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Introduction

Process of Structural Design

Stage 1

Developing a general layout

Stage 2

Investigating the loads

Stage 3

Preliminary stress analysis

Stage 4

Selection of elements

Stage 5

Reanalysis

Stage 6

Drawing and detailing

Stage 1 Developing a general layout


Pu

Preliminary Plan

No

Pn Pu

Yes

Selecting the best location or adapting structure to a site that


has not been predetermined
Legal, financial, sociological, cultural, environmental aspects
Structural types, materials
Tentative estimation of cost
Usually this is done by clients and consultants with a high
order of experience, skill, general knowledge and imagination.

Pn

Types of load (I)

Stage 2 Investigating the loads


Determine the types and magnitudes of loads to be carried
by the structure
Information is generally
provided in the codes and
specifications
Specify the load conditions

and take care of exceptional


cases

Dead load
Weight of structure itself and the material permanently
attached to it.
It has the fixed location and magnitude, usually be
approximated at first and revision is needed.

Types of load (2)

Types of load (2)


Live load

Live load
Movable load the load which can be transported from one
location to another in the structure without dynamic impact.
- People, furniture, goods on a building floor (live load),
- Snow or ice load

Types of load (3)


Thermal load
Blast load

Moving load the load that moves continuously over the structure.
Sometimes it may be applied suddenly to the structure.
- Trains or cars on a bridge, wind, earthquake,
acceleration of vehicles, hydrostatic pressure on an abutment.
- In ordinary structural design it is treated as static load.
Impact load --- percentage of live load
Earthquake force --- percentage of weight of a structure

Stage 3 Preliminary stress analysis


It is performed using the principles discussed in the theory of structure
It can give the internal forces in the member and displacements at
some controlling point
When live loads are involved, one has to determine the maximum
internal forces in each member.

Stage 4 Selection of elements


Based on the results from stage 3 and design provisions of the
specification or codes, the sizes and shapes assumed in the stage 2
are checked.
Economical and adequate proportioning of members
can be achieved using a trial-and-error approach

Stage 6 Drawing and detailing


It involves contract drawings, detailing, job
specifications and calculation of final cost.
This information must be accurate to allow
construction to proceed.

Stage 5 Reanalysis
This step is required only when the sizes and shapes
of members determined in stage 4 deviate from those
assumed in the preliminary analysis such that the
accuracy of the preliminary analysis is in question.
Engineering judgment is required.

Classification of Structural Theories


Statics vs. dynamics
Plane vs. space
Linear vs. nonlinear structures
Statically determinate vs. statically
indeterminate structures
Force vs. displacement

Statics vs. Dynamics


Statics
All types of load are treated as the ones having fixed
magnitude and point of application.
It neglects the effect of inertia force
It is the main subject studied in elementary theory of
structure

Dynamics
Study the dynamic effects on structures considering the
variation of magnitude and location of load on the structure.
Typically considered cases are earthquake, wind, blast,
impact, accelerated moving load.

Dynamics

Plane vs. Space


Typically all structures are three-dimensional, i.e.,
space structure
Generally beam, trussed bridge and roof and rigid
frame buildings are treated as planar structure.
For structures the stresses between members do not
lie in a plane, they must be treated as space
structures.

Idealization of Structures

Linear vs. Nonlinear Structures


Linear structures
Y2
Frame

Y1 Frame

The material of the structure is elastic and obeys Hooks


law at all points and throughout the range of loading
considered.
The changes in the geometry are so small that they can be
neglected when the stresses are calculated.
The above conditions lead to a linear relationship between
the applied load and the resulting displacements.
Principle of superposition is valid.

X1 Frame

X2 Frame X3 Frame

-The total effect at a given point on a structure due to a number of


causes (displacement or force) acting simultaneously is equal to the
sum of the effects for the causes acting simultaneously.

Linear vs. Nonlinear Structures

Statically Determinate vs.


Statically Indeterminate Structures
If the structure can be analyzed considering the conditions
for static equilibrium alone, it is statically determinate.
A statically indeterminate
structure is solved by the
equations of static equilibrium
and the equations for the
deformation of the structure.

Nonlinear structures
The material of the structure at some
points undergoes the inelastic range
under the range of applied load.
(Plastic analysis of structures)
The material is within the elastic range,
but the geometry of the structures
changes significantly during the
application of loads. (Buckling or
stability analysis of structures)

Force vs. Displacement


Force method (flexibility method)
- The forces are treated as basic unknowns and
express the displacement in terms of the unknown
forces.

Displacement method (stiffness method)


- The displacements are treated as basic unknowns
and express the forces in terms of the unknown
displacements.

Idealization of Structures
An engineering structure is erected by connecting a number of
structural components and used to support specified loads.
To analyze an engineering structure factors such as load,
geometry, connection, material properties and support
conditions must be considered.
The process of transforming a real structure to an ideal
structure suitable for analysis is called modeling. It usually
involves assumptions which is based on experience and indepth understanding of real structural behavior.
The results obtained from the ideal structure must be
reasonably as close to the those of real structure.

Idealization (modeling)

Idealization (modeling)

Idealization (modeling)

The idealization or modeling require


both skills and experiences.

Idealization of Structures

Y1
Frame

Rigid Zone

Y1 Frame

X1 Frame

X2 Frame X3 Frame

Types of Structures Studied

Types of Structures Studied

Beam

Truss

A straight member subjected


only to transverse loads.
It is completely analyzed
when the values of bending
moment and shear force are
determined

Members connected by
frictionless pins or hinges.
The external loads are applied
at the joints.
Each member is subjected to
axial load only and is a twoforce member.
It is completely analyzed when
the values of axial force is
determined.

Types of Structures Studied


Rigid Frame
They are built of members
connected by rigid joints
capable of resisting moments.
The members are subjected
shear force, axial force and
bending moments.

Structural Elements (1)


Tie Rod
Axial-Force members,
Bracing Struts

Beam Elements

Structural Elements (2)


Steel Beam

Beam
A horizontal straight member
subjected to vertical load
Primarily designed to resist
bending moment
For short beam carrying large
loads, shear force may govern
the design.

- I section( wide flange beam) can be as long as 23 m


- Plate girder
Fabricated by using a plate for web and welding or
bolting 2 plates to its ends
Used for long span and carrying large loads
Build-up Sections

Concrete Beam
- Usually a rectangular cross section
- Use steel to resist tension and concrete to resist compression
- Can be cast-in-place or precast

Timber beam (single piece or laminated)

Structural Elements (3)


Column
Generally a vertical member and resist axial
compressive load.
If a column is subjected to both axial load and a
bending moment is called a beam-column.
Usually is of rectangular or circular cross sections
for concrete and of tubular and wide-flange cross
section for steel column.

Truss Elements

Structural Elements (4)


Trusses
Usually used for structure
requiring large span and no
concern over depth.
Consists of slender elements
usually arranged in triangles.
Loads that cause the structure to
bend are converted into tensile or
compressive forces in the members.

Structural Elements (5)

Plane Trusses
- Members lies in the same plane
- Used for bridge or roof support

Cables

Space Trusses
- Members extending in 3-D
- Suitable for derricks and towers

Suspension bridge

Cable Elements
It is flexible and carries load in tension.
It will not collapse suddenly.
External load is not acting along the axis.
It is commonly used to support bridges
and roof. For such use it has advantage
over beam and truss especially for longspan structures.
It is limited only by sag, weight and
method of anchorage.

Arches
It is the reversed shape of cable.
It must be rigid in order to maintain its shape. Thus, it has
the internal forces of moment and shear force. However,
properly designed shape can covert such internal forces into
compressive forces.

2
Fundamentals

Scalar
()

Vector ()

()

P1

P1

P1

P2

P2

P3

P1

P1

P2

P
A

M P L

moment

Py

P
Px

Equilibrium

The concept of equilibrium and equations of equilibrium


is of foremost importance in structural analysis.
A structure is said to be in equilibrium if, under the action
of external forces, it remains at rest relative to the earth.
Each part of the structure, an isolated part of the whole
structure, called a free body, must also be at rest relative
to the earth under the action of internal forces at the cut
section and of the external forces thereabout.

moment

vertical
force
vertical
force

moment

F 0,

Equations of Equilibrium

Equations of Equilibrium
The balanced force system must satisfy the following
three simultaneous equations

Planar structures
Coplanar force systems

Fx 0,
Y2
Frame
Y1
Frame

M1
F1

Fy 0,

M a 0

Fx summation of the x components

F3

M2
X1
X2
X3
Frame Frame Frame

M 0

F2

of each force in the system


Fy summation of the y components
of each force in the system
M a summation of moments about
any point a in the plane due to
each force in the system

M1
F1

F3
F2

M2

Equations of Equilibrium

Equations of Equilibrium

M a 0

Fy 0, M a 0, M b 0

Fy 0, M a 0, M b 0

M a 0, M b 0, M c 0

Fy 0,

Fx 0,

The line through points a and b is not perpendicular to


the y axis, a and b being arbitrarily chosen points and
the y axis being an arbitrarily chosen axis in the plane.

y
a

Equations of Equilibrium

Fy 0,

Fy 0

or Fy 0,

M a 0

or M a 0,

M b 0

Planar structures
Coplanar force systems

M a 0

Concurrent forces

Fx 0,

Equations of Equilibrium

Planar structures
Coplanar force systems

Fx 0,

The three arbitrarily chosen points a, b and c are not


collinear.

Fx 0,
F2

F1

F3
Imply M o 0

Fy 0,

M a 0

Parallel forces

Fy 0,

M a 0

or M a 0

M b 0

F1

F2

Imply Fx 0

Special Cases of Equilibrium


Two-force member
Two forces must be equal in
magnitude and opposite
Fa

Fb

Fa

Special Cases of Equilibrium


Three-force member
Three forces must be concurrent
at a common point O.

