,170 m
atx = (rA + rB) / 2
atx = (6,578,140 + 42,164,170) / 2
atx = 24,371,155 m
ViA = SQRT[ GM / rA ]
ViA = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 6,578,140 ]
ViA = 7,784 m/s
VfB = SQRT[ GM / rB ]
VfB = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 42,164,170 ]
VfB = 3,075 m/s
VtxA = SQRT[ GM (2 / rA - 1 / atx)]
VtxA = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 (2 / 6,578,140 - 1 / 24,371,155)]
VtxA = 10,239 m/s
VtxB = SQRT[ GM (2 / rB - 1 / atx)]
VtxB = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 (2 / 42,164,170 - 1 / 24,371,155)]
VtxB = 1,597 m/s
VA = VtxA - ViA
VA = 10,239 - 7,784
VA = 2,455 m/s
VB = VfB - VtxB
VB = 3,075 - 1,597
VB = 1,478 m/s
VT =
VA + VB
VT = 2,455 + 1,478
VT = 3,933 m/s
PROBLEM 4.20
A satellite is in a circular parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km.
Using
a one-tangent burn, it is to be transferred to geosynchronous altitude
using a
transfer ellipse with a semi-major axis of 30,000 km. Calculate the total
required velocity change and the time required to complete the transfer.
SOLUTION,
Given:
rA = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

rB = 42,164,170 m
atx = 30,000 1,000 = 30,000,000 m

e = 1 - rA / atx
e = 1 - 6,578,140 / 30,000,000
e = 0.780729
= arccos[(atx (1 - e2) / rB - 1) / e ]
= arccos[(30,000,000 (1 - 0.7807292) / 42,164,170 - 1) / 0.780729
]
= 157.670 degrees
= arctan[ e sin
/ (1 + e cos
)]
= arctan[ 0.780729 sin(157.670) / (1 + 0.780729 cos(157.670))]
= 46.876 degrees
ViA = SQRT[ GM / rA ]
ViA = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 6,578,140 ]
ViA = 7,784 m/s
VfB = SQRT[ GM / rB ]
VfB = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 42,164,170 ]
VfB = 3,075 m/s
VtxA = SQRT[ GM (2 / rA - 1 / atx)]
VtxA = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 (2 / 6,578,140 - 1 / 30,000,000)]
VtxA = 10,388 m/s
VtxB = SQRT[ GM (2 / rB - 1 / atx)]
VtxB = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 (2 / 42,164,170 - 1 / 30,000,000)]
VtxB = 2,371 m/s
VA = VtxA - ViA
VA = 10,388 - 7,784
VA = 2,604 m/s
Equation (4.69),
VB = SQRT[ VtxB2 + VfB2 - 2 VtxB VfB cos
]
2
2
VB = SQRT[ 2,371 + 3,075 - 2 2,371 3,075 cos(46.876)]
VB = 2,260 m/s
Equation (4.65),
VT =
VA + VB
VT = 2,604 + 2,260
VT = 4,864 m/s
E = arctan[(1 - e2)1/2 sin
/ (e + cos
)]
E = arctan[(1 - 0.7807292)1/2 sin(157.670) / (0.780729 +
cos(157.670))]
E = 2.11688 radians
TOF = (E - e sin E) SQRT[ atx3 / GM ]
TOF = (2.11688 - 0.780729 sin(2.11688)) SQRT[ 30,000,0003 /

3.9860051014 ]
TOF = 11,931 s = 3.314 hours
PROBLEM 4.21
Calculate the velocity change required to transfer a satellite from a
circular
600 km orbit with an inclination of 28 degrees to an orbit of equal size
with
an inclination of 20 degrees.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r = (6,378.14 + 600) 1,000 = 6,978,140 m

