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sication based upon observable characteristics and intended to reect natural relationships.[8][9] At the time,
however, it was still widely believed that there was no organic connection between species, no matter how similar they appeared. This view was inuenced by European scholarly and religious education at the time, which
held that the categories of life are dictated by God, in a
hierarchical scheme. Although there are always dierences (although sometimes minute) between individual
organisms, Linnaeus strove to identify individual organisms that were exemplary of the species, and considered
other non-exemplary organisms to be deviant and imperfect.
By the 19th century most naturalists understood that
species could change form over time, and that the history
of the planet provided enough time for major changes.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, in his 1809 Zoological Philosophy, oered one of the rst logical arguments against
creationism. The new emphasis was on determining how
a species could change over time. Lamarck suggested
that an organism could pass on an acquired trait to its
ospring (i.e. he attributed the girae's long neck to
generations of giraes stretching to reach the leaves of
higher treetops). With the acceptance of the natural selection idea of Charles Darwin in the 1860s, however,
Lamarcks view of goal-oriented evolution, also known
as a teleological process, was eclipsed. Recent interest
in inheritance of acquired characteristics centers around
epigenetic processes (e.g. methylation) that do not aect
DNA sequences, but instead alter expression in an inheritable manner. Thus, Neo-Lamarckism, as it is sometimes
termed, is not a challenge to the theory of evolution by
natural selection.
3
xed, permanent things; members of a species are all
dierent, and over time species change. This suggests
that species do not have any clear boundaries but are
rather momentary statistical eects of constantly changing gene-frequencies. One may still use Linnaeus taxonomy to identify individual plants and animals, but one can
no longer think of species as independent and immutable.
The rise of a new species from a parental line is called
speciation. There is no clear line demarcating the ancestral species from the descendant species.
Although the current scientic understanding of species
suggests that there is no rigorous and comprehensive way
to distinguish between dierent species in all cases, biologists continue to seek concrete ways to operationalize the idea. One of the most popular biological denitions of species is in terms of reproductive isolation;
if two creatures cannot reproduce to produce fertile ospring of both sexes, then they are in dierent species.
This denition captures a number of intuitive species
boundaries, but it remains imperfect. It has nothing to
say about species that reproduce asexually, for example,
and it is very dicult to apply to extinct species. Moreover, boundaries between species are often fuzzy: there
are examples where members of one population can produce fertile ospring of both sexes with a second population, and members of the second population can produce
fertile ospring of both sexes with members of a third
population, but members of the rst and third population cannot produce fertile ospring, or can only produce
fertile ospring of the homozygous sex. Consequently,
some people reject this denition of a species.
Richard Dawkins denes two organisms as conspecic if
and only if they have the same number of chromosomes
and, for each chromosome, both organisms have the same
number of nucleotides (The Blind Watchmaker, p. 118).
However, most taxonomists would disagree. For example, in many amphibians, most notably in New Zealands
Leiopelma frogs, the genome consists of core chromosomes that are mostly invariable and accessory chromosomes, of which exist a number of possible combinations. Even though the chromosome numbers are highly
variable between populations, these can interbreed successfully and form a single evolutionary unit. In plants,
polyploidy is extremely commonplace with few restrictions on interbreeding; as individuals with an odd number
of chromosome sets are usually sterile, depending on the
actual number of chromosome sets present, this results
in the odd situation where some individuals of the same
evolutionary unit can interbreed with certain others and
some cannot, with all populations being eventually linked
as to form a common gene pool.
