Genetics & Anthropology in Sicily

"Norman Sicily stood forth in Europe --and indeed in the whole bigoted medieval world-- as an example
of tolerance and enlightenment, a lesson in the respect that every man should feel for those whose blood
and beliefs happen to differ from his own."
-- John Julius Norwich, The Kingdom in the Sun 1970
"Sicilians are a diverse people, having had contact with a great variety of ethnic stocks and physical types
throughout the centuries."
-- Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume 10, page 779 1997
Genes and populations.The most personal of biological sciences,
genetics influence everything about who we are. Our appearance,
talents and health - even our identities - are all shaped to a great
extent by the genes we inherited through our parents. Perhaps for this
reason, the topic often provokes strong emotions and opinions. This
very simplified overview is not intended as a detailed scientific or
sociological treatise, nor is it intended for research purposes. (For
insights into population genetics, works such as those of the
distinguished geneticist Luigi L. Cavalli-Sforza should be consulted;
Matt Ridley's Genome is a good introduction for the layman; Steven
Oppenheimer's Out of Eden and Spencer Wells' The Journey of Man place
pre-historic human migration in perspective.) First, let's define a
few terms. Ethnology generally refers to the social study of peoples
and the comparative differences among them, in view of culture,
history and traditions; ethnography is a methodical identification of
peoples based on ethnology. Genealogy is the historical study of
ancestral lineages, descent and kinship. As a research tool, genealogy
is quite useful in genetic studies, but social concepts such as
consanguinity ("blood" relationships between people descended from the
same ancestor) are not, strictly speaking, biological in nature. In a
place as ethnically diverse as Sicily, ethnology is interesting
(though this is not an "ethnic" website), while genetic knowledge is
obviously important in treating certain diseases. Race is a
traditional social method of identifying people from various regions
based
primarily
on
their
appearance
and
various
physical
characteristics. Anthropology is the study of man generally physically,
socially,
culturally.
In
its
most
general
sense,
anthropology often embraces ethnology, population genetics, genealogy
and many aspects of biology, history, archeology, linguistics and the
arts. (For more information about the origins and ethnology of the
various Sicilian peoples, see the Sicilian Peoples series linked from
"Brothers" in the following section.)
Take your place in history.This all seems rather abstract --even
impersonal-- until you start to trace your own ancestral DNA. That's
the idea behind the 5 year long Genographic Project sponsored by the
National Geographic Society. The project's website offers a good
overview and atlas of population genetics, explaining its impact on

individuals. To participate in their study, you'll need DNA analysis

from a company such as Family tree DNA. Eventually, Best of Sicily
will present a summary based on their results. We've already received
correspondence from a number of readers about their own results from
genetic analysis. This indicates, for example, a high prevalence of
gene marker M172 (Haplogroup J2), shared by peoples (including
Sicily's Elymians, Carthaginians, Greeks and Arabs) having remote
origins in the Fertile Crescent.
Brothers: Out of Africa
Genetic Heritage and History
Population Genetics
Sicilian Haplogroups
Ethno-Regional Origins
Popular Perceptions
Further Reading & Links
Terms Defined
Brothers: Out of Africa
The brotherhood of mankind has ancient roots. In the remote shadows of
human pre-history, there was only a single primitive culture. "Genetic
tracking" is a new science but it indicates that "modern" man existed
as a hunter-gatherer in eastern Africa around 150,000 years ago, with
evidence of these same people discovered in the Middle East dated from
around 80,000 years ago. A well-researched hypothesis that all humans
are descended from a "mitochondrial" Eve (a reference to the
mitochondrial DNA traced to a female ancestor living in east Africa
150,000 years, or about 7,000 generations, ago) emphasizes the
"commonality" of all humans and our descent from a single "race." At
one point, there were probably only around 10,000 humans in the world,
and they gradually migrated, leaving a DNA trail behind them. Stephen
Oppenheimer (author of Out of Eden - The Peopling of the World), among
others, suggests a single major "exodus" out of Africa, not
necessarily many waves of emigration as was previously theorized. This
theory is supported by geneticists such as Spencer Wells (author of
The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey and director of the Genographic
Project). Genetic drift would have resulted in a single line of
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) surviving in isolated populations.
Peoples of Sicily Series
Introduction
Sicanians
Elymians
Sicels
Phoenicians
Greeks
Carthaginians
Romans
Vandals & Goths
Byzantines
Arabs
Normans

