SOCIOLOGY PROJECT

(INDIAN SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT)

ON

ECOFEMINISM
SUBMITTED TO:

Dr. Ayan Hazra

Faculty, Sociology

SUBMITTED BY:

Tushar Khanna
Roll no. 168
SECTION C
SEMESTER III, B.A. LLB(HONS.)
SUBMITTED ON:
October 10, 2014

HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY

Uparwara Post, Abhanpur, New Raipur 493661 (C.G.)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

At the outset, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and gratefulness to my

teacher Dr Ayan Hazra, for putting his trust in me and giving me a project topic such as this
and for having the faith in me to present my report in the best possible way. I would also like
to thank him for the guidance she provided during the tenure of my working in this project.
Sir, thank you for providing me with an opportunity that helped me to grow.
My gratitude also goes out to the staff and administration of Hidayatullah National
Law University for providing the infrastructural facilities in the form of our library and IT
Lab that was a source of great help for the completion of this project.
Further, I would like to extend my gratitude towards my father Mr. Sanjiv Khanna
and my mother Mrs. Poonam Khanna for inspiring me and supporting me while I was
working on this project. They provided me not just the confidence to complete it but also
with ideas and suggested ways to make the project better. Thank you for the useful
discussions and guidance.
Last but not the least, a heartfelt thanks to my seniors and friends who were there to
help me out even in the oddest of hours. Without you all this project wouldnt be what it is.
Thanking you all sincerely,

Tushar Khanna
(Semester One) Batch-13
Roll No.: 168

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ECOFEMINISM: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................................................................................... 6
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY: .................................................................................. 6
HISTORY .......................................................................................................................... 7
LATE 19 TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURIES ...................................................................... 7
1980S & 1990S ............................................................................................................. 7
1990S- PRESENT ............................................................................................................ 8
MAJOR CRITIQUES .......................................................................................................... 9
ESSENTIALISM ............................................................................................................... 9
CONTRAST WITH FEMINISM ........................................................................................... 9
CONCEPTS ..................................................................................................................... 9
THEORISTS .................................................................................................................... 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................. 14

ECOFEMINISM: INTRODUCTION
Ecofeminism describes movements and philosophies that link feminism with ecology1. The
term is believed to have been coined by the French writer Franoise d'Eaubonne in her book,
Le Fminisme ou la Mort (1974)2. Ecofeminism connects the exploitation and domination of
women with that of the environment, and argues that there is historical connection between
women and nature. Ecofeminists believe that this connection is illustrated through the
traditionally 'female' values of reciprocity, nurturing and cooperation, which are present both
among women and in nature. Additionally, ecofeminists draw connections between
menstruation and moon cycles, childbirth and creation etc. Women and nature are also united
through their shared history of oppression by a patriarchal Western society.
In the essay entitled "Ecofeminism: Toward Global Justice and Planetary Health" authors
Greta Gaard and Lori Gruen outline what they call the "ecofeminist framework." This
framework is intended to establish ways of viewing and understanding our current global
situations so that we are better able to understand how we arrived at this point and what may
be done to ameliorate the ills. The four sides of the frame are: the mechanistic materialist
model of the universe that resulted from the scientific revolution and the subsequent
reduction of all things into mere resources to be optimized, dead inert matter to be used, the
rise of patriarchal religions and their establishment of gender hierarchies along with their
denial of immanent divinity, self and other dualisms and the inherent power and domination
ethic it entails, and capitalism and its intrinsic need for the exploitation, destruction and
instrumentalization of animals, earth and people for the sole purpose of creating wealth. They
hold that these four factors have brought us to what ecofeminists see as a "separation between
nature and culture" that is the root source of our planetary ills. The essay provides a wealth of
data and statistics in addition to laying out the theoretical aspects of the ecofeminist critique3.
Vandana Shiva claims that women have a special connection to the environment through
their daily interactions and this connection has been ignored. She says that women in
subsistence economies who produce "wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in
their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature's processes." However she
1

MacGregor, Sherilyn (2006). Beyond mothering earth: ecological citizenship and the politics of care.
Vancouver: UBC Press. p. 286. ISBN 0-7748-1201-X.
2
(Merchant, Carolyn. "Chapter 8." In Radical ecology: the search for a livable world. New York: Routledge,
1992. 184)
3
http://lgruen.faculty.wesleyan.edu/files/2011/05/Gaard.pdf

makes the point that "these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social
benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by the capitalist reductionist paradigm,
because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's
lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth4."
Feminist and social ecologist Janet Biehl has criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much
on a mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual conditions
of women5. Rosemary Radford Ruether joins Janet Biehl in critiquing this focus on
mysticism over work that focuses on helping women, but argues that spirituality and activism
can be combined effectively in ecofeminism6.