The classication of species has been profoundly affected by technological advances that have allowed researchers to determine relatedness based on molecular
markers, starting with the comparatively crude blood
plasma precipitation assays in the mid-20th century to
2.1
2.2
Ideally, a species is given a formal, scientic name, although in practice there are very many unnamed species
(which have only been described, not named). When a
species is named, it is placed within a genus. From a sci The authors use spp. as a short way of saying that
entic point of view this can be regarded as a hypothesis
something applies to many species within a genus,
that the species is more closely related to other species
but do not wish to say that it applies to all species
within its genus (if any) than to species of other genwithin that genus. If scientists mean that something
era. Species and genus are usually dened as part of a
applies to all species within a genus, they use the
larger taxonomic hierarchy. The best-known taxonomic
genus name without the specic epithet.
ranks are, in order: life, domain, kingdom, phylum, class,
order, family, genus, and species. This assignment to a
Sometimes, the aforementioned plural is rendered as
genus is not immutable; later a dierent (or the same)
sps., which may lead to confusion with ssp., this one
taxonomist may assign it to a dierent genus, in which
standing for subspecies instead. In books and articles,
case the name will also change.
genus and species names are usually printed in italics. AbIn biological nomenclature, the name for a species is a breviations such as sp., spp., sps., ssp., subsp.,
two-part name (a binomial name), treated as Latin, al- etc. should not be italicized.[17]
though roots from any language can be used as well as
names of locales or individuals. The generic name is
listed rst (with its leading letter capitalized), followed by 2.4 Identication codes
a second term. The terminology used for the second term
diers between zoological and botanical nomenclature.
Various codes have been devised for identifying particu In zoological nomenclature, the second part of the
name can be called the specic name or the specic epithet. For example, gray wolves belong to the
species Canis lupus, coyotes to Canis latrans, golden
jackals to Canis aureus, etc., and all of those belong
to the genus Canis (which also contains many other
species). For the gray wolf, the genus name is Canis,
the specic name or specic epithet is lupus, and the
binomen, the name of the species, is Canis lupus.
In botanical nomenclature, the second part of the
name can only be called the specic epithet. The
'specic name' in botany is always the combination
of genus name and specic epithet. For example,
the species commonly known as the longleaf pine is
Pinus palustris; the genus name is Pinus, the specic
epithet is palustris, the specic name is Pinus palustris.
Once our attention is redirected to the individual, we need another way of making generalizations. We are no longer interested in the
conformity of an individual to an ideal type;
we are now interested in the relation of an individual to the other individuals with which it
interacts. To generalize about groups of interacting individuals, we need to drop the language of types and essences, which is prescriptive (telling us what nches should be), and
4 DEFINITIONS OF SPECIES
adopt the language of statistics and probability,
which is predictive (telling us what the average
nch, under specied conditions, is likely to
do). Relations will be more important than categories; functions, which are variable, will be
more important than purposes; transitions will
be more important than boundaries; sequences
will be more important than hierarchies.[32]
Practically, biologists dene species as populations of organisms that have a high level of genetic similarity. This
may reect an adaptation to the same niche, and the transfer of genetic material from one individual to others,
through a variety of possible means. The exact level of
similarity used in such a denition is arbitrary, but this is
the most common denition used for organisms that reproduce asexually (asexual reproduction), such as some
plants and microorganisms.
7
into a subspecies, a process that may eventually lead to
gauge whether or not the results of such experiments
the formation of a new species if isolation (geographical
are meaningful in reference to natural populations.
or ecological) is maintained. The process through which
species are formed by evolution is called speciation. A Genetic species Based on similarity of DNA of individuals or populations. Techniques to compare similarspecies that gives rise to another species is a paraphyletic
ity of DNA include DNA-DNA hybridization, and
species, or paraspecies.[37]
genetic ngerprinting (or DNA barcoding).
4.3
Cohesion species Most inclusive population of individuals having the potential for phenotypic cohesion
through intrinsic cohesion mechanisms. This is an
expansion of the mate-recognition species concept
to allow for post-mating isolation mechanisms; no
matter whether populations can hybridize successfully, they are still distinct cohesion species if the
amount of hybridization is insucient to completely
mix their respective gene pools.