Swabians
Angevins
Aragonese
Albanians
Spanish
Jews
About 72,000 years ago, the effects of a major volcanic eruption
(Toba) with global consequences killed off many humans. By some
estimates, as few as 2,000 humans survived the disaster --in Africa.
They were already making simple jewelry. Art was a reflection of the
modern mind, and early culture. The divergence of humans into
regionalised groups with their own particular genetic characteristics,
often in response to climatic conditions, mutations or disease,
generally took place at some point after this. At least this is
suggested by genetic evidence. According to the best estimates, it was
probably only around 45,000 to 40,000 BC (BCE) that a large group
settled permanently in Europe, though they had already established a
permanent presence in the Middle East and certain eastern and central
Mediterranean coastal areas. By 25,000 BC, if not earlier, groups of
humans could be identified, albeit very generally, by their cultures
and superficial physical characteristics. (Comparative linguistic
studies, though useful, enlighten us about only much more recent
historical periods, written language being a relatively recent
development.)
There is a point where evolutionary genetic conditions become
localized (ethnic) ones. The Ice Man found frozen in the Alps in 1991
lived about 5,300 years ago, and genetic testing indicates his
considerable affinity with the present Alpine population.
Is race an antiquated concept? It's becoming so, and important
(professional) anthropologists increasingly rely on genetics for
determining human migrations and human evolution. Observations made
here concerning genetic differentiation relate only to the last twelve
thousand years or so.
The earliest identifiable (pre-historic) "modern human" inhabitants of
Sicily were present at least 10,000 to 12,000 years ago and many lived
in caves. People are interested in the physical appearance of their
ancestors, whether recent or ancient. For lack of a more descriptive
term, the earliest Sicilians would be identified as "Caucasoid" in
appearance. Generally, they probably had darker hair and eyes than
most of their northern-European counterparts, and probably tanned
easily. Extant visual evidence (sculpture, mosaics, etc.) and
surviving literary accounts indicate that most ancient Mediterranean
peoples, whether Phoenician, Egyptian, Greek, Roman or Sicanian, were
generally a little darker than northern Europeans. Ancient peoples
were, on average, shorter than modern ones, and did not live as long.
Peoples from across Europe were drawn (or coerced) to Rome, but it was
the Middle Ages that brought Vandals, Vikings and Visigoths to the
sunny "Med" in large numbers, literally changing the face of the
Mediterranean population. (Even today, when there are more blondes in

Sicily than in ancient times, Sicilian women joke about the obsession
of the local men with foreign blondes, and a black-haired, dark-eyed
Sicilian girl is referred to as a "mora," or Moor, while a redhead is
a "normanna" or Norman --terms in wide use since the Middle Ages.)
Until the fall of the Roman Empire, there were no known large-scale
"non-Mediterranean" incursions into Sicily by sub-Saharan or eastAsian peoples (the Huns come to mind), nor do there appear to have
been any substantial "Nordic" (northern European) colonisations until
the arrival of the Longobards and Normans. Rather, the Sicels and
Elymians were Mediterranean peoples arriving from regions such as the
Italian peninsula or the eastern Mediterranean at some point after
1500 BC, while the Sicanians were probably descended from the earliest
inhabitants of Sicily. There are few archeological differences among
the three civilizations and their Iron Age cultures, though the very
few known linguistic distinctions, inferred from Greek-era records and
a few stone inscriptions using Phoenician characters, link them in
some way to particular regions. (In theory, contact with certain
civilizations, rather than colonization per se, may partly explain
this; by analogy, many Indians and Chinese speak English but are not
descended from the English, and many non-Italic peoples in the Roman
Empire spoke Latin, just as many Romans spoke Greek.) The earliest
Sicilians assimilated, and then amalgamated, with the Phoenicians and
Greeks within a few brief centuries. By 300 BC, they had ceased to
exist as distinct ethnic populations, having become Hellenized.
We are on more solid ground in describing the civilizations of the
Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Arabs and Normans of
Sicily through extensive literary, archeological, linguistic and
artistic
evidence.
Their
migrations
and
activities
are
wellchronicled. Historians occasionally debate the merits of certain
particularly detailed events, but not the most fundamental historical
facts
(migration,
colonization,
amalgamation)
which
complement
knowledge drawn from genetic data.
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Genetic Heritage and History
It's important to remember that gene markers are placed into their
proper chronology based on generations rather than years, and an
average historical generation is presumed to span 25 years. If
recorded and purely anthropological (i.e. non-genetic) knowledge of
human migrations is rather recent, in Sicily there are certain native
animal species that (based on genetic studies) are European in origin
while others are African. This involves not only birds that could fly
to Sicily but mammals such as wild cats and foxes. Genes are part of
the human essence, but genetic testing only deals with particular gene
markers in certain sample individuals; it is the science of statistics
that allows us to generalize based on such studies. Various genetic
traits (even superficial physical ones like red hair and green eyes)
were introduced into the population by individuals from various
places. This is a generality; it is probable that there were redhaired Sicilians in Greek times but equally probable that there were
far more following the influx of the "Celtic-Nordic" Normans