Fa

Fb

c
b

Fb

Fc
Fa

Fc

Fb

Supports

Supports

Linking structures to foundations

Linking structures to foundations


Roller support
Reaction acts normal to the
supporting surface
Cannot resist moment and lateral
force along the surface

roller

movable

Supports

Supports

Linking structures to foundations

Linking structures to foundations

Hinge support

Fixed support
Can resist force in any direction and
moment of force about the connecting end

Can resist a general force in any direction


Cannot resist the moment of the force
about the connecting point

cannot move
cannot rotate

Fixed
hinge

Roller

Hinge

Fix

rotatable

hinge
roller

hinge

2
3

Connections
Linking members to each other
Rigid connection
Not allow any relative movement, translation, or rotation
between members
Used in rigid frames and capable of transmitting moment,
shear force and axial force from one member to another

Connections

Connections

Linking members to each other

Hinge (pin) connection

Semi-rigid connection
Used in the steel structure between column and beam,
allowing partial rotation.
The amount of rotation depends upon the amount of
moment that the connection transmits.

Prevent the relative translation, but allow relative rotation


between members
Transmit force but not moment
Create one or more conditions on the force system, i.e. provide
additional equations of statics, called equations of condition or
construction to supplement the equations of equilibrium

M 0

Connections

Connections

Rotatable

Pin
Truss
Truss

Frame

Not
rotatable

Rigid
Frame

Connections

Member Forces

Roller connection

Truss structure

Occasionally used in steel structures to provide the


freedom to expand between members
Prevent translation only in the direction normal to the
member axis.

Pin-connected and pin-loaded members


(two-force members)
One unknown element of internal force
( the axial force F )

M 0, H 0

Member Forces

Stability and Determinacy

Members of beams and rigid frames

Stability

Internal forces are composed of three unknown elements


the normal force N
the shearing force V
the resisting moment M

a concern that whether structures


remain stable under applied loads

Determinacy

N
M1

M2

an evaluation allows one


to figure out the strategy
for establishing the
solution equations.

Stability and Determinacy

In general the structural stability and determinacy must


be judged by
the number and arrangement of the supports
the number and arrangement of the members
the connection of structures

statically
determinate

statically
indeterminate

statically
determinate

Stability and Determinacy of a


Structure with Respect to Supports
In studying the stability and determinacy of a structure with
respect to supports, the structure is treated as rigid body and we
must pay attention to the arrangement and number of supports.

Two elements of reactions


Since three equilibrium equations must be established
for the plane problems, two elements of reaction
supplied by the supports are insufficient to ensure the
stability of a rigid body.

Unknowns

R1 , R2

Equations

Fx 0, Fy 0, M a 0

Two
Two elements
elementsofofreactions
reactions

Two elements of reactions


Collinear arrangement

Parallel arrangement

R1

R2

unstable

conditionally
stable

R1

unstable

R2

conditionally
stable

At least three elements of reaction are necessary to


restrain a body in stable equilibrium.
There is no inappropriate arrangement of reaction.

Two elements of reactions


Concurrent arrangement

R1

Unknowns

R1 , R2 , R3

Equations

Fx 0, Fy 0, M a 0
R1

R3

R1
R2

R1

R2

R2

R3
R3
R2
The body will neither move horizontally or vertically nor rotate.
The system is called statically stable and determinate.

If there are more than three elements of reaction and no


inappropriate arrangement, the structure is more stable and
the number of unknown reaction is greater than the number
of equations of equilibrium. Such a system is called a
statically indeterminate with regard to support reactions.
R5

R2

R1
R3

R4

R1
R2

R2

R3

R4

R4

Degree of statical indeterminacy 5 3 2

For a monolithic rigid body, its internal force can


always be determined using equations of equilibrium
once the reactions are completely determined.

External Geometric Instability

R5

R5
R3

R1

It is important to note that the number of reaction


should be at least three is a necessary condition but not
a sufficient condition for an externally stable structure.

The instability of structure is due to the inadequacy


of arrangement of supports.

Summary
If the number of unknown elements of reaction is fewer than
three, the equations of equilibrium are generally not satisfied,
and the system is said to be statically unstable.
If the number of unknown elements of reaction is equal to three
and if no external geometric instability is involved, then the
system is statically stable and determinate.
If the number of unknown elements of reaction is greater than
three, then the system is statically indeterminate; it is statically
stable provided that no external geometric instability is involved.
The excess number n of unknown elements designates the nth
degree of statical indeterminacy. For example, in each case of
Fig. 2-13 there are five unknown elements of reaction. Thus, 53=2, which indicates a statical indeterminacy of second degree.

General Stability and Determinacy of Beams


Treat the beam as a rigid body and use the conditions
described previously to study the stability and determinacy

M 0, H 0

without internal
connections

with internal
connections
Provide at least one
additional reaction
to restore the beam
to a statically stable
state

Ra1

M 0

M 0

Ra 2

Ra1

Ra1

Statically Indeterminate Beam


Beams with the number of total unknown forces greater
than the number of static equilibrium equations.
The excess number of unknown forces is called the
degree of indeterminacy

Unknowns : 4
Equations : 3

R3

R1

Degree
R2

R4

M 0, H 0

: 1

Provide at least two additional reactions to


restore the beam to a statically stable state

Internal hinge mechanism is introduced


by applied load.

Ra1
Ra 2

An internal connection is introduced to yield an


originally stable beam.

Internal Geometric Instability

Criterion for investigating stability and determinacy

r
c

: Number of the reaction elements


: Number of equations of condition
c 1 for a hinge ;
c 2 for a roller ;
c 0 for a beam without internal connection

r c 3 Statically unstable
r c 3 Statically determinate provided that no

The instability of the structure is not because of


inadequacy of supports, but because of inadequate
arrangement of members.

geometric instability (internal and external)


is involved

r c 3 Statically indeterminate

General Stability and Determinacy of Trusses


A truss is composed of a number of members
connected at ends with frictionless pins.
The basic form of a truss is of triangular shape

General Stability and Determinacy of Trusses

The number of unknowns


is the number of bars, b,
and reactions, r.

Criterion for investigating stability and determinacy

b r 2 j Statically unstable
b r 2 j Statically determinate provided
that it is also stable

The number of equations


of equilibrium is 2j where
the j is the number of
joints.

b r 2 j Statically indeterminate
The value of r must be equal to or greater than the three required
for statical stability of supports.
There must be no inadequacy in the arrangement of supports and
bars so as to avoid both external and internal geometric instability.

M 0,
H 0

j (b r ) ? (2 j )

M 0
It is stable and determinate for both structure itself
and supports.

General Stability and Determinacy of


Rigid Frames
A frame is built of beams (girders) and columns.

Criterion for investigating stability and determinacy

b:
r:
j:
c:

Number of the beam elements


Number of the reaction elements
Number of joints
Number of equations of condition

3b r 3 j c Statically unstable
3b r 3 j c Statically determinate provided
that it is also stable
3b r 3 j c Statically indeterminate

pin

14

13

11

10

(3b r ) ? (3 j c)

General Stability and Determinacy of


Rigid Frames

Number of equations of condition ?

General Stability and Determinacy of


Rigid Frames

Unstable

External geometric instability


reactions (number, arrangement)
Internal geometric instability
members (connection, arrangement)

Stable

Determinate
Indeterminate to nth degree

Method of Superposition

Method of Superposition

Method of Superposition

Truss
Three types of trusses

Simple Truss
Starts with three members pinned at their ends
in a form of triangle and then extends from this
two new bars for each new joint.

Simple truss
Compound truss
Complex truss

new joint
two new elements

Simple Truss

Compound Truss
Two or more simple trusses that are connected together
at certain joints by three links neither parallel nor
concurrent or by equivalent of this type of connection

Complex Truss
Trusses that can not be classified as
simple or compound.

Analysis of Statically Determinate Truss

Simple

Compound

Complex

Simple

Compound

Complex

Analysis of Statically Determinate Truss


Method of section

Method of joint
M d 0 Ra 12 kips

Fy 0 Rd 12 kips
Ra

M c 0
S BC 16 kips

2
Rd

M B 0
Sbc 16 kips

Fy 0
VBc 0
S Bc 0

Find the forces in chord members cd and CD and in the


diagonal Cd

M c 0
Scd

150 50
250 kips
30

M d 0
150 75
341 kips
33

Ra

H CD

M i 0

SCD 341

Ra 150 kips

A compound truss consisting of two simple trusses


connected by three bars, BC, EF, and GH.

M o 0
VCd

25.2
344 kips
25

150 200
109 kips
275

SCd 109

7.8
142 kips
6

First, find the reactions: H A 120 kN, H E =120 kN, VE 90 kN

M C 0
S AF

Fy 0

M F 0

120 3
30 kN
12

SCD

120 3
30 kN
12

SCD S AF 30 kN

Method of Substitute Member

2
2

This is a method for solving the complex truss whose


support reactions can be determined immediately, but
the member forces can not be solved further.
3
3

3
3

Method of Substitute Member


Step 1

Method of Substitute Member


Step 2

Determine which member is to be substituted. It is


important that the new arrangement of the members
must make the structure stable.

Analyze the truss under the given loading to obtain


the member forces

Method of Substitute Member


Step 3-1
At two ends of the removed
member, apply two equal but
opposite unknown forces
denoted as, for example, X, and
then analyze the truss without
considering the applied force.
This unknown force is actually
the member force of removed
member under the applied load.
The member force of the
member at the new location is the
sum of step 2 and step 3 which
must be zero since the member
does not exist originally and the
value of X can be obtained.