= 28 - 20 = 8 degrees
Equation (4.6),
Vi = SQRT[ GM / r ]
Vi = SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 6,978,140 ]
Vi = 7,558 m/s
Equation (4.73),
V = 2 Vi sin( /2)
V = 2 7,558 sin(8/2)
V = 1,054 m/s
PROBLEM 4.22
A satellite is in a parking orbit with an altitude of 200 km and an
inclination
of 28 degrees. Calculate the total velocity change required to transfer
the
satellite to a zero-inclination geosynchronous orbit using a Hohmann
transfer
with a combined plane change at apogee.
Given:
rA = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

rB = 42,164,170 m
= 28 degrees
From problem 4.19,

VfB = 3,075 m/s
VtxB = 1,597 m/s
VA = 2,455 m/s
Equation (4.74),
VB = SQRT[ VtxB2 + VfB2 - 2 VtxB VfB cos
]
VB = SQRT[ 1,5972 + 3,0752 - 2 1,597 3,075 cos(28)]
VB = 1,826 m/s
Equation (4.65),
VT =
VA + VB
VT = 2,455 + 1,826
VT = 4,281 m/s
PROBLEM 4.23
A spacecraft is in an orbit with an inclination of 30 degrees and the
longitude
of the ascending node is 75 degrees. Calculate the angle change required
to
change the inclination to 32 degrees and the longitude of the ascending
node to
80 degrees.
SOLUTION,
Given:
ii = 30 degrees
i = 75 degrees
if = 32 degrees
f = 80 degrees
Equation (4.75),
a1 = sin(ii)cos(
i) = sin(30)cos(75) = 0.129410
a2 = sin(ii)sin(
i) = sin(30)sin(75) = 0.482963
a3 = cos(ii) = cos(30) = 0.866025

b1 = sin(if)cos(
f) = sin(32)cos(80) = 0.0920195
b2 = sin(if)sin(
f) = sin(32)sin(80) = 0.521869
b3 = cos(if) = cos(32) = 0.848048

= arccos(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3)
= arccos(0.129410 0.0920195 + 0.482963 0.521869 + 0.866025
0.848048)
= 3.259 degrees
PROBLEM 4.24
Calculate the latitude and longitude of the intersection nodes between the
initial and final orbits for the spacecraft in problem 4.23.
SOLUTION,
From problem 4.21,
a1
a2
a3
b1
b2
b3
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.129410
0.482963
0.866025
0.0920195
0.521869
0.848048

c1 = a2 b3 - a3 b2 = 0.482963 0.848048 - 0.866025 0.521869 =
-0.0423757
c2 = a3 b1 - a1 b3 = 0.866025 0.0920195 - 0.129410 0.848048 =
-0.0300543
c3 = a1 b2 - a2 b1 = 0.129410 0.521869 - 0.482963 0.0920195 =
0.0230928
lat1 = arctan(c3 / (c12 + c22)1/2)
lat1 = arctan(0.0230928 / (-0.04237572 + -0.03005432)1/2)
lat1 = 23.965 degrees
long1 = arctan(c2 / c1) + 90
long1 = arctan(-0.0300543 / -0.0423757) + 90
long1 = 125.346 degrees
lat2 = -23.965 degrees
long2 = 125.346 + 180 = 305.346 degrees
PROBLEM 4.25
Calculate the escape velocity of a spacecraft launched from an Earth orbit
with
an altitude of 200 km.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m
Equation (4.78),
Vesc = SQRT[ 2 GM / r ]
Vesc = SQRT[ 2 3.9860051014 / 6,578,140 ]
Vesc = 11,009 m/s
PROBLEM 4.26
A space probe is approaching Mars on a hyperbolic flyby trajectory. When
at
a distance of 100,000 km, its velocity relative to Mars is 5,140.0 m/s and
its flight path angle is -85.300 degrees. Calculate the probe's
eccentricity,
semi-major axis, turning angle, angle
, true anomaly, impact parameter,
periapsis radius, and parameter p.
SOLUTION,
GM of Mars = 4.2828311013 m3/s2
Given:
r = 100,000 1,000 = 100,000,000 m