intermarrying with the local population. History indicates that

amalgamation was always quite normal in Sicily; many of the tenthcentury Arabs (mostly men) arriving from northern Africa married
Sicilians who were already present, and the island's population
doubled within two centuries as the Arabs founded dozens of towns and
smaller communities across Sicily. In the flow of history, certain
localized communities of ethnic Sicilians occasionally left Sicily
(some Arabs from a few localities during the reign of Frederick II in
the thirteenth century and some Jews during the Spanish rule at the
end of the fifteenth century), but most of these people remained to be
completely integrated into the population. A mass exodus of SiculoArabs, who had lived in Sicily for generations and knew no other
country, would have entailed the migration of at least a half million
people. Eventually, most Arabs and Jews in Sicily were Christianized.
This is reflected in the historical record not only in actual
chronicles but in medieval feudal records of taxes and population
movements and, still later, acts of baptism.
Some simple examples of this immigration and residence information are
in order. Towns such as Palermo, Castrogiovanni (Enna), Calascibetta,
Caltanissetta, Read
about historically multicultural Palermo.Caltagirone, Caltabellotta,
Racalmuto, Favara, Mistretta, Marsala, Mussomeli and Misilmeri were
either founded by Arabs or grew considerably under Arab domination,
and bore Arabic names (under the Greeks Palermo, from the Arabic
Bal'harm, was Panormos). The specific mention of Arabs and the
presence of Arabic given names and surnames was evident in these
places long after Frederick II banished a few thousand Arabs of
western Sicily to Apulia. As regards Jews present in many Sicilian
localities until 1492, those who converted usually continued to name
their children according to tradition (hence Abramo, Beniamino,
Isacco, etc.) and to practice professions traditionally associated
with Jews in Sicily (dyers, bankers). Many assumed distinctive
surnames (Siino for Zion, Rabino for Rabbi) indicating a Jewish orgin.
Similar generalities about the permanence of Phoenician, Carthaginian,
Greek and Roman populations in Sicily are valid. Where are these
peoples today? Genetically (so to speak), they are represented in the
modern Sicilians --an amalgamated group of European and Mediterranean
peoples. However, as we shall see, genetics and ethnic identity are
two distinct ideas.
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Population Genetics
The idea of genetic testing in general populations is that a
particular gene marker, based on a mutation, is identified with a
certain frequency in samples from the two (or more) populations being
compared. Broadly defined, population genetics is the study of the
distribution of, and change in, allele frequencies in particular
populations. (Allele frequency is a term used in describing the
genetic diversity of any species population.) There are also, strictly
speaking, phenotype and genotype frequencies, but we'll leave the
scientific complexities to the scientists.

With the use of terms such as "Pacific Rim" to describe cultures or

even economies by the bodies of water they border (or particular
physical features such as plains or mountain ranges) rather than by
their continental land masses and political borders, the term
"Mediterranean" has again become popular in recent years. Considering
that the ancient and early-medieval (pre AD 1000) peoples of southern
Europe, Asia Minor and northern Africa were racially similar, and also
culturally similar Ancient routes to Sicily...in many respects, we
prefer to define them as Mediterranean rather than European, Asian or
African --partly because broad geographical definitions (based on
continents) had little political meaning until "new" places (like
America) were "discovered" in the latter Middle Ages. The "European"
Romans scarcely knew of the existence of the Lapps of northern
Scandinavia, a unique ethnic group. Though the Egyptians had contact
with Ethiopia, the "African" Carthaginians and Saracens had little, if
any, knowledge of the peoples of what is now Zambia. Via the Persians,
the Phoenicians traded with India and even Mongolia, but they probably
knew nothing of Japanese civilization. Despite political differences,
the Romans had more in common with the Carthaginians than with most
northern European groups, while the Carthaginians had more in common
with the Persians than with most sub-Saharan peoples.
This "cultural" perspective of Mediterranean ethnography is far from
perfect, but it compares favorably to the blind geographic point of
view espoused by those who would have us believe, despite reliable
iconographic and numismatic evidence to the contrary, that Jesus was a
blue-eyed "Caucasoid" European and Hannibal was a dark "Negroid"
African.
Considering
their
common
roots,
the
medieval
Sicilians
were
overwhelmingly similar to the Byzantines and Saracens who conquered
them; indeed, they may have had more in common with these peoples than
they did with the Romans. Was Sicily geographically part of Africa
when it was ruled by Carthaginians or Saracens, only to be reintegrated into Europe when it was ruled by Romans and Normans? A good
question, but one that was rarely posed before the modern era.
Following the fall of the Roman Empire, "Italy" didn't become a
political reality (a nation) until the nineteenth century. The Italian
(and Sicilian) vernacular languages we know today came into widespread
literary use only in the thirteenth century.
Twelfth-century Sicily's multiculturalism was not a trendy sociopolitical concept. It was an everyday reality. By then, the human race
had splintered into numerous ethnic groupings and societies. When
anthropologists speak generically of genetic or even "racial"
influences, they are usually speaking of various mutations and
adaptations during the historical period (from cica 4000 BC) or the
known neolithic era (10,000 BC), when Proto-Celts, Proto-IndoEuropeans (and Sicily's Proto-Sicanians) were well established as
distinct cultures. Certain gene markers, based on mutations, are
associated with certain populations at certain times (in specific