Shiva, Vandana (1988). Staying alive: women, ecology and development. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-086232-823-8.
5
Biehl, Janet (1991). Rethinking eco-feminist politics. Boston, Massachusetts: South End Press. ISBN 978-089608-392-9.
6
Ruether, Rosemary Radford (2003). Heather Eaton & Lois Ann Lorentzen, ed. Ecofeminism and
Globalization. Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Oxford: Rowman and Littlefield. pp. vii xi. ISBN 07425-2697-6.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This research is descriptive and analytical in nature. Secondary and electronic

resources have been largely used to gather information and data about the topic.
Books and other reference as guided by the faculty have been primarily helpful in
giving this project a firm structure. Websites, dictionaries and articles have also been
referred.
Use of Diagrams has been done in order to enable reader to comprehend easily.
Sources have been provided wherever needed, to acknowledge the same.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

To study the evolution of Ecofeminism.

To analyse the modern day importance of this theory.

To understand the background of this theory.

HISTORY
LATE 19TH AND EARLY 20TH CENTURIES
Ecofeminism was coined as a term in the 1970s. Women participated in the environmental
movements, specifically preservation and conservation much earlier than this. Beginning in
the late 19th century. Women worked in efforts to protect wildlife, food, air and water. Susan
A. Mann an eco-feminist and professor of sociological and feminist theory consider the roles
women played in these activisms to be the starter for ecofeminism in later centuries. Mann
associates the beginning of ecofeminism not with feminists but with women of different race
and class backgrounds who made connections among gender, race, class and environmental
issues. This ideal is upheld through the notion that in activist and theory circles marginalized
groups must be included in the discussion. In early environmental and womens movements,
issues of varying races and classes were often separated7.

1980S & 1990S

After the beginning of the environmental movement in the early 1970s intersections among
feminists and other social justice movements emerged. The feminists that took interests in
these movements explored how oppressions were linked through gender, race, class and
ecology, as well as species and ideas of nationhood. These feminists developed texts, such as
Women and Nature (Susan Griffin 1978), The Death of Nature (Carolyn Merchant 1980) and
Gyn/Ecology (Mary Daly 1978). These texts helped to propel the association between
domination by man on women and the domination of culture on nature. From these texts
feminist activism of the 1980s linked ideas of ecology and the environment. For example,
conferences for women devoted to living on the earth and protests against nuclear testing and
other militarism that oppresses femininity. At the culmination of the decade ecofeminism had
spread to both coasts and articulated an intersectional analysis of women and the
environment. Eventually, challenging ideas of environmental classism and racism, resisting
toxic dumping and other threats to the impoverished.
However, in the 1990s the advancing theories in ecofeminism began to be seen as essentialist.
Through analysis done by post structural and third wave feminists it was argued that

Mann, Susan A (2011). "Pioneers of U.S. Ecofeminism and Environmental Justice". Feminist Formations 23
(2): 125.

ecofeminism equated women with nature. The essentialist argument views Eco feminists as
goddess worshippers, who are anti-intellectual8.

1990S- PRESENT
Ecofeminisms in the 1990s dealt with a lot of criticism. The view that ecofeminism was
essentialist and continued to reinforce patriarchal dominance continued to grow9. Feminist
thoughts surrounding ecofeminism grew in some areas as it was criticized, vegetarian
ecofeminism contributed intersectional analysis, and ecofeminisms that analyzed animal
rights, labor rights and activisms as they could draw lines among oppressed groups. However,
the inclusion of non-human animals also became to be viewed as essentialist. Ecofeminism as
it propelled into the 21st century became aware of the criticisms and ecofeminisms with a
materialist lens began doing research and renaming the topic, i.e. queer ecologies, global
feminist environmental justice and gender and the environment10.

Gaard, Greta (2011). "Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing Species in a Material
Feminist Environmentalism". Feminist Formations 23 (2): 2653.
9
"Ecofeminism: Is the Movement Still Relevant?". Gender Across Borders
10
Supra Nt. 7

MAJOR CRITIQUES
ESSENTIALISM
Some eco-feminist critiques are that the dichotomy between women and men and nature and
culture creates a dualism that is too stringent and focused in the difference of women and
men. That eco-feminism too strongly correlates the social status of women with the social
status of nature, rather than the non-essentialist view that women along with nature both have
masculine and feminine qualities, and that just like feminine qualities have often been seen as
less worthy, nature is also seen as having lesser value than culture, or the qualities involved in
these concepts.