Method of Substitute Member


Step 3-2
However, to make the
analysis simple usually the
unit member force is applied

1 X
1 X
Si Si i X
AC X 0
S AC S AC
S
X AC

AC

S AC

S DB
1 X

1 X

DB X

S DB

1 X

1 X
X 8.569

Member
AB
BC
CD
DE
EF
FA
AC
BE
CF

Si

i X

Si Si i X

S AC

AC

AC X

AC X 0
S AC

Notes for Complex Truss


Complex trusses may often be arranged so as to be
geometrically unstable. However, it is not always possible to
see a critical form just by inspection. Detection is based on
the principle that, if the analysis for the truss yields a unique
solution, then the truss is stable and statically determinate; on
the other hand, if the analysis fails to yield a unique solution,
the truss has a critical form.
The method just described is practical for complex trusses
with only a few members when it is easy to determine which
member is to be substituted. A more practical method,
applicable to all trusses, is the matrix analysis based on the
method of joints described in the next section.

Si

i X

Si Si i X

Matrix Analysis of
Statically Determinate Trusses
This method consists of the following steps
Write all the equations of equilibrium for all the
joints.
Arrange the unknown forces as a vector
Express the equations of equilibrium in terms of
matrix form
Solve the problem using Gauss elimination

()

( )

AQ R

AQ R

Q A1 R
If the determinant of
matrix A is zero, then
the truss is unstable.

Q A1 R bR

Q b R (Force transformation equation)


b : force transfer matrix

H A 1 0 0 0 0.36 0.48 0
V 0 1 0 0 0.48 0.64 0
A

H B 0 0 1 0 0.64 0.48 0

VB 0 0 0 1 0.48 0.36 0
Sa 0 0 0 0
0.6
0.8 0

0.6 10
Sb 0 0 0 0 0.8

Description of Bridge Truss


Q A1 R bR

H A 1 0 0 0 0.36 0.48 0
V 0 1 0 0 0.48 0.64 0
A

H B 0 0 1 0 0.64 0.48 0

VB 0 0 0 1 0.48 0.36 0
Sa 0 0 0 0
0.6
0.8 0

0.6 10
Sb 0 0 0 0 0.8

Description of Bridge Truss

Types of Trusses

Types of Trusses

The Forth Rail Bridge Scotland (1889)

Greater New Orleans Bridge USA (1984)

New York Bay Bridge USA (1931)

()
()

Sydney Harbor Bridge Australia (1932)

(Vierendeel)

(Truss)

Tacoma Bridge
Seattle, USA (1940)

Reconstruction

Analysis of Statically Determinate


Rigid Frames
In the analysis, the support reactions have to be
determined first.
Using the equation of equilibrium and the freebody diagram, one can obtain the internal forces:
axial force, shear force and bending moment.
The axial force, shear force and bending moment
diagrams can then be plotted along the centroidal
axis.

To plot the bending moment


diagram the positive side is
on the exterior side of the
frame.

Load
3
5
4

Shear

Moment

28 3
0.96
10 5

28 4
1.28
10 5

Axial force

Approximate Method for Statically


Indeterminate Rigid Frames

Approximate Method for


Statically Indeterminate Rigid Frames
under Uniform Vertical Loads

For statically indeterminate rigid


frame, assumptions have to be
made in order to render the
problem equivalent to a statically
determinate problem
The assumptions are based on
experience and knowledge of
more exact analyses.
The approximate analysis is
useful for preliminary design and
cost estimation.

Approximate Method for


Statically Indeterminate Rigid Frames
under Uniform Vertical Loads
The axial force in each girder is
small and can be neglect.
A point of inflection (zero moment)
occurs in each girder at a point onetenth of the span length from the
left end of the girder.
A point of inflection (zero moment)
occurs in each girder at a point onetenth of the span length from the
right end of the girder

Approximate Method for Statically


Indeterminate Rigid Frames under Lateral
Concentrated Loads---Cantilever Method

Approximate Method for Statically


Indeterminate Rigid Frames under Lateral
Concentrated Loads---Cantilever Method
A point of inflection exists at the center of each girder.
A point of inflection exists at the
center of each column.
The unit axial stresses in the columns
vary as the horizontal distances of the
columns from the center of gravity of
the bent.
All columns are identical in a story,
so the axial forces of the columns in a
story will vary in proportional to the
distances from the center gravity of
the bent.

S 0.092

General


Elastic Deformations

The calculation of elastic deformations of structures


is of great importance in the analysis, design and
construction of structures.
Cantilever method applied to erection of bridge
The allowable deflection of members specified
in the code.
Analysis of statically indeterminate structure
The deformation involves the linear displacements of
points and the rotational displacements (slopes) from
their original positions.

Methods for Calculating the Elastic


Deformation

Curvature of an Elastic Line

Conjugate Beam
Unit Load Method

Castiglianos Second Theorem

lim
s

s 0

2 1

s ds

d dx
dx ds

d dx
dx ds

d
?
dx

tan

d d 2 y

2 1 (1 tan )
dx dx 2

d
d 2 y / dx 2

dx 1 dy / dx 2

Neglect

2 1

ds 2 dx 2 dy 2
ds ( dx 2 dy 2 )1/ 2

2 1

dy / dx

d d 2 y

ds dx 2

Small deflection of beam


Elastic material
Only bending moment considered significant
Plane section remaining plane after bending

d
cd

dx

ds

dx

dx2 dy 2

1/ 2

1
dx 2 dy 2

2
dx
1

1/ 2

1/ 2

1 dy / dx 2

Curvature due to Bending

d 2 y / dx 2
d d dx

ds dx ds 1 dy / dx 2 3 / 2

dx
?
ds

d dx
dx ds

d
d2y
tan
dx
dx 2

dy
dx

cd ds
d

ds Ec

cd

d M

ds EI
d2y

dx

ds

M
EI

E
Mc
I

Curvature due to Bending

Conjugate Beam

d2y

d y

cd

2
EI
dx

dx 2

Actual Beam

EI
dx 2

cd

d2y
dx 2

M
EI

Conjugate Beam

M
dx
EI
M
dx
EI
dy
Elastic load w

dx
M
y dx
dxdx
EI
d

d
M

dx
EI

Deflection is small.

d2y

cd

M
EI

dy
tan
dx

cd

d 2M
dx 2

dV wdx
V wdx

M
dx
EI

dM
V
dx
M V dx wdxdx

M
dxdx
EI

The beam which has the same length as real beam and is subjected
to elastic load is called conjugate beam.

Conjugate Beam
The slope of a given section of a loaded beam (actual beam)
equals the shear in the corresponding section of the conjugate
beam subjected to the elastic load.

V
The deflection of a given section of a loaded beam (actual
beam) equals the bending moment in the corresponding section
of the conjugate beam subjected to the elastic load.

y M

Units for Conjugate Beams

Actual Beam

w
Elastic Load

M
k ft
1

k
EI
ft 4 ft
2
ft

V wdx 1 ( )
M V dx ft

( y)

Conjugate Beam

Sign Convention for Conjugate Beams

In order to make the above-stated identities possible,


the support conditions of actual beam must be modified.

X
Y

(down

(clockwise

Elastic Load

w()

M
()
EI

Fixed end

V () ()

Simple end

M () y ()

Interior connection

Free end
Simple end
Interior support

Actual Beam
Subjected to Applied Load

Hinge

V 0

y 0

M 0

V 0

y 0

M 0

Actual Beam
Subjected to Applied Load

hinge

pin connection

Conjugate Beam
Subjected to Elastic Load

Hinge

Conjugate Beam
Subjected to Elastic Load

0
y 0

M 0

V 0

y 0

M 0

0
y 0

V 0

V 0

M 0

pin connection

pin connection

Actual Beam
Subjected to Applied Load

Conjugate Beam
Subjected to Elastic Load

V 0

y 0

M 0

0
y 0

V 0
M 0

Find, by the conjugate beam method, the vertical deflection at


the free end c of the cantilever beam. Assume constant EI.

Find A , C , and C for the loaded beam by the conjugate


beam method. Assume constant EI.

VA
A

Pab( b)
(clockwise)
6 EI

VC
C

Mc

Pab( b) Pab a


6 EI
EI 2
Pab(b a )
3EI
(clockwise if b>a)

Mc

wk
k

6 EI
4

(down

M c c

Pa b( a ) Pab a a Pa 2b 2


6 EI
EI 2 3 3EI
2

Use the conjugate beam method to determine the deflection


2
and rotation at point b. E 20,000 kN/cm

I1

(down

EI 2

I2
EI1
Mb

180 6 4 2,160

1.8 cm
2 EI1
EI1

Vb left

b left

Vb right

b right

(down

180 6 540

0.0045 rad (clockwise)


EI1
2 EI1

270 360 135

0.0015 rad
EI 2 EI1 EI 2

(counterclockwise)

Determine the maximum deflection of the beam.


E 200 GPa, I 60 106 mm 4

81
EI

The relative rotation between the left and right sides of b is the
reaction at support b of the conjugate beam.