generations), but it is not only these markers which made one a Roman,
Viking or Mongol; that's really a social matter.
Sicilian Haplogroups
Haplogroups reflect the most ancient genetic influences, dating to at
least 8,000 years ago. These can be traced easily along the main
Typical 12-marker Sicilian genetic profile.patrilineal line (your
father's father et al.) or Y-chromosome. While this is a tiny fragment
of one's genetic heritage, it is easy to isolate.
Haplogroup M173, associated with the descendants of the first waves of
humans into Europe (often seen as a branch of the Cro-Magnon
haplogroup M343, or R1b), is widespread in Sicily and indeed across
Europe, where many English (including some 70% of Englishmen in
southern England) and French share it. Today it is most prevalent
(90%) among the Spanish and Irish. M173 originated about 30,000 years
ago. In effect, some 80% of western Europeans living today are in this
haplogroup. Though the neolithic Proto-Sicanians were probably part of
this haplogroup, many Sicilians more likely inherited it from
ancestors descended from subsequent foreign conquerors arriving from
the North and West --Sicels, Romans, Visigoths, Vandals, Normans,
Lombards, Swabians (Germans), Angevins (French) and Spaniards among
them -- but possibly from some Greeks as well. (These observations are
only intended as generalities.)
In Sicily one of the most interesting haplogroups to geneticists is
the much more recent M172 (also called J2), probably introduced about
8,000 BC with the introducton of agriculture to a native people
sometimes referred to as the "Proto-Sicanians." At least 21% of
Sicilians carry the marker for this haplotype (probably about 19%
throughout Europe), and no more than 10% of people in regions such as
Spain, but it is very frequent in the Middle East, Ethiopia and
particularly the Caucasus region of west-central Asia (where it
reaches 90%), and is present among some central-Europeans and northAfricans.
It has been plausibly suggested that M172 may be associated with the
arrival of neolithic farmers from the Fertile Crescent who were the
probable predecessors of the Indo-European society which later emerged
in western Asia, a "hypothetical" society whose culture and language
greatly influenced prehistoric peoples from India to Ireland. The
language of Sicily's Sicanians does not seem to have had Indo-European
roots, though the issue is far from conclusive. However, the
comparatively sophisticated farmers from the East must have had an
influence in prehistoric Sicily as elsewhere in the Mediterranean and
western Europe (only the Basques' ancestors may have been largely
untouched by the earliest Proto-Indo-European influences). Later, it
is unlikely that the Indo-Europeans actually supplanted entire
populations; they probably represent an influx of a few migratory
waves of settlers whose language and culture greatly influenced those
of peoples already present. Lines bearing haplotype M172 could have
arrived in Sicily with various waves of colonisers from the South and

East
--Elymians
(probably
from
Anatolia),
Phoenicians
(and
Carthaginians), Greeks, Byzantines and Arabs among them --but possibly
from some Romans and (in the late 1400s) Albanians as well. (These
observations,
like
those
about
M173,
are
only
intended
as
generalities.)
Several early observations (they are hardly "conclusions") emerge from
research conducted thus far. The notion that certain parts of Sicily
still genetically reflect the influence of specific ancient peoples
(Phoenicians, Greeks) has been largely disproven, yet certain small,
relatively-isolated towns seem to be marked by a predominance of one
medieval group or another (Arab, Norman). Leaving aside specialized
studies, if we consider the major Y haplogroups, Sicily's populationgenetic distribution is somewhat similar (though by no means
identical) to mainland Italy's. If only approximately the proportions
are: J Group (J1, J2, etc.) 35%, R Group (primarily R1b) 25%, I Group
15%, K Group 10%, H Group 10%, Others (E, T, G, etc.) 5%. Along female
lines, Sicilians' descent from the "Seven Daughters of Eve" seems to
be distributed fairly equally, but much more data must be collected in
this area. These factors (and scholarly studies) all point to the
island's multi-peopling as the main cause of its genetic diversity.
As they are based on several sources, the percentages indicated here
may vary somewhat from what you find reported elsewhere. Haplogroup
E1b1b, for example, is sometimes reported at a slightly higher
frequency. Such variations are geographical, based to some degree on
who populated a specific locality Greeks, Normans, Arabs...
Without the influx of significant "foreign" genetic influences
(admixture) over time, a small, localised population might become
"inbred" in a matter of centuries. If this were the case in Sicily,
today's Sicilians would be genetically identical to the ProtoSicanians of 6000 years ago. Instead, they reflect a fair degree of
genetic diversity.
Ethno-Regional Origins
Attempts to ascertain Sicilian "ethnic" origins should be undertaken
with caution because haplogroups do not correspond precisely to
medieval or modern conceptions of nationality. At best, they are
approximate. For example, J2 is identified with Greeks but also with
some Germans.
Speaking very broadly, the most frequent Y haplogroups of the world's
most conquered island may be correlated most probably (albeit
imprecisely) to the following peoples:
Estimated percentage of haplogroup presence
in Sicily circa 1400. J1 - Arabs, Berbers, Carthaginians, Jews,
J2 - Greeks, Romans, Jews, Spaniards,
R1b - Germans, Normans, Longobards, Aragonese, Spaniards, Romans,
I1 & I2b - Vikings and Normans,
I & I2a - Elymians,
E1b1b - Arabs and Berbers,

G
N
K
H
T

Arabs and Elymians,

Vikings and Normans,
Arabs, Greeks, Berbers, Carthaginians,
Arabs,
Phoenicians, Carthaginians.