v = 5,140.0 m/s
= -85.300o

e = SQRT[ (r v2 / GM - 1)2 cos2
+ sin2
]
e = SQRT[ (100,000,000 5,1402 / 4.2828311013 - 1)2 cos2(-85.3) +
sin2(-85.3) ]
e = 5.0715
a = 1 / ( 2 / r - v2 / GM )
a = 1 / ( 2 / 100,000,000 - 5,1402 / 4.2828311013 )
a = -1,675,400 m
sin( /2) = 1 / e
= 2 arcsin( 1 / 5.0715 )
= 22.744o
cos
= -1 / e
= arccos( -1 / 5.0715 )
= 101.37o
= arccos[ (a (1 - e2) - r) / (e r) ]
= arccos[ (-1,675,400 (1 - 5.07152) - 100,000,000) / (5.0715
100,000,000) ]
= -96.633o
b = -a / tan( /2)
b = 1,675.4 / tan(22.744/2)
b = 8,330.0 km
ro = a (1 - e)
ro = -1,675.4 (1 - 5.0715)
ro = 6,821.4 km
p = a (1 - e2)
p = -1,675.4 (1 - 5.07152)
p = 41,416 km
PROBLEM 4.27
The space probe in problem 4.26 has moved to a true anomaly of 75 degrees.
Calculate the radius vector, flight path angle, and velocity.
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = -1,675,400 m
e = 5.0715
= 75o

r = a (1 - e2) / (1 + e cos
)
r = -1,675,400 (1 - 5.07152) / (1 + 5.0715 cos(75))
r = 17,909,000 m
= arctan[ e sin
/ (1 + e cos
)]
= arctan[ 5.0715 sin(75) / (1 + 5.0715 cos(75))]
= 64.729o
v = SQRT[ GM (2 / r - 1 / a)]
v = SQRT[ 4.2828311013 (2 / 17,909,000 - 1 / -1,675,400)]
v = 5,508.7 m/s
PROBLEM 4.28
A spacecraft is launched from Earth on a hyperbolic trajectory with a semimajor
axis of -36,000 km and an eccentricity of 1.1823. How long does it take to
move
from a true anomaly of 15 degrees to a true anomaly of 120 degrees?
SOLUTION,
Given:
a = -36,000 1,000 = -36,000,000 m

e = 1.1823
o
O = 15
= 120o
Equation (4.87),
cosh F = (e + cos
) / (1 + e cos
Fo = arccosh[(1.1823 + cos(15)) / (1 + 1.1823 cos(15))]

Fo = 0.07614
F = arccosh[(1.1823 + cos(120)) / (1 + 1.1823 cos(120))]
F = 1.10023
Equation (4.86),
t - tO = SQRT[(-a)3 / GM ] [(e sinh F - F) - (e sinh Fo - Fo)]
t - tO = SQRT[(36,000,000)3 / 3.9860051014 ] [(1.1823
sinh(1.10023) - 1.10023)
- (1.1823 sinh(0.07614) - 0.07614)]
t - tO = 5,035 s = 1.399 hours
PROBLEM 4.29
A spacecraft launched from Earth has a burnout velocity of 11,500 m/s at an
altitude of 200 km. What is the hyperbolic excess velocity?
SOLUTION,
Given:
Vbo = 11,500 m/s
From problem 4.25,

Vesc = 11,009 m/s
Equation (4.88),
V
V
V
= Vbo2 - Vesc2
= SQRT[ 11,5002 - 11,0092 ]
= 3,325 m/s
PROBLEM 4.30
Calculate the radius of Earth's sphere of influence.
SOLUTION,
Dsp = 149,597,870 km
MP = 5.97371024 kg
MS = 1.98911030 kg
Equation (4.89),
REarth = Dsp (MP / MS)0.4
REarth = 149,597,870 (5.97371024 / 1.98911030)0.4

REarth = 925,000 km
PROBLEM 5.1
Using a one-tangent burn, calculate the change in true anomaly and the
time-of-flight for a transfer from Earth to Mars. The radius vector of
Earth at
departure is 1.000 AU and that of Mars at arrival is 1.524 AU. The semimajor
axis of the transfer orbit is 1.300 AU.
SOLUTION,
Given:
rA = 1.000 AU
rB = 1.524 AU
atx = 1.300 AU 149.597870109 m/AU = 194.48109 m