CONTRAST WITH FEMINISM

Ecofeminism is further criticized as essentialist because of the contrasting views of what
constitutes participation in oppressive structures. Modern feminism strives to make it possible
for women to occupy positions of power in business, industry and politics, as prominent roles
in society improve gender equality, pay equity and influence through visibility and direct
involvement. In contrast, many ecofeminists would stand in opposition to active engagement
in these arenas, as these are the very structures that the movement intends to dismantle11.

CONCEPTS
In Ecofeminism (1993) authors Vandana Shiva, Maria Miescritique and Evan Bondi ponder
modern science and its acceptance as a universal and value-free system. Instead, they view
the dominant stream of modern science as a projection of Western men's values 12. The
privilege of determining what is considered scientific knowledge has been controlled by men,
and for the most part of history restricted to men. Bondi and Miles list example including the
medicalization of childbirth and the industrialization of plant reproduction13.
Bondi argues that the medicalization of childbirth has marginalized midwife knowledge and
changed the natural process of childbirth into a procedure dependent on specialized
technologies and appropriated expertise. Similarly, the dependence of agriculture on

11

"Ecofeminism Critique". The Green Fuse.

(Mies, Maria, and Vandana Shiva. Ecofeminism. Halifax, N.S. : Fernwood Publications; 1993. 24.)
13
Supra Nt. 11
12

industrially produced seed and fertilizer makes a natural, regenerative process dependent on
technological input14.
A common claim within ecofeminist literature is that patriarchal structures justify their
dominance through binary opposition, these include but are not limited to: heaven/earth,
mind/body, male/female, human/animal, spirit/matter, culture/nature and white/non-white15.
Oppression is reinforced by assuming truth in these binaries and instilling them as 'marvelous
to behold' through religious and scientific constructs16.
The application of ecofeminism to animal rights has established vegetarian ecofeminism,
which asserts that "omitting the oppression of animals from feminist and ecofeminist
analyses [] is inconsistent with the activist and philosophical foundations of both feminism
(as a "movement to end all forms of oppression") and ecofeminism."17 Vegetarian
ecofeminism combines sympathy with the analysis of culture and politics to refine a system
of ethics and action18.
Ecofeminism as materialist is another common theme in ecofeminism. A materialist view
connects some institutions such as labor, power and property as the source of domination
over women and nature. There are connections made between these subjects because
similarly there are varying values in production and reproduction19.

14

Supra Nt. 11
Laura Hobgood-Oster. "Ecofeminism: Historic and International Evolution". Retrieved March 17, 2012
16
Supra Nt. 14
17
Gaard, Greta Claire. (2002) Vegetarian ecofeminism: A review essay. Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies,
23(2). Retrieved from http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/frontiers/v023/23.3gaard.html
18
Supra Nt. 16
19
Supra Nt. 8
15

THEORISTS
Trish Glazebrook - Professor and Chair of the Department of Philosophy and Religion
Studies at University of North Texas, Glazebrook has researched and published on topics in
ecofeminism, Heidegger studies, ecophenomenology, ancient philosophy and science and
technology.
Karen Warren -received her B.A. in philosophy from the University of Minnesota (1970) and
her Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts-Amherst in 1978. Before her long tenure at
Macalester College, which began in 1985, Warren was Professor of Philosophy at St. Olaf
College in the early 1980s. Warren was the Ecofeminist-Scholar-in-Residence at Murdoch
University in Australia [1]. In 2003, she served as an Oxford University Round Table Scholar
and as Women's Chair in Humanistic Studies at Marquette University in 2004. She has
spoken widely on environmental issues, feminism, critical thinking skills and peace studies in
many international locations including Buenos Aires, Gothenburg, Helsinki, Oslo, Manitoba,
Melbourne, Moscow, Perth, the U.N. Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro (1992), and San Jose.

Evan Bondi - Influential leader in the feminist movement and self-described "voice
of the wilderness and the woman", Bondi advocated the advancement of
environmental rights for animals of all gender and was an outspoken writer and
cartoonist in the early ecofeminism movement.

Franoise d'Eaubonne - Called upon women to lead an ecological revolution in

order to save the planet. This entailed revolutionizing gender relations and human
relations with the natural world20.