To make effective use of our map requires at least 37 "recent" Ychromosome markers rather than the 12 ancient ones revealed by basic
haplogroup tests, and SNP or subclade identification.
Click on a name to
read a cultural description....
Popular Perceptions (and misperceptions)
"Racialist" descriptions of perceived "racial" characteristics of socalled
sub-races
(Pontids,
Dinarics,
Mediterranids,
Armenids,
Saharids, Arabids, and so forth) are still Click
on an image to read about the influence of Frederick II or Mussolini
on Sicilian
history.entertained in certain quarters. Viewed in terms of the human
genome, race (as the term is commonly used and understood) is a
relatively insignificant (or at best superficial) and arbitrary
consideration, and we are already seeing more reliance on purely
genetic identification. Genetic diversity is a reality. While race, as
the term is traditionally used, is fast becoming an outmoded concept,
specific gene markers (based on relatively "recent" mutations) are
naturally linked to persons sharing common origins (i.e. the same gene
pools) coinciding with Asian, African, European or other "racial"
groups or sub-groups. The legitimate scientific basis of regional
(racial) distinctions (but not racialism) is genetic differentiation
over thousands of generations.
Genetic studies have proven beyond doubt that, ultimately, we are all
descended from the same people. Implications of "recent" migrations
and cultural factors involving the human race, particularly over the
last 8,000 years, may be discussed (even debated) for decades to come.
Outside academic and scientific circles, much of the debate finds
fertile ground among those seeking to prove that their ancestors were
"black" or "white" rather than humans living in a certain region or
identified with a certain culture. While it might be overzealous to
define all such people as racists, it is clear that their views, based
on interpretations (and misinterpretations) regarding gene markers and
mutations originating in the last 8,000 years (and the "historical"
period of the last 6000) rather than those of the last 80,000 years,
are outdated.
Prevalent stereotypes (and ignorant authors outside Italy) sometimes
paint a superficial physical picture of Sicilians which bears little
similarity to reality. While individuals having extremely light blonde
hair represent only a small part of the Sicilian population, many
Sicilians have blue or green eyes and light complexions (and red
hair). In Sicily the range of complexions, from cream to olive, is
striking, and combinations are interesting --blue-eyed dark brunettes

and brown-eyed strawberry blonds. Moreover, the idea that northern

Italians
are
overwhelmingly
"lighter"
than
southerners
is
statistically inaccurate. Anybody who spends even a few weeks
travelling the country could plainly observe this. Let's remember, of
course, that superficial physical traits are only a tiny part of an
individual's genetic profile. Sicily, more than most other parts of
Italy, has had a particularly wide influx of "immigrants" over the
centuries, creating a greater genetic diversity than one might find in
some other regions of Europe.
Sicilian history and ethnology are well documented. Not surprisingly,
genetic studies of the Sicilian population for the ancient and
medieval periods generally confirm what is known historically. As
genetic conclusions are keyed to generations rather than years,
historical knowledge sometimes helps to place genetic developments in
their proper context. For example, the prevalence of multiple
sclerosis in Enna and Monreale may be attributed to genes brought with
the Normans, while diseases of the thalassemia group may have arrived
with Phoenician, Greek or Arab peoples. Certain superficial physical
traits probably were widely introduced by specific groups --blue eyes
by Normans and Longobards, kinky hair by Arabs, and so forth. That
said, apart from avoidance of "inbreeding," the most important aspect
of any migration and amalgamation is usually cultural rather than
physical. We've come to accept that most Vikings had blue eyes, but
would their achievements be attenuated if the Norsemen were all browneyed?
Are there connections between genetic traits and ethnic culture? In a
few respects there are, though perhaps not in ways that many of us
imagine. Here are a few examples:
If prehistoric hunters in a certain region had to be a certain
height (either short or tall) to capture the fauna they ate, it's
possible that hunters bearing this trait would more likely survive to
pass it on to offspring. Thus a particular range of stature might come
to be identified with that population. Exceptionally acute vision is
another trait beneficial to the hunters which might find its way into
the gene pool.
Let's imagine that a certain kind of edible plant grows in a
specific region, but some of the inhabitants of that area are allergic
to this food. Perhaps such a food might not find its way into the
local cuisine. Conversely, if it were a dietary staple, those allergic
to it might not survive to transmit their allergy to offspring.
Art often reflects the appearance of the people who create it, and
while it may be idealized it can provide us with an insight into the
minds of its creators. Thus the earliest Elymian, Phoenician and Greek
art in Sicily often --though not always-- reflects the physical
appearance of its artists, or at least their aesthetic standards.
Moreover, if a certain random physical trait (small feet, big ears,
green eyes, flat noses, long fingers, excessive body hair) were