GM of Sun = 1.3271241020 m3/s2
e = 1 - rA / atx
e = 1 - 1.0 / 1.3
e = 0.230769
= arccos[(atx (1 - e2) / rB - 1) / e ]
= arccos[(1.3 (1 - 0.2307692) / 1.524 - 1) / 0.230769 ]
= 146.488 degrees
E = arctan[(1 - e2)1/2 sin
/ (e + cos
)]
E = arctan[(1 - 0.2307692)1/2 sin(146.488) / (0.230769 +
cos(146.588))]
E = 2.41383 radians
TOF = (E - e sin E) SQRT[ atx3 / GM ]
TOF = (2.41383 - 0.230769 sin(2.41383)) SQRT[ (194.48109)3 /
1.3271241020 ]
TOF = 16,827,800 s = 194.77 days
PROBLEM 5.2
For the transfer orbit in problem 5.1, calculate the departure phase angle,
given
that the angular velocity of Mars is 0.5240 degrees/day.
SOLUTION,
Given:
= 146.488o
t2-t1 = 194.77 days
o
t = 0.5240 /day
2-
Equation (5.1),
= ( 2- 1) t (t2-t1)
= 146.488 - 0.5240 194.77
= 44.43o
PROBLEM 5.3
A flight to Mars is launched on 2020-7-20, 0:00 UT. The planned time of
flight
is 207 days. Earth's postion vector at departure is 0.473265X - 0.899215Y
AU.
Mars' postion vector at intercept is 0.066842X + 1.561256Y + 0.030948Z AU.
Calculate the parameter and semi-major axis of the transfer orbit.
SOLUTION,
Given:
t = 207 days
r1 = 0.473265X - 0.899215Y AU
r2 = 0.066842X + 1.561256Y + 0.030948Z AU
GM = 1.3271241020 m3/s2
= 1.3271241020 / (149.597870109)3 = 3.96401610-14 AU3/s2
From vector magnitude,

r1 = SQRT[ 0.4732652 + (-0.899215)2 ]
r1 = 1.016153 AU
r2 = SQRT[ 0.0668422 + 1.5612562 + 0.0309482 ]
r2 = 1.562993 AU
From vector dot product,
= arccos[ (0.473265 0.066842 - 0.899215 1.561256) / (1.016153
1.562993) ]
= 149.770967o
Equations (5.9), (5.10) and (5.11),
k = r1 r2 (1 - cos
)
k = 1.016153 1.562993 (1 - cos(149.770967))
k = 2.960511 AU
= r1 + r2
= 1.016153 + 1.562993
= 2.579146 AU
m = r1 r2 (1 + cos
)
m = 1.016153 1.562993 (1 + cos(149.770967))
m = 0.215969 AU
pi = k / ( + SQRT(2 m))
pi = 2.960511 / (2.579146 + SQRT(2 0.215969))
pi = 0.914764 AU
pii = k / ( - SQRT(2 m))
pii = 2.960511 / (2.579146 - SQRT(2 0.215969))
pii = 1.540388 AU
Since
<
, 0.914764 < p <
Equation (5.12),
Select trial value, p = 1.2 AU
a = m k p / [(2 m - 2) p2 + 2 k
p - k2 ]
a = 0.215969 2.960511 1.2
/ [(2 0.215969 - 2.5791462) 1.22 + 2 2.960511 2.579146
1.2 - 2.9605112]
a = 1.270478 AU
Equations (5.5), (5.6) and (5.7),
f = 1 - r2 / p (1 - cos
)
f = 1 - 1.562993 / 1.2 (1 - cos(149.770967))
f = -1.427875
g = r1 r2 sin
/ SQRT[ GM p ]
g = 1.016153 1.562993 sin(149.770967) / SQRT[ 3.96401610-14 1.2
]
g = 3,666,240
= SQRT[ GM / p ] tan(
/2) [(1 - cos
) / p - 1/r1 - 1/r2 ]
-14
= SQRT[ 3.96401610
/ 1.2 ] tan(149.770967/2)
[(1 - cos(149.770967)) / 1.2 - 1/1.016153 - 1/1.562993 ]
= -4.74760110-8
Equation (5.13),
E = arccos[ 1 - r1 / a (1 - f) ]
E = arccos[ 1 - 1.016153 / 1.270478 (1 + 1.427875) ]
E = 2.798925 radians
Equation (5.16),
t = g + SQRT[ a3 / GM ] ( E - sin
E)
t = 3,666,240 + SQRT[ 1.2704783 / 3.96401610-14 ] (2.798925 sin(2.798925))
t = 21,380,951 s = 247.4647 days
Select new trial value of p and repeat above steps,
p = 1.300000 AU,
a = 1.443005 AU,
t = 178.9588 days
Equation (5.20),
pn+1 = pn + (t - tn) (pn - pn-1) / (tn - tn-1)
pn+1 = 1.3 + (207 - 178.9588) (1.3 - 1.2) / (178.9588 - 247.4647)
pn+1 = 1.259067 AU
Recalculate using new value of p,
p = 1.259067 AU,
a = 1.336197 AU,
t = 201.5624 days
Perform additional iterations,