Sallie McFague - A prominent ecofeminist theologian, McFague uses the metaphor

of God's body to represent the universe at large. This metaphor values inclusive,
mutualistic and interdependent relations amongst all things21.

Rosemary Radford Ruether - Has written 36 books and over 600 articles exploring
the intersections of feminism, theology, and creation care22.

20

Supra Nt. 2
Ralte, Lalrinawmi . "The World as the Body of God Ecofeminist Theological Discourse with Special
Reference to Tribal Women in India. Www.
rethinkingmission.org.uk/articles/The%20World%20as%20the%20body%20of%20God%20article.pdf
(accessed October 10, 2014)
21

Vandana Shiva - Shiva is a physicist, author, activist, feminist and philosopher from
India.[15] She was a participant in the Chipko movement of the 1970s, which used
non-violent activism to protest and prevent deforestation in the Garhwal Himalayas of
Uttarakhand, India then in Uttar Pradesh.

Maria Mies - Mies is a German social critic who has been involved in feminist work
throughout Europe and India. She works particularly on the intersections of
patriarchy, poverty, and the environment on a local and global scale23.

Val Plumwood - Val Plumwood, formerly Val Routley, was an Australian

ecofeminist intellectual and activist, who was prominent in the development of radical
ecosophy from the early 1970s through the remainder of the 20th century. In her
works "Feminism and the Mastery of Nature" she describes the relationship of
mankind and the environment relating to an eco-feminist ideology.

Greta Gaard -Greta Gaard is an American ecofeminist scholar and activist. Her
major contributions to the field connect ideas of queer theory, vegetarianism, and
animal liberation. Her major theories also include ecocriticism which works to include
literary criticism and composition to inform ecofeminism and other feminist theories
to address wider range of social issues within ecofeminism. Additionally, Gaard is an
ecological activists and a leader in the Green Party, and the Green Movement, groups
of political activist that are extremely liberal in activism for environmental and social
justice.

Charlene Spretnak - Spretnak is an American writer largely known for her writing
on ecology, politics and spirituality. Through these writings Spretnak has become a
prominent ecofeminist. She has written many books which discuss ecological issues
in terms of effects with social criticisms, including feminism. Spretnak works had a
major influence in the development of the Green Party. She has also won awards
based on her visions on ecology and social issues as well as feminist thinking24.

22

LaRosa, Patricia. "Finding Aid for Rosemary Radford Ruether Papers, 1954-2002". Retrieved 10th October,
2014
23
"Who's Who of Women and the Environment". Retrieved 10th October 2014.
24
Charlene Spretnak, "The Early Years of the Green Movement in the United States", in Zelko and Brinkmann,
eds., Green Parties, p. 48

Starhawk - An American writer and activist Starhawk is known for her work in
spiritualism and ecofeminism. She advocates for social justice in issues surrounding
nature and spirit. These social justice issues fall under the scope of feminism and
ecofeminism. She believes in fighting oppression through intersectionality and the
importance of spirituality, eco consciousness and sexual and gender liberation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

MacGregor, Sherilyn (2006). Beyond mothering earth: ecological citizenship and the
politics of care. Vancouver: UBC Press.

(Merchant, Carolyn. "Chapter 8." In Radical ecology: the search for a livable world.
New York: Routledge, 1992. 184)

Shiva, Vandana (1988). Staying alive: women, ecology and development. London:
Zed Books.

Biehl, Janet (1991). Rethinking eco-feminist politics. Boston, Massachusetts: South

End Press.

Ruether, Rosemary Radford (2003). Heather Eaton & Lois Ann Lorentzen, ed.
Ecofeminism and Globalization. Lanham, Boulder, New York, Toronto, Oxford:
Rowman and Littlefield.

LaRosa, Patricia. "Finding Aid for Rosemary Radford Ruether Papers, 1954-2002".

"Who's Who of Women and the Environment".

Charlene Spretnak, "The Early Years of the Green Movement in the United States", in
Zelko and Brinkmann, eds., Green Parties.

Ralte, Lalrinawmi . "The World as the Body of God Ecofeminist Theological

Discourse with Special Reference to Tribal Women in India. Www.
rethinkingmission.org.uk/articles/The%20World%20as%20the%20body%20of%20G
od%20article.pdf .

Gaard, Greta (2011). "Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing

Species in a Material Feminist Environmentalism". Feminist Formations 23 (2):

"Ecofeminism: Is the Movement Still Relevant?". Gender Across Borders