Actual

0 ymax

Conjugate

V 0 M max

27
EI

V 0

(b )left (b ) right (Vb )left (Vb ) right Rb

900 135

0.006 rad
EI1 EI 2

Fy 0 x 6.71 m
M A 0 M 0.0168 m

External Work = Internal Work

P
L

63
EI

Conservation of Energy

Work
P

45
EI

Total work done by F


dW Fds

Total work performed by the applied load during this period

P
1
W Fds s ds P
0
0
2

External Work : WE
(Potential Energy)

1
Pb
2

Conservation of Energy

Conservation of Energy

External Work = Internal Work


Internal work for a beam
M2
1
ds
dWI Md
2 EI
2

(ds dx )
d M

ds EI

M
d
ds
EI

WI

M2
dx
2 EI

M2
dx
2 EI

Internal Work (Strain Energy)


S

L
S
dL
E
A
dx

L
dL

Sdx
EA

Internal Work

External Work
WE

1
P b
2

( Px ) 2
M2
dx
dx
0 2 EI
0 2 EI

WI

P 2 3
6 EI

M Px

WE WI

P 3
b
3EI

Additional Work

Internal work for a truss


L

S2
1
dx
S dL
2 EA
2
L S2
S2L
WI
dx
0 2 EA
2 EA

dWI

P
L

P
L

Beam

Truss

M2
0 2 EI dx

S2
2 EAL

Further deflection occurs, caused by an agent other than P

Additional Work

W P

Method of Virtual Force


(Unit Load Method)

Method of Virtual Force


(Unit Load Method)
P1

P2

S
dL

WE WI
1
1
1
P11 P2 2 S dL
2
2
2

WE :
1
1
(1)( ) u dL1
2
2

Unit Load Method

Unit Load Method


Actual

Virtual

WI :

1
1
1
(1)( ) P11 P2 2 1
2
2
2
1
1
u dL1 S dL u dL
2
2

Displacement

Unit virtual load

actual small compatible deformation system

u dL

virtual force system in equilibrium

WE :
WI :

1
1
1
(1)( ) P11 P2 2 1
2
2
2
1
1
u dL1 S dL u dL
2
2

1 u dL

Rotation

Unit virtual couple


actual small compatible deformation system

u dL

virtual force system in equilibrium

Method of Virtual Force


(Complementary virtual work)
The virtual (or imagined) force system in equilibrium
is acting on the structure when the structure is
subjected to a set of actual (or real) deformation.

Unit Load Method

actual small compatible deformation system

u dL

virtual force system in equilibrium

P1

Actual

The deformation system consists of a set small,


compatible deformation.

P2

The principle of virtual work applies to all structure


irrespective of whether the material behaves linearly
or nonlinearly.

Find the deflection and slope at the free end of a cantilever beam
subjected to a uniform load.

My
dx
dx
E
EI
my
u dA
dA
I
my My
1
dA
dx
I
EI

dL dx

Virtual

m 1

Mmdx
EI

A y

dA

Mm
dx
EI

Find A , C , and C of the loaded beam. Assume constant EI .

m1
M

wx
2

m1 x

m2 1

( wx 2 / 2)( x )
Mm1
w 4
dx
dx
0
8EI
EI
EI

(down)

( wx 2 / 2)( 1)
Mm2
w3
dx
dx
0
6 EI
EI
EI

(clockwise)

A
M

m2

Section Origin Limit

m1 ( A )

m3

m2 (C )

m3 (C )

Section Origin Limit

m1 ( A )

m2 (C )

m3 (C )

a ( Pbx / l ) 1 ( x / l )
b ( Pax / l )( x / l )
Mm1
dx
dx
0 EI dx 0
0
EI
EI

1 Pa 2 b Pa3b Pab3 Pab


2a 2 2b 2 Pab(l b)

3a

2
2
EI 2l
l
l
6 EIl
3l
3l 6 EIl

Find the deflection at the center of the beam. Use E=30,000 kips/in2

I2
M

a ( Pbx / l )(bx / l )

b ( Pax / l )( x / l )

dx

EI

dx

b ( Pax / l )( ax / l )

EI

1 Pa b
Pa b

EI 3l 2
3l 2
3 2

2 3

EI

Pa b

3EIl

2 2

m2 (C )

m3 (C )

If a = b = l/2, then
Pl 2
16 EI

C 0
dx

Pl 3
48 EI

Check the units


E 1 C

dx

EI

1 Pa3b Pab3 Pab(b a)

3EIl
EI 3l 2
3l 2

I1

a ( Pbx / l )( x / l )

a Mm
b Mm
Mm

dx
dx
0 EI
0 EI
0 EI dx
l

m1 ( A )

Section Origin Limit

Mm
dx
I

kips
ft-kips ft-kips ft
30, 000
(1 kips)(C ) 9.44
2
in.4 in.2
in.

Thus
C

E C

1 10
Mm
1 10 5(10 x)2
x

dx 2
(5 x) dx
dx 9.44

0 I
0
1500 0
2
2
1000

9.44 ft 3
30, 000 in.2

(9.44)(1, 728)
in. 0.544 in.
30, 000

(down)

Determine the horizontal, vertical, and rotational deflection


components at end a of the rigid frame. Assume that all members
have the same value of EI.

horizontal

vertical

rotational

m1

m2

m3

horizontal

vertical

rotational

m1

m2

m3

m1

m2

m3

Mm
Mm
Mm
Mm

dx
dx
dx
ab
bc
cd
EI
EI
EI
EI

m1 (1 )

m2 ( 2 )

m3(3 )

11 = horizontal deflection at a due to a unit horizontal force at a


21 = vertical deflection at a due to a unit horizontal force at a
31 = rotational displacement at a due to a unit horizontal force at a
horizontal

vertical

rotational

m1

m2

m3

M
Mm1

11

31

21

Subjected to a unit horizontal force at a


(m1 ) 2
mm
11
dx; 21 1 2 dx; 31
F EI
F EI

m1m3
dx
EI

12 = horizontal deflection at a due to a unit vertical force at a


22 = vertical deflection at a due to a unit vertical force at a

13 = horizontal deflection at a due to a unit couple at a


23 = vertical deflection at a due to a unit couple at a

32 = rotational displacement at a due to a unit vertical force at a

33 = rotational displacement at a due to a unit couple at a

horizontal

vertical

rotational

m1

m2

m3

M Mm2

12

22

Subjected to a unit vertical force at a


(m2 ) 2
mm
12 1 2 dx; 22
dx; 32
F EI
F EI

vertical

rotational

m1

m2

m3

MM
m3

13

32
m2 m3
F EI dx

horizontal

33

23

Subjected to a unit couple at a


mm
m m
13 1 3 dx; 23 2 3 dx; 33
F EI
F EI

(m3 ) 2
F EI dx

Unit Load Method for Trusses


actual small compatible deformation system

u dL

virtual force system in equilibrium

dL

symmetry

S
L
EA

SuL

EA
1

Unit Load Method for Trusses


1

Find the vertical deflection of joint b of the loaded truss. Assume


that L(ft)/A(in.2)=1 and that E=30,000 kips/in.2 for all members

SuL

EA

SuL

EA
1

Matrix form

u1 u2

L1
EA
1

um

L2
EA2

S1

S2

Sm
Lm
EAm

Actual

Virtual

Find the absolute deflection of joint b. Assume that L(ft)/A(in.2)=1


and that E=30,000 kips/in.2 for all members.
(36)(1)
SuL
h

30, 000
EA ab
0.0012 ft (right)

v 0.00673 ft (down)

S
v

SuL 1
SuL
202
0.00673 ft (down)

EA E
A
30, 000

( v ) 2 ( h ) 2 0.00648 ft

Actual

Virtual

u
1

Find the rotation of member bc.

bc

Virtual

Actual

r
Lbc

1 1

Working formula for finding deflection


due to temperature change

u dL

dL tL
1

u tL

where = coefficient of linear thermal expansion


t = temperature rise in degrees

SuL

EA

SuL

EA
Lbc

SuL
80
1
A

(rad)
(24)(30, 000)
9, 000
Lbc E

Find the vertical deflection at joint b resulting from a rise in temperature


of 50oF in the top chords BC and CD. =0.0000065 in./in./1oF.

Actual

b
b

Virtual

b 1
u t L

t L (0.0000065)(50)(24) 0.0078
3
b 2 (0.0078) 0.00585 ft
8

Castiglianos Second Theorem


External Work WE = Internal Work WI
(internal strain energy)
The external work is a function of the external loads.
WI WE f ( P1 , P2 , P3 ,..., Pn )
Pi is increased by a differential amount dPi while the internal
work is increased.
WI
WI dWI WI
dPi
Pi

Pi
dPi

P1

dPi

P1

d i

Pn

n
1
WI Pi i
2

WI

1
dPi d i
2

Castiglianos Second Theorem

Pi dPi

The external work is a function of the external loads.

d i i

WI WE f ( P1 , P2 , P3 ,..., Pn )

Pn

dPi
d i

others

Pj
1
1
dPi d i dPi i Pj j
2
2
1
dPi i Pj j dPi i WI
2

Pi

Pi is increased by a differential amount dPi while the internal


work is increased.
WI
WI dWI WI
dPi
WI
Pi
i
Pi
WI i dPi

Castiglianos Second Theorem


i

W
P

The displacement of i in the direction of Pi is


equal to the first partial derivative of strain energy
with respect to Pi .
It is a statement regarding the structures compatibility.
The forces must be conservative forces which do work that
is independent of the path and therefore create no energy loss.
Since the forces causing elastic responses are conservative,
this method is restricted to linear elastic behavior of the
material.

Castiglianos Second Theorem


P

WI
Pi

M M1 M 2 m1 P1 m2 P2
12
11
P1 12
P2
1 11

P1 22
P2
2 21 22 21

1 P1

11

M 1 m1 P1

21

1 P2

12

M 2 m2 P2

1
22

bending moment at any section due to a unit load in place of P1 , P2

l M (M / P1 )
l Mm1
W
l M2
dx
dx
dx 1

0
0
0
EI
EI
P1 P1 2 EI

22

W
P

Internal work for a truss


S2
2 EAL

M2
W
dx
0 2 EI

2:

m2

12

Castiglianos Second Theorem

Internal work for a beam

M M1 M 2 m1 P1 m2 P2
m ,m

21

m1

W
P

Total bending moment at any section

11

Total internal force in any bar


S S1 S2 u1 P1 u2 P2
u1 , u2 : internal force in any bar due to a unit load in place of P1 , P2

S (S / P1 ) L
Su L
W

S2L

1 1

2 EA
EA
EA
P1 P1

Unit Load Method

actual small compatible deformation system

Unit Load Method for Trusses


actual small compatible deformation system

u dL

virtual force system in equilibrium

P2

P1

My
dx
dx
E
EI
my
u dA
dA
I
my My
1
dA
dx
I
EI

dL dx

Mmdx
EI

A y

dA

u dL

virtual force system in equilibrium

dL

S
L
EA

SuL

EA
1

Mm
dx
EI

Find the vertical deflection at the free end b.