p = 1.249221 AU,
p = 1.250673 AU,
p = 1.250633 AU,
enough
a = 1.318624 AU,
a = 1.321039 AU,
a = 1.320971 AU,
t = 207.9408 days
t = 206.9733 days
t = 206.9999 days <-- close
PROBLEM 5.4
For the Mars transfer orbit in Problem 5.3, calculate the departure and
intecept
velocity vectors.
SOLUTION,
Given:
r1 = 0.473265X - 0.899215Y AU
r2 = 0.066842X + 1.561256Y + 0.030948Z AU
r1 = 1.016153 AU
r2 = 1.562993 AU
p = 1.250633 AU
a = 1.320971 AU
= 149.770967o
Equations (5.5), (5.6) and (5.7),

f = 1 - r2 / p (1 - cos
)
f = 1 - 1.562993 / 1.250633 (1 - cos(149.770967))
f = -1.329580
g = r1 r2 sin
/ SQRT[ GM p ]
g = 1.016153 1.562993 sin(149.770967) / SQRT[ 3.96401610-14
1.250633 ]
g = 3,591,258
= SQRT[ GM / p ] tan(
/2) [(1 - cos
) / p - 1/r1 - 1/r2 ]
-14
= SQRT[ 3.96401610
/ 1.250633 ] tan(149.770967/2)
[(1 - cos(149.770967)) / 1.250633 - 1/1.016153 - 1/1.562993 ]
= -8.79587210-8
= 1 - r1 / p (1 - cos
)
= 1 - 1.016153 / 1.250633 (1 - cos(149.770967))
= -0.514536
Equation (5.3),
v1 = (r2 - f r1)
/ g
v1 = [(0.066842 + 1.329580 0.473265) / 3,591,258] X

+ [(1.561256 + 1.329580 -0.899215) / 3,591,258] Y
+ [(0.030948 + 1.329580 0) / 3,591,258] Z
v1 = 0.000000193828X + 0.000000101824Y + 0.00000000861759Z AU/s
149.597870109
v1 = 28996.2X + 15232.7Y + 1289.2Z m/s
Equation (5.4),
v2 =
r1 +
v1
v2 = [-8.79587210-8 0.473265 - 0.514536 0.000000193828] X

+ [-8.79587210-8 -0.899215 - 0.514536 0.000000101824] Y
+ [-8.79587210-8 0 - 0.514536 0.00000000861759] Z
v2 = -0.000000141359X + 0.0000000267017Y - 0.00000000443406Z AU/s
149.597870109
v2 = -21147.0X + 3994.5Y - 663.3Z m/s
PROBLEM 5.5
For the Mars transfer orbit in Problems 5.3 and 5.4, calculate the orbital
elements.
SOLUTION,
Problem can be solved using either r1 & v1 or r2 & v2 we will use r1 &
v1.
Given:
r1 =
=
r1 =
GM =
(0.473265X - 0.899215Y AU) 149.597870109 m/AU