A phylogenetic or cladistic species is a group of organisms that shares an ancestora lineage that maintains its
hereditary integrity with respect to other lineages through
both time and space. At some point in the evolution of
such a group, members may diverge from one another:
when such a divergence becomes suciently clear, the
two populations are regarded as separate species. This
category of species denition diers from evolutionary
species in that the parent of the phylogenetic species goes Evolutionarily signicant unit (ESU) An
evolutionarily signicant unit is a population
extinct taxonomically when a new species evolves; the
of organisms that is considered distinct for purposes
mother and daughter populations now forming two new
of conservation. Often referred to as a species or
species. Subspecies as such are not recognized under this
a wildlife species, an ESU also has several possible
denition; either a population is a phylogenetic species
denitions, which coincide with denitions of
or it is not taxonomically distinguishable.
species.
It has been argued, that operation of the phylogenetic
species concept (PSC) will lead to taxonomic ination, Phenetic species Based on phenetics.
since smaller and smaller units of its population can be
distinguishedeven down to individuals. Species of Microspecies A species with very little genetic variabilbovine (i.e., cattle) for example, could be split up into
ity, usually one that reproduces by apomixis.
any number of species based on this concept.[38]
Recognition species Based on shared reproductive systems, including mating behavior. The Recognition
4.4 Other species concepts
concept of species has been introduced by Hugh E.
H. Paterson, after earlier work by Wilhelm Petersen.
Ecological species A set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the en- Mate-recognition species A group of organisms that
vironment. According to this concept, populations
are known to recognize one another as potential
form the discrete phenetic clusters that we recognize
mates. Like the isolation species concept above,
as species because the ecological and evolutionary
it applies only to organisms that reproduce sexuprocesses controlling how resources are divided up
ally. Unlike the isolation species concept, it focuses
tend to produce those clusters.[39]
specically on pre-mating reproductive isolation.
NUMBERS OF SPECIES
17,000 lichens
321,212 plants, including:
5.2
As a further microbial domain, the issues and diculties of domain Bacteria also pertain to any counting
of species of Archaea, all the more given their various extreme habitats. The classication of archaea into
species is also controversial, as they also reproduce asexually (likewise eliminating applicability of species definitions based on interbreeding),[50] and face the same
diculties associated with organism isolation and culturing (see citations for Bacteria, above).[48][49][51] Archaebacteria have been shown to exhibit high rates of
horizontal gene transfer (resulting from a bacterial cognate of sex), including between organisms quite separate based on genomic analysis.[52] As the Archaea article
notes, "[c]urrent knowledge on genetic diversity is fragmentary and the total number of archaean species cannot
be estimated with any accuracy ... though like domain
Bacteria, the number of cultured and studied phyla relative to the total is low (as of 2005, less than 50% of known
phyla cultured).[53] Taken together, very high numbers of
unique archaebacterial types are likely, as in the case of
domain Bacteria.
31,300 sh
7,093 amphibians[57]
9,768 reptiles[58]
9,998 birds
5,490 mammals
Koinophilia
Ring species
Speciation
See also
Cline
Cryptic species complex
Encyclopedia of Life
Endangered species
Global biodiversity
Species description
Species naming
Species problem
Systematics
8 References
[1] Sahney, S.; Benton, M.J.; Ferry, P.A. (2010). Links Between Global Taxonomic Diversity, Ecological Diversity
and the Expansion of Vertebrates on Land. Biology Letters 6 (4): 544547. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024. PMC
2936204. PMID 20106856.
[2] Sahney, S. and Benton, M.J. (2008). Recovery from the
most profound mass extinction of all time (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society: Biological 275 (1636): 759
65. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1370. PMC 2596898. PMID
18198148.
[3] Mora, C. et al.; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina; Simpson, Alastair G. B.; Worm, Boris (August 23, 2011).
Mace, Georgina M, ed. How Many Species Are There
on Earth and in the Ocean?". PLoS Biology 9 (8):
e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. PMC
3160336. PMID 21886479.
[4] Goldenberg, Suzanne (2011-08-23). Planet Earth is
home to 8.7 million species, scientists estimate. The
Guardian (London). Archived from the original on 201309-30. Retrieved 2014-02-24.