Castiglianos
Second Theorem
M (M / P )
dx
EI

Beam or
Frame

Truss

S (S / P ) L

EA

Unit Load
Method

M Px

Mm
dx
EI

SuL

EA

l M (M / P )
W
1 l M

dx
M
dx
0
P
EI
EI 0
P

M Px,

1
EI

M
x
P

( Px)( x)dx

Pl 3
3EI

(down)

Determine the vertical deflection at the free end A.


E 200 GPa, I 60 10 mm
6

E 200 GPa, I 60 106 mm 4

Determine the slope at point B.

Q0

Q3
x

l M (M / Q )
W
1

dx
0
EI
EI
Q

M 3 x

AB

M
dx
Q

BC

M
0
Q

M
x
Q

M Qx 3 x (Q 3)
A

1 l
Ql
l
( Qx)( x)dx

0.0833 m

0
EI
3EI EI

(down)

M (M / Q)
1
dx
EI
EI

0 M

M
dx
Q

5
1 5

(3 x)(0)dx 0 3(5 x )(1)dx 0.00938 rad


EI 0

(counterclockwise)

Q0
x

(Q 0)

M
1
Q

M 3(5 x ) Q 3(5 x)

Determine the vertical displacement of joint C.


E 200 GPa, A 400 mm 2

Q0
m

Mm
dx
EI

M (M / Q )
dx
EI

AB

M 3 x

m0

AB

M 3 x

BC

M 3(5 x)

m 1

BC

M 3(5 x )
+Q

M
m
Q

5
5
Q
6
2

M
0
Q
M
1
Q

Member

AB

AC

BC

S
2
Q2
3
5
5
Q
6
2
5
5
Q
6
2

S (Q 0)
2
5
2

5
2

S
Q

2
3
5

6
5

2
Q2
3

S
L
Q

5
5
Q
6
2

S (S / Q ) L
EA

10.67
-10.42
10.42

10.67 kN-m

S (S / Q ) L
EA

S
Q

Find the vertical and rotational displacements at the free end a.

SuL
EA

M Q1 x Q2

u
Q0

5
6

M
x,
Q1

1
2
3

5
6

5
6

2
3

5
6

Q1 , Q2 0

S
Q

M
1
Q2

M (M / Q1 )
dx
EI

( wx3 / 6l )( x)
wl 4
dx
0
EI
30 EI

l ( wx 3 / 6l )( 1)
M (M / Q2 )
wl 3
dx
dx
a
0
0
EI
EI
24 EI
l

Find, by Castiglianos theorem, the horizontal displacement 1


and the rotational displacement 2 at support c. Consider the
bending effect only.

Q1 , Q2 0

Q1 , Q2 0

wx3
6l

(down)

Q0

S (S / Q ) L
EA
36

30, 000

Find the horizontal


displacement at D.

0.0012 (right)

Maxwells Law of Reciprocal Deflection


21

M1m2
dx
EI

M 2 m1
dx
0 EI

12

M1 Pm1 and

M 2 Pm2

l ( Pm2 ) m1
l M 2 m1
( Pm1 ) m2
dx
dx
dx 12
0
0
0 EI
EI
EI

21

Maxwells Law of Reciprocal Deflection


l ( Pm2 ) m1
l M 2 m1
( Pm1 )m2
dx
dx
dx 12
0
0
0 EI
EI
EI

21

The special case:


When P 1

21 12

where
21 = deflection at point 2 resulting from a unit load applied at point 1
12 = deflection at point 1 along the original line of action due to a unit
load applied at point 2 along the original deflection 21

Maxwells Law of Reciprocal Deflection


The reciprocity extends also to rotational displacement.
For the case of two unit couples applied separately to
any two points of a structure, the law is the rotational
deflection at point 2 on a structure caused by a unit
couple at point 1 is equal to the rotational deflection at
point 1 due to a unit couple at point 2.

21 12
where

21 = rotation at point 2 resulting from a unit couple applied at point 1


12 = rotation at point 1 due to a unit couple applied at point 2

Determine the horizontal displacement at joint I of the truss due to


a downward vertical load of 15 kips at (a) joint E and (b) joint F.
E 30 103 ksi

Maxwells Law of Reciprocal Deflection


Because of virtual force we also observe that the rotational
deflection at point 2 due to a unit force at point 1 is equal
in magnitude to the linear deflection at point 1 along the
original force due to a unit couple at point 2.

21 12
Maxwells law is perfectly general and is applicable to
any type of structure as long as the material of the
structural is elastic and follows Hookes law.

S
L
A

Su
L
A

IE EI
IF FI
15 kips
Hint: compute the deflection at two points of a truss for one position of
loading instead of the deflection at one point of the truss for two different
position of loading.

vei vie 0.012

v fi vif 0.0534

Su
L
A

Betti Law

Betti Law

For a linearly elastic structure,


the virtual work done by a P
system of forces and couples
acting through the deformation
caused by a Q system of forces
and couples is equal to the
virtual work of the Q system
acting through the deformation
due to the P system.

Wve P1Q1 P2 Q 2 Pn Qn
n

Pi Qi

MP

i 1

Wve Wvi
n

Pi Qi 0

MQ

MQM P
EI

j 1
n

Pi Qi 0

M PMQ
EI

i 1

MQ

dx

ji

i 1

j 1

When
n m 1 and P1 Q1 1

dx

j 1

Pi Qi Q j Pj

dx

Pi Qi Q j Pj
i 1

EI

Betti Law

Q j Pj 0
MP

M PMQ

i 1

Betti Law
m

ij

ij ji

Maxwells Law

General
A statically indeterminate structure has more
unknown forces including reactions than the
number of equilibrium equations.

5
Method of
Consistent Deformation

R1
R2

R3

R4

R5

Indeterminate to the second degree

General

General

A statically indeterminate structure can be made


determinate and stable, called primary or released
structure, by removing the extra forces (or restraints)
called redundant forces or statical redundant.

R1
R2

X1

X2

Primary or released structure


X1 , X 2 : redundant forces or statical redundant

R3

The number of redundants is called the degree of


redundancy.
The choice of redundant forces is arbitrary, but must
be chosen such that the primary structure is stable.

X1

X2

1 1 11 12

2 2 21 22

X1

X2

1 1 11 12

2 2 21 22

Flexibility coefficient

ij = displacement at i due to a

unit at j, all other points being


assumed unloaded

X1 or 1 X1
11

or 11 X1

12

or 12 X 2

22

21

11

or 22 X 2

12

21
or 21 X1
X 2 or 1 X 2

22

The conditional equations or geometric consistence


of the original structure at redundant points are called
compatibility equations.

1 0

11

or 11 X1

X 2 or 1 X 2

X1 or 1 X1

1
21
or 21 X1

2 0

The compatibility equations can be obtained from the


primary structure by superposition of the deformations
caused separately by the original loads and the
redundants.
1 11 X1 12 X 2 0

2 21 X1 22 X 2 0

12

or 12 X 2

22

or 22 X 2

1 0

2 0

1 11 12 0

2 21 22 0
1 11 X1 12 X 2 0

2 21 X1 22 X 2 0

The number of compatibility equations is the same as


that of redundants.

Number 2
The method which releases the structure to a primary
structure first and then solve the redundants by using
the compatibility equations is called the method of
consistent deformations.

Procedure of Method of
Consistent Deformation

Method of Consistent Deformation


For the case of

Establish the primary structure

Set up compatibility equations

1 0

X1

X2

2 0

Compute the deformation of


primary structure and that due to
unit load at each redundant point
and sum them up using principle
of superposition as follows.

1 11 X1 12 X 2 0

2 21 X1 22 X 2 0

X1 or 1 X1

11

or 11 X1

21

or 21 X1

X 2 or 1 X 2
12

or 12 X 2

22
or 22 X 2

In a general form including prescribed displacements,


such as support settlement, elastic supports
For the case of n degree of indetermancy
1 11 X1 12 X 2 1n X n 1
X X X
2
21 1
22 2
2n n
2

n n1 X1 n 2 X 2 nn X n n

1 11 12

2 21 22


n n1 n 2

degree of indetermancy

1 11 X1 12 X 2 1n X n 0
X X X 0
2
21 1
22 2
2n n

n n1 X1 n 2 X 2 nn X n 0
1 11 12 1n X 1 0


2 21 22 2 n X 2 0





n n1 n 2 nn X n 0

F X 0

X (F ) 1

F : structure flexibility

Analyze the propped beam, which is statically indeterminate to the first


degree. Assume constant EI.