7.0799441010X - 1.3452061011Y m
1.016153 149.597870109 = 1.5201441011 m
1.3271241020 m3/s2
From problem 5.4,

v1 = 28996.2X + 15232.7Y + 1289.2Z m/s
Also,
v = SQRT[ 28996.22 + 15232.72 + 1289.22 ] = 32,779.2 m/s
h = (rY vZ - rZ vY)X + (rZ vX - rX vZ)Y + (rX vY - rY vX)Z
h = (-1.3452061011 1289.2 - 0 15232.7)X + (0 28996.2 7.0799441010 1289.2)Y
+ (7.0799441010 15232.7 + 1.3452061011 28996.2)Z
h = -1.734241014X - 9.127461013Y + 4.979051015Z
n = -hY X + hX Y
n = 9.127461013X - 1.734241014Y
Also,
h = SQRT[ (-1.734241014)2 + (-9.127461013)2 + (4.979051015)2 ] =
4.982911015
n = SQRT[ (9.127461013)2 + (1.734241014)2 ] = 1.959771014
Equation (5.23),
e = [(v2 - GM / r) r - (r v) v ] / GM
v2 - GM / r = 32779.22 - 1.3271241020 / 1.5201441011 = 2.01451108
r v = 7.0799441010 28996.2 - 1.3452061011 15232.7 + 0 x
1289.2 = 3.802781012
e = [2.01451108 (7.0799441010X - 1.3452061011Y)
- 3.802781012 (28996.2X + 15232.7Y + 1289.2Z) ] / 1.3271241020
e = 0.106639X - 0.204632Y - 0.000037Z
a = 1 / ( 2 / r - v2 / GM )
a = 1 / ( 2 / 1.5201441011 - 32779.22 / 1.3271241020 )
a = 1.976141011 m
e = SQRT[ 0.1066392 + (-0.204632)2 + (-0.000037)2 ]
e = 0.230751
Equations (5.26) though (5.30),
cos i = hZ / h
cos i = 4.979051015 / 4.982911015
i = 2.255o
cos
cos
= nX / n
= 9.127461013 / 1.959771014
= 297.76o
cos
cos
0.000037))
= n e / (n e)
= (9.127461013 0.106639 - 1.734241014 (-0.204632) + 0 (-
/ (1.959771014 0.230751)
= 359.77o
cos
o = e r / (e r)
10
cos
- 0.204632 (-1.3452061011) o = (0.106639 7.07994410
0.000037 0)
/ (0.230751 1.5201441011)
o
o = 0.226
cos uo = n r / (n r)
uo = 0 (launch point = ascending node)
=
+
= 297.76 + 359.77
= 297.53o
o
o
o
=
+
+
o
= 297.76 + 359.77 + 0.23
= 297.76o
PROBLEM 5.6
For the spacecraft in Problems 5.3 and 5.4, calculate the hyperbolic excess
velocity at departure, the injection
V, and the zenith angle of the
departure
asymptote. Injection occurs from an 200 km parking orbit. Earth's
velocity
vector at departure is 25876.6X + 13759.5Y m/s.
SOLUTION,
Given:
ro = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m

r = 0.473265X - 0.899215Y AU
VP = 25876.6X + 13759.5Y m/s
From problem 5.4,

VS = 28996.2X + 15232.7Y + 1289.2Z m/s
Equation (5.33),
VS/P = (VSX - VPX)X + (VSY - VPY)Y + (VSZ - VPZ)Z
VS/P = (28996.2 - 25876.6)X + (15232.7 - 13759.5)Y + (1289.2 - 0)Z
VS/P = 3119.6X + 1473.2Y + 1289.2Z m/s
Equation (5.34),
VS/P = SQRT[ VS/PX2 + VS/PY2 + VS/PZ2 ]
VS/P = SQRT[ 3119.62 + 1473.22 + 1289.22 ]
VS/P = 3,683.0 m/s
V
= VS/P = 3,683.0 m/s