[5] Just How Many Species Are There, Anyway?". Science
Daily. 2003-05-26. Archived from the original on 200305-28. Retrieved 2014-02-24.
[6] Historia plantarum generalis, in the volume published in
1686, Tome I, Libr. I, Chap. XX, page 40 (Quoted in
Mayr, Ernst. 1982. The growth of biological thought:
diversity, evolution, and inheritance. Cambridge, Mass.:
Belknap Press: 256)
[7] Davis, P. H.; Heywood, V. H. (1973). Principles of Angiosperm Taxonomy. Huntington, New York: Robert E.
Krieger Publishing Company. p. 17.
[8] Reveal, James L.; Pringle, James S. (1993). 7. Taxonomic Botany and Floristics. Flora of North America.
New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.
160161. ISBN 0-19-505713-9.
[9] Simpson, George Gaylord (1961). Principles of Animal
Taxonomy. New York and London: Columbia University
Press. pp. 5657.
[10] Newton, Ian (2003). Speciation and Biogeography of
Birds. Academic Press. p. 69. ISBN 9780080924991.
10
[11] Andersson, Malte (1999). Hybridization and skua phylogeny. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 266 (1428):
15791585. doi:10.1098/rspb.1999.0818.
[12] Koch, H. (2010). Combining morphology and DNA
barcoding resolves the taxonomy of Western Malagasy
Liotrigona Moure, 1961. African Invertebrates 51 (2):
413421. doi:10.5733/an.051.0210.
[13] De Queiroz K (2007). Species concepts and species
delimitation.
Syst.
Biol.
56 (6): 87986.
doi:10.1080/10635150701701083. PMID 18027281.
[14] Fraser C, Alm EJ, Polz MF, Spratt BG, Hanage WP
(February 2009). The bacterial species challenge: making sense of genetic and ecological diversity. Science 323
(5915): 7416. doi:10.1126/science.1159388. PMID
19197054.
[15] de Queiroz K (2005). Ernst Mayr and the modern
concept of species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
102 (Suppl 1): 66007. doi:10.1073/pnas.0502030102.
PMC 1131873. PMID 15851674.
[16] Bailey, L.H. (1933). How plants get their names. New
York: Macmillan. ISBN 9780486207964.
[17] Hardy, Jay (2011). Naming Conventions. Nomenclature
of Microorganisms, Hardydiagnostics.com.
[18] USA (2012-10-19). Home Taxonomy NCBI.
Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2012-11-25.
[19] KEGG Organisms: Complete Genomes. Genome.jp.
Retrieved 2012-11-25.
[20] Taxonomy. Uniprot.org. Retrieved 2012-11-25.
[21] Hanage, William P. (April 2013). Fuzzy species revisited. BMC Biology 11 (41). Retrieved 2013-04-22. A
coherent species concept that can be applied throughout
the kingdoms of life is still elusive.
[22] Wilkins, John (2010-10-20). How many species concepts are there?". London: The Guardian. Retrieved
2010-10-19.
[23] Darwin 1859 p. 59. Darwin-online.org.uk. Retrieved
2012-11-25.
[24] Darwin 1871 p. 24. Darwin-online.org.uk. Retrieved
2012-11-25.
[25] Hopf FA, Hopf FW. (1985). The role of the Allee eect
on species packing. Theor. Pop. Biol. 27, 27-50.
[26] Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE (December 1985). Sex and the emergence of species. J.
Theor. Biol. 117 (4): 66590. doi:10.1016/S00225193(85)80246-0. PMID 4094459.
REFERENCES
[44] Sogin ML, Morrison HG, Huber JA, et al. (August 2006).
Microbial diversity in the deep sea and the underexplored
rare biosphere"". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103
(32): 1211520. doi:10.1073/pnas.0605127103. PMC
1524930. PMID 16880384. Cheung L (31 July 2006).
Thousands of microbes in one gulp. BBC.