Compatibility equation
b b bb X b 0
wl 4 l 3

Xb 0
8 EI 3EI

1n X 1 1
2 n X 2 2

nn X n n

F X

X (F ) 1 ( )

Xb

bb X b

1 X b

Xb

wl 4
8 EI

bb

l3
3EI

3wl
8

3wl
Xb
8

Fy 0
Ma

3
5
Va wl wl wl
8
8

Xb

Va

Ma 0
1
3
1
M a wl 2 wl 2 wl 2
2
8
8

Moment diagram

c 0

Compatibility equation
c c cc M c 0

M c c

wlx / 4 ( wx 2 / 2) (2 x / l )dx
wl 3

0
EI
12 EI

cc

Ma

1
M a wl 2
8

a
1 M a

aa M a

l (2 x / l ) 2 dx
m 2 dx
4l

0 EI
0
EI
3EI

wl 3
24 EI

aa

l
3EI

Determine the reaction at b (the spring force), denoted by X b . The


spring flexibility is f (displacement per unit force).

w
b

Xb

X b k b

1 2
wl
16

Mmdx
EI

wl 3 l

Ma 0
24 EI 3EI

wl
4l
Mc
0
12 EI
3EI

1 M c cc M c

a 0

Mc

Compatibility equation
a a aa M a 0

b f X b
w

bb X b
1 X b

b b bb X b f X b

Determine the reaction at b (the spring force), denoted by X b . The


spring flexibility is f (displacement per unit force).

b bb X b f X b

wl 4 l 3

8 EI 3EI

Xb f Xb 0

3
1
X b wl

8 1 (3 f EI / l 3 )

b
b

wl 4
8EI

bb

l3
3EI

3
If f 0, X b wl
8

bb X b
1 X b

If f , X b 0

If a beam is provided with n redundant elastic supports having


spring flexibilities f1 , f 2 , , f n , respectively, then the general
compatibility equation is

12
1 11 f1

22 f 2
2 21

n2
n n1
1 11 12

2 21 22

n n1 n 2

1n X 1 1
2 n X 2 2

nn X n n

Find the reactions for the beam with two sections.

b b bb Rb 0
Rb

1 Rb

bb Rb

Mmb
(m )2
dx Rb b dx 0
EI
EI

Mmb
dx
EI
Rb
(mb )2
EI dx

Ra , Rd

1n
2n

X 1 0
X 0
2

nn f n X n 0

1 Rb

bb Rb

Fixed-end moments of uniform beam subjected to a single


concentrated load.

Fixed-End Moments
The end moments for a fixed-end beam is called
fixed-end moment.
Fixed-end moments are important in slope-deflection
method and moment-distribution method.

MA
MA

MB

MB

P
MB

MA

MB
MA

MB

MA

MA
MB

Fy 0

Fixed-end moments of uniform beam subjected to


uniform load.

Pab M Al M B l

0
2 EI 2 EI 2 EI

Pab / 2 EI

M A MB

M B 0

Pab
l

M
(1)

Pab l b M Al 2l M B l l


0
2 EI 3 2 EI 3 2 EI 3

M Al
2 EI

M Bl
2 EI

(1), (2)

2M A M B

MA

Pab 2
l2

Pab Pab 2

l
l2

MB

Pa 2b
l2

(2)

Fixed-end moments of uniform beam subjected to a


concentrated moment.
MA

MB

M
wl 2

8 EI

Fy 0

2l

3

MA

wl 2 2l Ml

8 EI 3 EI

MA

1 2
M
wl
12

Ml
EI

MB

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate


Frame

Fy 0
MA

MB

M Al Mb 2 M B l Ma 2

0
2 EI 2 EIl 2 EI 2 EIl

MB
2

Mb
2 EIl

MA MB

M B 0

M (a 2 b2 )

Find the reactions components at the fixed end a, and plot the moment
diagram for the entire frame. Assume the same EI for all member.
(1)

l2

2
M Al 2l Mb 2b M B l l
2 EI 3 2 EIl 3 2 EI 3

Ma
2 EIl
M Al
2 EI

Ma 2
a

b 0
2 EIl
3

2M A M B

M Bl
2 EI

MA

Mb
l2

(2a b),

M [a 2 2b(a b)]
l

MB

Ma
l2

X3
(2)

X1
X2

(2b a)

Redundants = 3

Primary structure

1 11 12

2 21 22

3 31 32
X3

X1

5, 000 1, 667 1, 000 200 X1 0



7,500 1, 000 1,333 150 X 2 0
800 200
150
30 X 3 0

1 , 2 , 3

X2

1 X1

11 , 21, 31

12 , 22, 32
1 X 2

13 X1 0

23 X 2 0
33 X 3 0

13 , 23, 33
1 X 3

X1 1

X 2 6 kips
X 3.33 ft

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate


Frame
Apparently the computational work for method of
consistent deformation will become tedious when the
degree of redundancy for rigid frames increases.
Thus the method of consistent deformation is seldom
used for analyzing the rigid frames and instead the
slope-deflection method and the moment-distribution
method are frequently used.

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate


Trusses
The indeterminateness of truss can be due to redundant
supports or redundant bars or both.
If the indeterminacy is due to supports only, then the
approach described previously can be applied as well.
If the indeterminateness is due to bars, then
The compatibility condition is the relative axial displacement
of the two sides of the cut section caused by the combined
effect of the original loading and the redundants should be zero.
Each of the bars chosen to be redundant forces is cut and
replaced by two equal and opposite axial redundant forces
representing the internal force of the bar.

S'

uc

Bar force:
S S uc X c
1 X c

c c cc X c 0 Using virtual force

Analyze the continuous truss. Assume that E=30,000 kips/in.2 and L (ft)/A
(in.2) =1 for all members.

Redundants = 1

c X c
Primary structure

c c cc X c 0

cc X c 1 X c

Analyze the truss. Assume that E=30,000 kips/in.2 and L (ft)/A (in.2) =1 for
all member.

S uc L
uc2 L

0
X
AE
c
AE
S uc L
AE
Xc
uc2 L
AE

122

3.25
37.5 kips

Primary structure
Redundants = 2

X2

X1

X2

2
X1

21 X1
u1 X1

S'
1 X 2

1 X1

11 X1

1 1 11 12 X1 0


2 2 21 22 X 2 0

or

22 X 2

u2 X 2

u12 L
S ' u1 L

AE AE

S ' u2 L u1u2 L

AE AE

12 X 2

u1u2 L

AE X1 0

2 X
u2 L 2 0

AE

u12 L
S u1L
AE AE


S u2 L u1u2 L
AE

AE

u1u2 L

AE X1 0

u22 L X 2 0

AE

3

5 X 1 0

X
0
4 2

X1 25.6

kips
X 2 10.6

Analyze the truss subject to a rise of 50F at the top chords BC and CD.
Assume =0.0000065 in./in./ 1F, E=30,000 kips/in.2 and L (ft)/A (in.2) =1
for all members.

X2

X1

S'

4
96


27.2 3
5

1 X1

1 X 2

1 X1

u1 X1
S S u1 X1 u2 X 2

u2 X 2

Primary structure
Redundants = 1

1 1 11 X1 0

u2 L
By virtual force, u1 ( t L) X1 1 0
AE

1 X1

u12 L
u
(

L
)

X
0
1
1
AE
4
X1 0
0.00468
30, 000
X1 35.1 kips
(tension)

Each bar force

S u1 X1

Castiglianos Compatibility Equation


W
W
W


0
X1 X 2
X n
The redundants must have such value that the total strain energy
of the structure is a minimum consistent with equilibrium.
It is sometimes referred to as the theorem of least work.
It cannot be used to determine stresses caused by temperature
change, support movements, fabrication errors etc.

Castiglianos Compatibility Equation


(Method of Least Work)
It applies only to structure with constant temperature,
unyielding supports, and linearly elastic material.
The expressions that the displacement at each of n redundants
equals zero for a loaded structure with unyielding supports
may be set up by using Castigliglinaos theorem as
W
X
1
1
0


2
0
X 2


n
0
W
X
n

X2

X1

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate


Beams and Rigid Frames
Total strain energy

M2
dx
2 EI

Take first derivative with respect to any redundant X i


M (M / X i )
W
dx 0

EI
X i

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate


Beams and Rigid Frames
For a statically indeterminate beam or rigid frame
with n redundants
W M (M / X ) dx
1
X

EI
1
0
W M (M / X 2 ) dx


0
EI
X 2



0
W M (M / X n ) dx
X

EI
n

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate


Trusses

Analysis of Statically Indeterminate


Trusses
Total strain energy
W

S2L
2 EA

Take first derivative with respect to any redundant X i


S (S / X i ) L
W

0
EA
X i

Derive a working formula for solving the end reactions at A for the fixed-end
beam under general loading.

Redundants = 2

For a statically indeterminate truss with n redundants


W S (S / X ) L
1
X

EA
1
0
W S (S / X 2 ) L


0
EA
X 2



0
W S (S / X n ) L
X

EA
n

MA

VA

Apply the method of least work

Primary
structure
l M (M / M A ) dx
W

0
0
M A
EI
l M (M / V A ) dx
W

0
0
V A
EI

MA

MA

M M M A VA x

VA

VA

M M M A VA x
where
M Bending moment resulting from the original loads

M ( x) M ( x)

M
1 and
M A

M ( x) M A

l M (M / M A ) dx
W

0
0
M A
EI
l M (M / V A ) dx
W

0
V A 0
EI

M ( x) VA x

MA

Me

0 xa
M M A VA x
l
l

Mdx
0
EI
l Mxdx
0 EI 0
l

0 Mdx 0
l

0 Mxdx 0

Analyze the frame by taking the internal shear, thrust, and moment in the
mid-span section of the beam as redundants.