Vo = SQRT[ V 2 + 2 GM / ro ]
Vo = SQRT[ 3,683.02 + 2 3.9860051014 / 6,578,140 ]
Vo = 11,608.4 m/s
V = Vo - SQRT[ GM / ro ]
V = 11,608.4 - SQRT[ 3.9860051014 / 6,578,140 ]
V = 3,824.1 m/s
Equation (5.37),
r = SQRT[ 0.4732652 + (-0.899215)2 + 02 ]

r = 1.01615 AU
= arccos[(rX vX + rY vY + rZ vZ) / (r v)]
= arccos[ 0.473265 3119.6 - 0.899215 1473.2 + 0 1289.2) /
(1.01615 3683.0)]
= 87.677o
PROBLEM 5.7
For the spacecraft in Problems 5.3 and 5.4, given a miss distance of
+18,500 km
at arrival, calculate the hyperbolic excess velocity, impact parameter, and
semi-major axis and eccentricity of the hyperbolic approach trajectory.
Mars'
velocity vector at intercept is -23307.8X + 3112.0Y + 41.8Z m/s.
SOLUTION,
Given:
d = 18,500 km / 149.597870106 = 0.000123664 AU

r = 0.066842X + 1.561256Y + 0.030948Z AU
VP = -23307.8X + 3112.0Y + 41.8Z m/s

GM of Mars = 4.2828311013 m3/s2
From problem 5.4,
VS = -21147.0X + 3994.5Y - 663.3Z m/s
Equation (5.33),
VS/P = (VSX - VPX)X + (VSY - VPY)Y + (VSZ - VPZ)Z
VS/P = (-21147.0 + 23307.8)X + (3994.5 - 3112.0)Y + (-663.3 - 41.8)Z
VS/P = 2160.8X + 882.5Y - 705.1Z m/s
Equation (5.34),
VS/P = SQRT[ VS/PX2 + VS/PY2 + VS/PZ2 ]
VS/P = SQRT[ 2160.82 + 882.52 + (-705.1)2 ]
VS/P = 2,438.2 m/s
V
= VS/P = 2,438.2 m/s
Equations (5.38.A) and (5.38.B),

dx = -d ry / SQRT[ rx2 + ry2 ]
dx = -0.000123664 1.561256 / SQRT[ 0.0668422 + 1.5612562 ]
dx = -0.000123551 AU
dy = d rx / SQRT[ rx2 + ry2 ]
dy = 0.000123664 0.066842 / SQRT[ 0.0668422 + 1.5612562 ]
dy = 0.0000052896 AU
Equation (5.39),
= arccos[(dx vx + dy vy) / (d v)]
= arccos[(-0.000123551 2160.8 + 0.0000052896 882.5) /
(0.000123664 2,438.2)]
= 150.451o
b = d sin
b = 18,500 sin(150.451)
b = 9,123.6 km
a = -GM / V 2
a = -4.2828311013 / 2,438.22
a = -7.2043106 m = -7,204.3 km
e = SQRT[ 1 + b2 / a2 ]
e = SQRT[ 1 + 9,123.62 / -7,204.32 ]
e = 1.6136
PROBLEM 5.8
As a spacecraft approaches Jupiter, it has a velocity of 9,470 m/s, a
flight
path angle of 39.2 degrees, and a targeted miss distance of -2,500,000 km.
At
intercept, Jupiter's velocity is 12,740 m/s with a flight path angle of
2.40
degrees. Calculate the spacecraft's velocity and flight path angle
following
its swing-by of Jupiter.
Given:
VP = 12,740 m/s
o
P = 2.40
VSi = 9,470 m/s
o
Si = 39.2
d = -2,500,000 km

GM of Jupiter = 1.266861017 m3/s2
VP = (VP cos P)X + (VP sin
P)Y
VP = (12740 cos(2.40))X + (12740 sin(2.40))Y
VP = 12729X + 533Y m/s
VSi = (VSi cos Si)X + (VSi sin
Si)Y
VSi = (9470 cos(39.2))X + (9470 sin(39.2))Y
VSi = 7339X + 5985Y m/s
VS/Pi = ((VSi)X - VPX)X + ((VSi)Y - VPY)Y

VS/Pi = (7339 - 12729)X + (5985 - 533)Y
VS/Pi = -5390X + 5452Y m/s
VS/P = SQRT[ (VS/Pi)X2 + (VS/Pi)Y2 ]
VS/P = SQRT[ (-5390)2 + 54522 ]
VS/P = 7,667 m/s
V
= VS/P = 7,667 m/s
Equation (5.48),
i
i
i
= arctan[ (VS/Pi)Y / (VS/Pi)X ]