considered especially beautiful, it might eventually become dominant

in a population as people chose their mates based on such factors;
consequently, a society's visual arts and literature would reflect
this beauty standard.
If most people in a certain place were born with a certain voice
type or vocal range, it is possible that their music would reflect
this. Such factors would seem more prevalent among smaller, isolated
populations, but the principle is valid.
Skin pigmentation is a response to exposure to sunlight, and while
Sicily is not an extreme (equatorial) example of this, it is clear
that in equatorial regions people with more pigmentation are less
likely than paler ones, statistically speaking, to suffer skin cancer
from overexposure to solar radiation, and therefore more likely than
lightly-pigmented individuals to survive and transmit this physical
trait to their children. Consequently, a certain complexion becomes
associated with a specific group.
If a certain competitive sport were most successfully played by
athletes of exceptional stature who could quickly scale a particular
type of tree (or place a ball into a basket set at a fixed height
higher than most players' heads), people of a certain height would
play it better than others. This is relative, of course, but in a
society where most people are rather short it is possible that such a
game might not be developed as it would in a society of taller
individuals. In effect, a physical characteristic spawns a cultural
one.
A society in which people lived to be exceptionally old might
develop a culture different from that of one where longevity was rare.
This would influence attitudes (perhaps greater tolerance of aged
parents), which in turn could influence the social roles of the
elders.
Generalities aside, distinctions often exist between a person's ethnic
(or even genetic) identity and "nationalist" or group identities. As a
nation state, a united "Italy" has only existed since the 1860s, and
being "Italian" (or German or Russian) means different things to
different people. In the long term, passing political ideas (for
example the Fascist, Nazi and Communist governments in the case of the
three countries mentioned) have little effect on ethnic identities
formed over the course of many centuries. Beyond generalities
(collectively related to language, history, art, music, cuisine,
etc.), it's difficult --and rarely appropriate-- to place an undue
emphasis on a person's supposed "ethnic" identity. Statistically, most
of today's Italians are at least nominally Roman Catholic, but many
belong to other religions (or profess none), and those in the minority
are no less Italian than those in the majority, just as a Neapolitan's
dislike for pasta or opera makes him no less "Italian" than anybody
else in Naples.

Much remains to be discovered in comparative population genetics and

its integration with historical knowledge. The mapping of the human
genome is only a useful first step. Within the limits of scientific
methodology
(hypothesis,
controls,
parameters,
analysis,
etc.),
genetic research involving the Sicilian populatiuon generally tends to
confirm, rather than refute, the presumptions arrived at via
historical research, which in recent years has become increasingly
multi-disciplinary (linking archival history to climatic studies,
geology and other fields). It's a good beginning...
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Further Reading & Links
Books: Our knowledge of population genetics increases day by day. A
page such as this one can serve as little more than a very brief,
simplified introduction, with an eye toward the subject's Sicilian
context (our remote African, then Asian and finally European
forebears). For more detailed explanations of human genetic history
(and "pre-history") we suggest the following books. Each differs in
its approach, but despite occasional redundancy these works complement
each other surprisingly well. For example, the book by Luigi Luca
Cavalli-Sforza, the dean of population genetic studies, has an
interesting cultural and linguistic perspective. If we could make a
single suggestion to somebody seriously interested in this topic, it
would be to read all of these books, plus the one (following the list)
on the Indo-Europeans.
Out of Eden - The Peopling of the World - by Stephen Oppenheimer. An
exceptional examination of the human journey out of Africa, with
useful maps and pragmatic explanations of the correlations between
climatic conditions, languages and early human development. The work
reported in this book formed the partial basis of a documentary film
with a focus on Mitochondrial Eve. Buy from Amazon US. Buy from Amazon
UK.
The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey - by Spencer Wells. Like
Oppenheimer and Sykes, Spencer Wells conducted actual genetic research
around the world (in cooperation with the National Geographic Society)
to connect various peoples to pre-historic ancestors. Mediterranean
and European connections are dealt with here, and (with Out of Eden)
this book is a very good introduction to the topic. Wells' work was
the basis of an interesting documentary for National Geographic now
available on DVD (and presently included with test kits from the
Genographic Project). Buy from Amazon US. Buy from Amazon UK.
Genes, Peoples and Languages - by L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza. While the
layman may find it best to already have read the books by Wells or
Oppenheimer before this one, anybody interested in the early links
between human migrations and languages (and cultures) should not
overlook this volume. The author's groundbreaking genetic studies
began decades ago, setting the stage for everything to come. Buy from
Amazon US. Buy from Amazon UK.

Mapping Human History - Unravelling the Mystery of Adam and Eve - by

Steve Olson. Though it relies on the same genetic research as the
other books described here, this one often transcends specific
discussions of haplotypes in order to focus on more "social" factors,
and some of the conclusions are fascinating. Buy from Amazon US. Buy
from Amazon UK.
The Seven Daughters of Eve - by Bryan Sykes. Setting Seven Daughters
of Eve.aside patrilineal (Y-chromosome) research, Sykes concentrates
on our common descent, based on mitochondrial DNA, from one of the
women who lived at least ten thousand years ago. (A Sicilian might
descend from any of the women Sykes has named Katrine, Ursula, Xenia,
Helena, Velda, Jasmine and Tara.) The human link is interesting, and
it's one you can easily establish with a minimal investment in your
own genetic research. Buy from Amazon US. Buy from Amazon UK.
In Search of the Indo-Europeans - Language, Archaeology and Myth - by
J.P. Mallory. First published in 1989, this book's perspective is
slightly dated and the text contains no reference to genetic research
(such as Cavalli-Sforza's landmark work in genetics and linguistics),
but it makes at least one passing reference to Siculan, the language
of the ancient Sicels. Sicily's Elymians are ignored altogether,
though the (presumably) non-Indo-European Etruscans are mentioned, and
it has been postulated that the Elymians and Etruscans might share
common or similar origins. Nevertheless, the author presents an
insightful reconstruction of what Proto-Indo-European society must
have been. This is an important element in understanding the earliest
civilizations
that
emerged
from
the
darkness
of
prehistory,
influencing early-historic Sicily. A good companion volume to CavalliSforza's (above). Buy from Amazon US. Buy from Amazon UK.
Links: Interpreting published Sicilian genetic studies is interesting,
but the most "current" general observations come from people (from
around Sicily) who have actually had their DNA tested for haplotypes
and other markers, and shared the results. Presently the largest
online forum is Family Tree DNA's Sicily Project. For understanding
"familial" lineages dealing with the last few centuries (the
individuals behind the genes) there's really no substitute for
documented genealogical research, described on our Sicilian genealogy
page.
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Some Terms Defined
This is hardly a complete list but includes a few terms used in
genetic anthropology and allied fields:
Angevin - relating to the French region of Anjou. King Charles of
Naples (who followed the Hohenstaufens) was descended from the Royal
House of France, called Anjou for its fief there. In medieval Sicilian
history, the term "Angevin" refers generally to French associated with
the House of Anjou, and not specifically to people from the Anjou
region.