VA

0 Mdx

M
x
VA

a
l

Me

He

a xl
M M A VA x P( x a )

0
a

Me

Ve 0

He

Symmetrical

( M A V A x )dx [ M A V A x P ( x a )]dx 0

0 Mxdx 0 (M A VA x) xdx a [ M A VA x P( x a)]xdx 0

Apply the method of least work

Similarly
V l 2 Pb 2
M Al A
0
2
2
M Al 2 V Al 3 Pb 2 (a 2l )

0
2
3
6

MA
VA

Pab 2
l2

Pb (l 2a )
2

MB
VB

Pa 2 b
l2

Pa (l 2b)
2

l M (M / M e ) dx
W

0
0
M e
EI
l M (M / H e ) dx
W

0
0
H e
EI

Me
He

Symmetrical

2
EI

5
(1.2) x 2
M e
2
0

10
(1)dx M e H e x 15 (1) dx 0

2 10
M e H e x 15 ( x)dx 0
EI 0

3M e 10 H e 35 0

Apply the method of least work

3M e 20 H e 45 0
H e 1.0 kip

H a 1.0 kip

M e 8.33 ft-kips

M a 3.33 ft-kips

W
X
1 0
W

0
X 2

0
W
X
24

Analyze the truss. Assume that E=30,000 kips/in.2 and L (ft)/A (in.2)=1
for all members.

X1

X2

Apply least work


S (S / X1 ) L
0
EA
S (S / X 2 ) L
0

EA

S (S / X1 ) L
78 4 X1 0.64 X 2 0
EA
S (S / X 2 ) L
27.2 0.64 X1 4 X 2 0

EA

X1 21.2 kips
X 2 10.2 kips

Find the force in the rod. E=30,000 kips/in.2

Apply least work

W
0
X

6 (0.6 Xx ) 2
12 0.6 Xx 10( x 6)
X 2l1
( 0.8 X ) 2 l2
dx
dx

6
2 EA1 0 2 EI
2 EI
2 EA2
2

6 (0.6 Xx )(0.6 x )
12 0.6 Xx 10( x 6) 0.6 x
Xl
W
dx
dx
1
6
X
EA1 0
EI
EI

15 X
207.4 X 3, 024 1,944 (0.64 X )(12)

0
1 / 144
1 / 144
12 / 144

X 2 l1
2 EA1

Internal work in the rod

15 X 207.4 X 1, 080 0.64 X 0

Internal work in the beam


6 (0.6 Xx )

2 EI

dx

12

( 0.8 X )( 0.8)l2
0
EA2

0.6 Xx 10( x 6)

2 EI

dx

( 0.8 X ) l2
2 EA2
2

X 4.84 kips (tension)

The effect of the axial force of beam on the strain energy is


small and can be neglected.

Degrees of Freedom


Slope-Deflection Method

Degrees of Freedom

Six degrees of freedom for each


node of 3-D beam members

Three degrees of freedom for


each node of 2-D beam members

When a structure is loaded, specified points on it,


called nodes, will undergo displacement.
These displacements are referred to as the degrees of
freedom for the structure.
In the displacement method of analysis it is important
to specify these degrees of freedom since they become
the unknowns when the method is applied.

General
The slope-deflection method is a displacement
method for beam and rigid frame analysis.
The axial deformation of members is neglected.
The deformed configuration is defined by joint
rotations (slopes) and joint translations (deflections).
The basic unknowns are joint rotations and joint
translation subjected to the kinematic constraint that
the axial deformation of any members is zero.

General

Basic Slope-Deflection Equations

The number of displacement unknowns is usually


referred to as displacement degrees of freedom or
kinematic indeterminancy.
The unknowns are solved from equilibrium
equations that are equal in number to the unknowns.

The basis of the slope deflection method lies in slope-deflection


equations that express the end moments of each member in terms of
the end distortions of that member.

Basic Slope-Deflection Equations

A free-body diagram of a member


M ab f ( a , b , , load on span)
M ba g ( a , b , , load on span)

Basic Slope-Deflection Equations

The moment due to end rotation a while the other end b is fixed.
The moment due to end rotation b while end a is fixed.
The moment due to a relative deflection between the ends of
the member without altering the existing slopes of tangents at the
ends.
The moment caused by placing the actual loads on the span
without altering the existing end distortions.


M ab

The moment due to end rotation a while the other end b is fixed.
a

M ba

M ab

M ab

M ba

M ab

a
b

d2y

dx

M ba

M ba

M ab

EI

d4y
dx 4

d4y

M ab

M ba

dx 4

M ba

x
0

EI

The moment due to end rotation a while the other end b is fixed.

M
EI

dV
w 0
dx

F
M ba

M ab

dM
V
dx

F
M ab

The moment due to end rotation a while the other end b is fixed.

M ba

y ( x) a0 a1 x a2 x 2 a3 x3

B.C. y (0) 0, y (l ) 0, y '(0) a , y '(l ) 0


2

x
y x 1 a
l

d2y
dx 2

M
EI

x 0

I
l

(stiffness factor)

I
x
M E 4 6 a
l
l

I
4E a
M ab
l
4 EK a
M ab

2 EK a
M ba

The moment due to end rotation b while end a is fixed.

M ab

The moment due to a relative deflection between the ends of


the member without altering the existing slopes of tangents at the
ends.

M ba

2 EIb
2 EKb
l

M ba

M ab

B.C. y (0) 0, y (l ) 0, y '(0) 0, y '(l ) b



M ab


M ba

4 EIb
4 EKb
l

M ab

R
(rigid-body rotation)

M ba

B.C. y (0) 0, y (l ) 0, y '(0) R, y '(l ) R

The moment caused by placing the actual loads on the span


without altering the existing end distortions.

F
M ab
M ab
M ab
M ab M ab
F
M ba
M ba
M ba
M ba M ba

4 EI a 2 EIb 6 EI
F

M ab
2
l
l
l
2 EI a 4 EIb 6 EI
F

M ba
2
l
l
l

M ab

F
M ab

M ba

F
M ba

Let

I
K
l

R
l
F
M ab 2 EK 2 a b 3R M ab
F
M ba 2 EK a 2b 3R M ba


M ab

M ab

M ba

Use the conjugate beam method to derive the slopedeflection equations.

Clockwise is taken
as positive

M ba

M ab

M ab

M ba

M ba

F
M ab 2 EK 2 a b 3R M ab
F
M ba 2 EK a 2b 3R M ba

F
M ab
F
M ba

Step 1

Procedures of Analysis by the


Slope-Deflection Method
Identify the joint rotations and joint translations and draw
free-body diagrams for all members.
Write the slope-deflection equation for each member.
Simplify the equations with known joint rotations and
translations.
For each joint write the equation of equilibrium in terms of
the end forces of members connected at that joint.
Solve the equilibrium equations to obtain the values for
unknown joint rotations and translations.
The end forces of each member can then be obtained by
using these displacements.

20

Step 2

Step 3

F
M ab 2 EK ab b 3R M ab

To simplify the solution we may use only the relative


values for 2EI/L

I
2 E b 3R 25
20
F
M ba 2 EK ab 2b 3R M ba

I
M ba 2 E 2b 3R 25
20

I
2 E 2b 3R 25
20

I
2 E 2b c
10

I
2 E 2c b
10

2E

M cd 2 EK cd 2c 3R

M dc 2 EK cd c 3R

I
2 E 2c 3R
20

I
2 E c 3R
20

Step 3 (Continue)
Due to joint equilibrium
M joint b 0 M ba M bc 0
M joint c 0 M cb M cd 0

Due to horizontal equilibrium


(R)
M M ba
M M dc
10 ab
5 cd
20
20

M ab M ba M cd M dc 100 0

I
M cb 2 E 2c b
10
I
M cd 2 E 2c 3R
20
I
M dc 2 E c 3R
20

I
1
20

M ba 2b 3R 25
M bc 2 2b c

I
M bc 2 E 2b c
10

M bc 2 EKbc 2b c

M cb 2 EKbc 2c b

M ab b 3R 25

I
M ab 2 E b 3R 25
20

2E

I
2
10

M cb 2 2c b

M cd 2c 3R
M dc c 3R

6b 2c 3R 25 0

2b 6c 3R 0

3 3 12 R 100 0
c
b

b 1.20,

c 5.05,

R 9.30

M ab b 3R 25 54.10 ft-kips (counterclockwise)


M ba 2b 3R 25 5.30 ft-kips (counterclockwise)

M bc 2 2b c 5.30 ft-kips (clockwise)


M cb 2 2c b 17.80 ft-kips (clockwise)
M cd 2c 3R 17.80 ft-kips (counterclockwise)
M dc c 3R 22.80 ft-kips (counterclockwise)


M ab

M ab

M ba

Pin-supported end span


a

M ab

M ba

M ba

F
M ab 2 EK 2 a b 3R M ab

F
M ab
M ab
M ab
M ab M ab

M ba

F
M ba 2 EK a 2b 3R M ba

F
M ba
M ba
M ba
M ba

4 EI a 2 EIb 6 EI
F

M ab
l
l
l2
2 EI a 4 EIb 6 EI
F

M ba
l
l
l2

M ab
M ba

M ab

2 EI

F
2 a b 3 M ab
l
l

M ba

2 EI

F
a 2b 3 M ba
l
l

M ab

M ba

F
M ab
F
M ba

M ba 0

a
2

F
3R M ba

2 4 EK

3R M ba
F
M ab 2 EK 2 a a

3R M ab

EK
2
2
4

1 F
F
3EK a R ( M ab M ba ) Modified slope-deflection equation
2

Analysis of Rigid Frames Without


Joint Translation By
The Slope-Deflection Method

Analysis of Rigid Frames With


One Degree Of Freedom Of Joint
Translation By
The Slope-Deflection Method

3
1
2

sin sin(90 ) sin 90


1 2 tan 3 sin

1
2

3
sin 2 sin(1 2 ) sin 1

Analysis of Rigid Frames With


Two Degree Of Freedom Of Joint
Translation By
The Slope-Deflection Method
3
1 2
4

sin(1 2 ) sin(90 2 ) sin(90 1 )


3
1 2
4

sin(1 2 ) cos 2 cos 1

3
1 2
4

sin(1 2 ) sin(90 2 ) sin(90 1 )


3
1 2
4

sin(1 2 ) cos 2 cos 1

Concept of Influence Line

10
Influences Lines

Concept of Influence Line


In designing a structure with live load we have to
know where to place the live load so that it will
cause the maximum live stresses.
The maximum live stresses are support reactions,
the shear forces, bending moment and axial forces
depending upon the structure considered.
The position to cause maximum moment may not
cause the maximum reactions and so on.