[28] Michod, Richard E. (1995). Eros and Evolution: A Natural Philosophy of sex. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley
Pub. Co. ISBN 0-201-44232-9.
11
9 Further reading
Other Species Concepts U.C. Berkeley
2003-12-31, ScienceDaily: Working On The
'Porsche Of Its Time': New Model For Species Determination Oered
2003-08-08, ScienceDaily: Cross-species Mating
May Be Evolutionarily Important And Lead To
Rapid Change
2004-01-09 ScienceDaily: Mayo Researchers Observe Genetic Fusion Of Human, Animal Cells; May
Help Explain Origin Of AIDS
2000-09-18, ScienceDaily: Scientists Unravel Ancient Evolutionary History Of Photosynthesis
10 External links
Barcoding of species
Catalogue of Life
European Species Names in Linnaean, Czech, English, German and French
Speciation
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry: Species
VisualTaxa
Wikispecies The free species directory that anyone
can edit from the Wikimedia Foundation
12
11
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11.1
Species Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species?oldid=639442869 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp, CYD, Mav, Bryan
Derksen, Zundark, Timo Honkasalo, Stephen Gilbert, Slrubenstein, Ap, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, XJaM, PierreAbbat, SimonP, Anthere,
Schewek, Graft, Heron, Ryguasu, Hephaestos, Ram-Man, Patrick, Smelialichu, Michael Hardy, Lexor, Gdarin, Shyamal, Menchi, Tannin,
Ixfd64, GTBacchus, Karada, Arpingstone, Goatasaur, Card, Ahoerstemeier, Jimfbleak, Bueller 007, Julesd, Glenn, Nikai, Andres, Evercat,
Crusadeonilliteracy, Andrewman327, Steinsky, Tpbradbury, Marshman, Samsara, Jni, Robbot, Fredrik, Peak, Seglea, Naddy, UtherSRG,
GerardM, SoLando, Pengo, Alan Liefting, Giftlite, DocWatson42, Jacoplane, MPF, Fastssion, Tom Radulovich, Alterego, Everyking,
Dratman, Curps, Jorend, Niteowlneils, Nikita Borisov, Semorrison, Bobblewik, Alanl, OldakQuill, Gdr, Zeimusu, Antandrus, Beland,
Onco p53, Lesgles, Kaldari, Vina, Szajd, Icairns, Jmeppley, Neutrality, Golnazfotohabadi, Thorwald, Mike Rosoft, Ta bu shi da yu, Spiy
sperry, Jiy, Rich Farmbrough, Cfailde, Vsmith, D-Notice, Dbachmann, AlanBarrett, Dmeranda, Brian0918, Tompw, El C, Shanes, Art
LaPella, RoyBoy, Adambro, Bobo192, Circeus, Shenme, Cmdrjameson, Wisdom89, Jerryseinfeld, Rajah, Nsaa, Schnolle, Orangemarlin,
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OakRunner, Utilist, Leprof 7272, BitBus, Zorahia, Thelionsareontheprowl, Nayday, I am One of Many, Luke05tea13, Zenibus, Ginsuloft,
Coreyemotela, Hullingergr, Nestorin8, Ocialdrgamer, Tim Topolski, Wepo123h, Oggmus, Monkbot, Casster M, Correctwhatiswrong247,
Lionblayze, Upeepee, Trackteur, Placenage, Mason meg, Qwertyabc12398, HOLASOYRENE, Danymorrison, Antjr01 and Anonymous:
654
11.2
Images
11.3
Content license
13
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bc/John_Ray_from_NPG.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: National Portrait Gallery, London: NPG 563 Original artist: Unknown
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Tree_of_life.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Tree_of_life.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Undiscovered_species_chart.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Undiscovered_species_chart.png
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: KVDP
File:Wikispecies-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Image:Wikispecies-logo.jpg Original artist: (of code) cs:User:-xfi File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs), based
on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
11.3
Content license