Afrocentrism - various sociological philosophies which emphasise

particular modes of studying African anthropology and history in a
positive way, often as a reaction to longstanding bias present in
certain "Eurocentrist" and race-based "Nordicist" histories of Africa.
Afrocentrism seeks to present global history from an African
perspective. Extreme Afrocentrism is sometimes revisionist or racist
in tone. As a social and political movement, it is particularly
popular outside Africa, though the independence of African countries
from European colonial powers clearly reflects a positive (and
practical) form of Afrocentrism.
allele - one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by
mutation and are found at the same place on the same chromosome.
amalgamation
process
of
populations
uniting
through
population.

ethnically
or
genetically
marriage,
resulting
in
a

diverse
"mixed"

anthropology - comparative study of societies and cultures, including

human evolution.
Arabs - Semitic people of the middle-east and northern Africa.
assimilation - process of distinct ethnic populations coexisting in
the
same
place,
possibly
adapting
similar
ethnological
characteristics, without necessarily intermarrying.
Byzantine Greek - reference to Greeks and their eastern Mediterranean
society following the fall of the western Roman Empire.
Carthaginians - residual Phoenician
northern Tunisia) in ancient times.

civilization

of

Carthage

(in

consanguineous - relating to or denoting people descended from the

same ancestor.
consanguinity - state of sharing descent from the same ancestor.
chromosomes - structure made of nucleic acids found in most living
cells, carrying information in form of genes.
DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid, substance present
organisms and carrier of genetic information.

in

most

living

Elymi - also Elami or Elimiian; one of the three most ancient Sicilian
peoples, inhabiting parts of far western and northwestern Sicily,
sharing some regions with the Sicans. Probably a west Asian people
from what is now Turkey, arriving via Africa around 1200 BC.
ethnic - relating to a population or group having common cultural or
national traditions.

ethnology - study of characteristics of

differences and relationships between them.

various

peoples

and

ethnography - scientific description or classification of peoples and

cultures with reference to their particular characteristics and
customs.
Eurocentrism - vague sociological concept (and new term) which
emphasises study of European anthropology as pre-eminent, sometimes
implicitly regarding it as superior to all others. Western historical
perspectives popular through the 1960s are often considered broadly
"Eurocentric" because they seem to minimise or even overlook the
cultural importance of peoples in Africa, Asia and the New World, or
view these cultures from an exclusively European perspective. Extreme
Eurocentrism is sometimes revisionist or racist in nature, though it
rarely reflects a well-defined philosophy or a formal movement.
genealogy - social study of lines of descent, kinship and familial
history.
gene - unit
chromosome.

of

heredity

consisting

of

DNA

forming

part

of

gene pool - stock of different genes in an interbreeding population.

genetics - scientific study of heredity and variation of hereditary
characteristics based on genes.
genetic drift - statistical model by which certain genes (or
haplotypes) become more frequent than others over the course of many
generations, based in part on factors which, over time, are seen as
random.
genetic tracking - science applied to determine migrations of people
in antiquity, particularly pre-historically.
genome - haploid or complete set of genetic material of an organism.
Greek - the people of Greece; the language of Greece. (Here the term
refers to the ancient Greeks of Greece, Sicily and all of Magna
Graecia.)
haplogroup - those sharing a haplotype from a remote common ancestor.
haplotype - genetic sequence inherited from a common ancestor.
heterogeneous - diverse in character or content.
Italianism - nationalist theory popularised during the Italian
unification era (1848-1870) and subsequently encouraged under Fascism
(1922-1945) advocating the idea of Italians as having existed as a