Concept of Influence Line


MF

MF

Concept of Influence Line

Concept of Influence Line

MF

MF

RA

RA

(10 x)(1)
x
1
10
10

0 x 5

x
M F 5RK
2
x
y
2

RK

x
x
Rk (1)
10
10

RA

RK

x
2

y 5

x
2

5 x 10

x
x

M F 5R A (5) 1 5
2
10
x
y 5
2

Concept of Influence Line


An influence line is a curve whose ordinate (y value)
gives the value of the function (shear, bending
moment, reaction, bar force, etc) in a fixed element
(member section, support, bar in truss) when a unit
load is at the abscissa.
An influence line is only for a selected location of a
structure.

Use of Influence Line


It serves as a criterion in determining the maximum
stress; that is a guide for determining what portion
of the structure should be loaded in order to cause
the maximum effect on the part under consideration.
It simplified the computation.

MC

Use of Influence Line


Consider a simple beam 10 ft long subjected to the passage
of a moving uniform load of 1 kip/ft without limit in length
and a movable concentrated load of 10 kips that may be
placed at any point of the span. Determine the maximum
bending moment at the midspan section C.

MC

MC

M C P(2.5) ( wdx ) y

MC

( wdx ) y 0 wydx w0 ydx


l

(load intensity) (area of influence diagram)

Use of Influence Line


MC

Using influence line


M C (10)(2.5) (1)

(2.5)(10)
25 12.5 37.5 ft-kips
2

By conventional method of computing Mc


2

(1)(10)
10
M C (5)
25 12.5 37.5 ft-kips
8
2

Method for Construction of


Influence Line --- Basic Approach
Apply the equilibrium based on the procedure of
taking the appropriate free body as the unit load
travels along the structure.
For beam it is often convenient to construct the
reaction influence lines first and then deduce the
shear and moment influence lines.

RC

RB

M C 0
RB

RC

RB

20 x
16

(VB ) L
(VB ) L

RC 1 RB 1

M B 0 or Fy 0

20 x x 4

16
16

(VB ) R

MD

VD
RC

RC

RB

0 x 8

RB
VD
RC

RB

VD

8 x 20

VD RC
VD R B

0 x 8
MD

RB

RC

8 x 20
MD

M D 12 RC
M D 4 RB

Muller-Breslaus Principle

MB
RC

It is based on the principle of virtual work.

RB

The desired quantity is released from the structure first and considered
as the external load. Then a virtual displacement is imposed such that it
will have a unit displacement along the released force. The deformed
shape is then the influence line for the desired quantity.

0 x4

MB

M B 16 RC
RC

RB

RB

( R A )( s A ) (1)( y ) 0

MB 0

8 x 20
MB

RA
sA
1

1 sC

Let

sA 1

Muller-Breslaus Principle
1

ha hb 1

VC

y
sA

RA y

Muller-Breslaus Principle
1

RA

a b 1

MC

ha a

hb b

hb

ha a /

ha

hb b /

(VC )( sC ) (1)( y ) 0
y
VC
sC

Let

sC 1

VC y

h h
1
a b
1 sC

h a

( M C )( C ) (1)( y ) 0
MC

C 1
b
Let

C 1

MC y

ab
ab

ab

Muller-Breslaus Principle
For Statically Determinate Beam
To obtain an influence line for the reaction of any statically determinate
beam, remove the support and make a positive unit displacement of its
point of application. The deflected beam is the influence line for the
reaction.
To obtain an influence line for the shear at a section of any statically
determinate beam, cut the section and induce a unit relative transverse
sliding displacement between the portion to the left of the section and
the portion to the right of the section, keeping all other constraints (both
external and internal) intact. The deflected beam is the influence line for
the shear at section.
To obtain the influence line for the moment at a section of any statically
determinate beam, cut the section and induce a unit rotation between the
portion to the left of the section and the portion to the right of the section,
keeping all other constraints (both external and internal) intact. The
deflected beam is the influence line for the moment at the section.

Draw influence lines for RA, VD, MD, VE, and ME by


Muller-Breslaus principle.

VD

sD 1

Draw influence lines for RA, VD, MD, VE, and ME by


Muller-Breslaus principle.

RA

sA 1

Draw influence lines for RA, VD, MD, VE, and ME by


Muller-Breslaus principle.

MD

D 1

Draw influence lines for RA, VD, MD, VE, and ME by


Muller-Breslaus principle.

Draw influence lines for RA, VD, MD, VE, and ME by


Muller-Breslaus principle.

ME

VE

E 1
sE 1

Description of Bridge Truss

Description of Bridge Truss

Influence Lines for Statically


Determinate Bridge Trusses
Load transferring mechanism for bridge truss.
The load on the deck is transmitted to the stringers
The stringers then transmit the load to floor beams
which are connected to the joints of bridge trusses

Influence Lines for Statically


Determinate Bridge Trusses
Although it is always possible to obtain the ordinates to an influence line for
any element for a unit load at each point of a truss, the method may become
time consuming when dealing with a truss involving many panels without the
aid of a computer. Alternatively, we may first seek the influence lines for
support reactions since they are related in a simple manner to the unit load of
variable position. After that we can deduce the influence lines for bar forces
very quickly, as can be seen in the following example.

In the analysis the stringers are


assumed to be simply supported.
lx

Draw the influence lines for


forces in members aB, Bb,
Bc, and bc.

lx
x
(1)( y )
( ym ) ( yn )
l

x

l

Draw the influence lines for


forces in members aB, Bb,
Bc, and bc.

SaB

SaB

S Bb

S Bb

VBc

VBc

Sbc

Sbc

Draw the influence lines for


forces in members aB, Bb,
Bc, and bc.

Draw the influence lines for


forces in members aB, Bb,
Bc, and bc.

SaB

SaB

S Bb

S Bb

VBc

VBc

Sbc

Sbc

Draw the influence lines for


bar forces (or components) in
members cd, and Cc.

Draw the influence lines for


bar forces (or components) in
members cd, and Cc.

Ra
Scd

Rg
Rg

axc

21Rg

Ra
Ra

Scd
Rg

d x g 5 S cd 15 Ra

5 S cd 21Rg
S cd

Scd

S cd 3 Ra

Scd

5
VCc

VCc

Draw the influence lines for


bar forces (or components) in
members cd, and Cc.

Draw the influence lines for


bar forces (or components) in
members cd, and Cc.

VCc
Ra
Rg

Ra

Rg

a x c VCc Rg

d xg

VCc
Rg

VCc Ra

Scd

Scd

VCc

VCc

Moving Loads Truck

425cm

Ra

0.1w

0.4w

0.4w

0.1w

0.4w

0.4w

Moving Loads Train

Moving Loads Train

Influence Lines and Concentrated


Load Systems
R1

R2

R3

RA
2 R1 4 R2 12.4 R3

Maximum Shear Force at a Point due


to a Series of Concentrated Loads

Figure shows a simple beam


subjected to the passage of
wheel loads. We wish to find
the maximum reaction at the
left end A.

VC

maximum

Maximum Shear Force at a Point due


to a Series of Concentrated Loads
Instead of using trial-and-error computations,
the critical position of the loads can be
determined by computing the change in shear,
V for each possible case.
If a negative change in V is observed at the
first time, then the location of the previous
case is the critical position.
The increment of V from position x1 to x2
along a line with slope s is V p s ( x 2 x1)
where p is the magnitude of load.
The increment of V for a load moving
across a jump is V p ( y 2 y1) where p
is the magnitude of load and y2 and y1 are
ordinates of influence diagram.

s
x1

s
x2

Maximum Bending Moment at a Point


due to a Series of Concentrated Loads

s 0.025

Instead of using trial-and-error computations, the critical position of the


loads can be determined by computing the change in bending moment, M
for each possible case.
If a negative change in M is observed at the first time, then the location
of the previous case is the critical position.
The increment of M from position x1 to x2 along a line with slope s is
M p s ( x 2 x1) where p is the magnitude of load.

V1 2
1(1) (1 4 4)(0.025)(5)
0.125 k
V23
4(1) (1 4 4)(0.025)(5)
2.875 k

7.5
s

40 10
7.5
s

10

For the bridge truss subjected to


the passage of the group of wheel
loads in Figure, find the maximum
force in the member Bc.

M1 2
7.5
7.5
2
(4) (4 3)
(4)
10
40 10
1.0 k ft

VBc
20 15 10 5
1 3.33 2
(10)
(5)

40

4 3.33
12.5 0.5 12 k

M 23
7.5
7.5
(2 4)
(6) 3
(6)
10
40 10
22.5 k ft

M C max
(2) 4.5 4 7.5 3(6.0) 57.0

S Bc 12 2 k
k ft

Force Method & Displacement Method


(Flexibility)

(Stiffness)

(1) Joint Equilibrium


- Determine the internal member forces

(2) Member Flexibility/Stiffness


- Express the member elongation in term of
member force

(3) Joint Displacement (Compatibility)


- Express the joint displacement in term of
member elongation

Force Method & Displacement Method


(Flexibility)

(Stiffness)

Force Method (1) (2) (3)


- The forces are treated as basic unknowns and express
the displacement in terms of the unknown forces.

Displacement Method (3) (2) (1)


- The displacements are treated as basic unknowns and
express the force in terms of the unknown displacements

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