= arctan[ 5452 / -5390 ]
= 134.67o

b = d sin
b = -2,500,000 sin(134.67)
b = -1,777,900 km
a = -GM / V 2
a = -1.266861017 / 76672
a = -2.1552109 m = -2,155,200 km
e = SQRT[ 1 + b2 / a2 ]
e = SQRT[ 1 + (-1,777,900)2 / (-2,155,200)2 ]
e = 1.2963
Equation (4.80),
sin( /2) = 1 / e
= 2 arcsin( 1 / 1.2963 )
= 100.96o
Equation (5.49),
f
f
f
= i = 134.67 - 100.96
= 33.71o
Equation (5.50),
VS/Pf = (VS/P cos f)X + (VS/P sin f)Y
VS/Pf = (7667 cos(33.71))X + (7667 sin(33.71))Y
VS/Pf = 6378X + 4255Y m/s
VSf = ((VS/Pf)X + VPX)X + ((VS/Pf)Y + VPY)Y
VSf = (6378 + 12729)X + (4255 + 533)Y
VSf = 19107X + 4788Y m/s
VSf = SQRT[ (VSf)X2 + (VSf)Y2 ]
VSf = SQRT[ 191072 + 47882 ]
VSf = 19,698 m/s
Equation (5.53),
Sf
Sf
Sf
= arctan[ (VSf)Y / (VSf)X ]

= arctan[ 4788 / 19107 ]
= 14.07o
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ORBITAL

An orbiting satellite follows an oval shaped path

To reach a planet requires that the spacecraft be inserted into an interplanetary

Newton's Laws of Motion and Universal Gravitation

Uniform Circular Motion

Click here for example problem #4.1

Motions of Planets and Satellites

If we express the angular velocity in terms of the period of revolution,

Click here for example problem #4.2

More commonly the equation is written in the equivalent form

where vsin is the transverse component of v.

or, for two points P1 and P2 on the orbital path

Note that at periapsis and apoapsis,

= 90 degrees. Thus, letting P1 and P2 be these two

From equations (4.14) and (4.15) we obtain

Rearranging terms we get

Click here for example problem #4.4

Click here for example problem #4.6

Click here for example problem #4.7

Launch of a Space Vehicle

Multiplying through by -Rp2/(r12v12) and rearranging, we get

Click here for example problem #4.9

Click here for example problem #4.10

, the true anomaly,

Click here for example problem #4.11

In equation (4.36), the value of is found using equation (4.28) or (4.31). If is

6,356,752 meters, and f equals 1/298.257.

The radius of the reference ellipsoid is given by,

And declination is calculated using,

Position in an Elliptical Orbit

And the spacecraft's velocity is given by,

Click here for example problem #4.15

Orbit Altitude Changes

Hohmann transfer orbit. However, sometimes we may need to transfer a satellite

Click here for example problem #4.20

where Vi is the velocity before and after the burn, and

is the angle change required.

Click here for example problem #4.21

In some instances, however, a plane change is used to alter an orbit's longitude of

Click here for example problem #4.23

Knowing the position of one node, the second node is simply

Click here for example problem #4.24

Similar to the rendezvous problem is the launch-window problem, or determining the

The Hyperbolic Orbit

which is independent of the mass of the spacecraft.

A space vehicle that has

The angle between the

should be taken as positive; whenever

Click here for example problem #4.26

Whenever is positive, F should be taken as positive; whenever

If you give a space vehicle exactly

Back Home Next

From LOX/Kerosene Charts we estimate,

Pc = 50 0.101325 = 5.066 MPa

From Atmosphere Properties,

At = 0.1756 m2 = 1,756 cm2

of a central cylindrical channel

when the chamber pressure is 5.0

From Properties of Rocket Propellants we have,

p = 1 / [(0.68 / 1.95) + (0.18 / 2.70) + (0.14 / 0.93)]

the following masses:

1st-stage propellant mass

Mo1 = 120,000 + 9,000 + 30,000 + 3,000 + 3,000 = 165,000 kg

r = (6,378.14 + 200) 1,000 = 6,578,140 m