united people continuously since Roman times, notwithstanding the

factionalization existing from the end of the Roman Empire (Early
Middle Ages) until the nineteenth century; the theory often supports
the Roman Catholic Church as the only "Italian" church, and the
standard use of the Tuscan-Italian language (over regional Italic
languages such as Piedmontese, Milanese, Sicilian and Sardinian) to
the complete exclusion of all others. Italianism has become less
popular with the advent of regionalism (federalism) in Italy.
Nowadays, Italianists are most often encountered in extremely
reactionary right-wing (Neo-Fascist) circles; the movement discourages
the use of languages other than Italian even in traditionally nonItalian-speaking territories such as South Tirol (German), Aosta
(French) and Trieste (Slovenian). Fascism's Italianist laws prohibited
the study of English and French, and strictly regulated public worship
by Protestants and Jews. In a broader (non-political) humanistic and
positive cultural context, Italianism refers to an affinity for Italy,
Italians and Italian culture.
Italic - pertaining to the Italian peninsula, its ancient peoples and
the ancient languages related to Latin, particularly Oscan and
Umbruian. More generally, refers to Italian peoples generally, but not
to be confused with "Italy," a nation state which was established in
the 1860s.
Italy - modern nation (Italian Republic) which includes the Italian
peninsula and the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. (In historical
references the term is often used to describe the Italian peninsula as
opposed to the two large island regions, but today's Sicilians are
Italian.) Italy has existed as a united country only since 1860,
before which time the peoples of this region identified themselves as
Milanese, Piedmontese, Sardinians, Venetians, Sicilians, etc.
Magna Graecia - Megara Hellas (Greater Greece); Italian
colonized by ancient Greeks, including Sicily and most
peninsula south of the Etruscan regions around Rome.

regions
of the

Mediterranean - relating to the Mediterranean Sea and the land masses

touching it; the peoples of this region.
Moors - residual medieval Arab population of northern Africa; also
Saracens.
(Moor
is
favored
in
describing
Arabs
of
medieval
northwestern Africa who invaded the Iberian peninsula.)
multicultural - relating to, or constituting, several cultural or
ethnic groups. (Norman Sicily is said to be multicultural because
during this era various ethnic groups lived in equality.)
Nordic - most generally, refers to native inhabitants of Scandinavia,
nortwestern Europe and regions bordering the North Sea.
Nordicism - various modern sociological philosophies which emphasise
study of "Nordic" anthropology, often (but not always) as a racial

"science" based on principles no longer widely accepted. Often

characterised by its own unique definition of the term "Nordic,"
contemporary Nordicism is sometimes revisionist or racist in nature,
and particularly popular outside Nordic regions. Certain Nazi ideas of
race were, in a very broad sense, Nordicist.
Normans
residual
Norse
civilization
of
medieval
Normandy,
amalgamated with the essentially Gallic-Celtic population already
resident there. In the medieval context, the Normans were Frankish as
well as Scandinavian.
Phoenicians - seafaring semitic people
coastal areas of the Mediterranean.

of

Phoenicia

who

settled

population genetics - study of genetics applied to populations or

groups of persons, particularly allele frequencies.
Punic - pertaining to Phoenician descendants in northern
especially the Carthaginians; also the language of the
Carthaginians, based on Phoenician.
race
major
characteristics;
species.

division
of
humans
having
distinct
distinct population (as a subspecies)

Africa,
ancient

physical
within a

racial science - also racialism, pseudo-science which purports to

identify
and
explain
"racial"
differences
based
primarily
on
superficial traits (i.e. physical appearance), and various concepts
popularised in the nineteenth century and formerly considered
accurate, sometimes advancing arbitrary philosophies rooted in racism.
Nazi and Fascist concepts of race owe much to racial science.
racism - discrimination against or antagonism towards other races;
belief that there are abilities or qualities specific to each race. In
practice, racism is usually negative, as it often seeks to demonstrate
that one race is clearly superior to another.
Romans - people of Rome, the Roman Province (Italian peninsula) or
Roman citizens of the Roman Empire.
Saracens - residual medieval Arab population of northern Africa; also
Moors.
(Saracen
is
favored
in
describing
Arabs
of
medieval
northwestern and north-central Africa who invaded Sicily.)
Sicans - also Sicanians; one of the three most ancient Sicilian
peoples, inhabiting central and western regions following arrival of
Sicels and Elymians but originally present throughout Sicily. Probably
native to Sicily, descended from neolithic inhabitants; their language
apparently was not Indo-European.

Sicels - also Sikels or Siculi; one of the three most ancient Sicilian
peoples, inhabiting central and eastern Sicily from around 1100 BC.
Probably an Italic people.
Sicilian - of or pertaining to Sicily; the people of Sicily; the
language of Sicily.
Sicilianism - any of several regionalist movements and fields of study
which focus on Sicily and Sicilian ethnology (including the Sicilian
language and literature), as well as Sicilian history and culture,
usually in the wider context of Mediterranean and Italian society.
Sicilianist studies and social movements were ruthlessly suppressed
from 1860 until 1943, when the Allied liberation of Sicily spawned an
independence movement resulting in Sicilian semi-autonomy politically.
sickle-cell anemia - also sickle-cell disease; hereditary form of
anemia in which a mutated form of hemoglobin distorts red blood cells
into a crescent shape at low oxygen levels.
Siculo- - descriptive of the quality of being Sicilian, of Sicilian
origin, or being in Sicily (i.e. the Siculo-Normans of Palermo as
opposed to Anglo-Normans of London)
Swabian - relating to the German region of Swabia. Sicily's
Hohenstaufen dynasty was Swabian and brought a Germanic influence to
Sicilian society.
thalassemia - British thalassaemia; hereditary hemolytic disease
caused by faulty hemoglobin synthesis, prevalent in Mediterranean,
African and Asian countries.