Study Guide

Study Guide for Week 2, Foundation Concepts
Study guides of this kind signal what the course instructor considers to be many of the key points
from the text and lecture. Other important points may be left out of the study guide if, for example, it
should be obvious that the point is central and if the point seems not to need emphasis, contextualization,
or elaboration. Usually the order of topics in a study guide will follow the order of topics in the assigned
readings from the textbook.
Open Systems
The concept of open systems renders training activities as a subsystem within the larger
organization. This concept is used widely in organizational analysis so you should have a basic
familiarity with it. Other organizational functions besides training (e.g., finance) similarly may be
understood to have inputs, outputs, and processes (work activities involving people and/or technology)
that transform inputs into outputs. Inputs may be received from the external environment (e.g., supplies)
or from other subsystems of the organization (e.g., specifications from top management to the training
department). Similarly, outputs may pass among organizational subsystems or directly to the external
environment (e.g., to customers).
Training's "outputs" (Fig. 1-2) are valuable to the extent that they are aligned with needs and
priorities of the larger organization; the organization may be viewed as the "environment" of the training
subsystem.
Training Processes Model

As noted in lecture, the input-process-output scheme from open systems theory is also used
metaphorically or analogically in this text to emphasize that each phase of training has (a) input
specifications (such as objectives) or other informationoften obtained from a previous phase in the
training processes model of Figure 1-3, (b) specified outputs, usually important for a later phase, and
(c) distinct processes or work activities to produce the outputs. An understanding of this model helps to
identify the wide range of tasks required for effective training, as well as how those tasks interrelate.
For Week 2 you are not expected to memorize what each phase entails.
However, you are expected to have gleaned basic aspects of the model from the text and lecture,
such as the model's prescription that phases generally should occur in this order (needs analysis before the
rest, etc.).
Training in Canada: Opportunities and Challenges

Although this material may not be reviewed in lecture as such, the implications of various
reported facts for training should be learned. For example, what are some ways in which training can
help organizations adapt more effectively to changing workforce demographics?
Continuous Improvement(CI) and Total Quality Management (TQM)

Ideally, "the training function in organizations continuously searches for performance
improvement opportunities, develops and implements solutions, and evaluates the effectiveness of the
solutions." In discussing CI this way, the authors seek change from the view of training as a less-valued
"cost centre" to "an integral part of the organization's improvement system" (p. 10). It is a bit
idiosyncratic of the textbook authors to make it especially salient that training supports quality initiatives,
because training supports many kinds of initiatives and needs in organizations. At the same time, it is
true that successful implementation of major organizational changes, such as organizational
transformation from traditional to TQ oriented management, often requires a sizable training component.
Psychology 340, Univ. of Waterloo
2009, John L. Michela
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University of Waterloo
PSYCH 340
J. Michela
Additional Study Guide for Week 2,

Team Training
Teamwork in "leaderless" groupsgroups like the teams that will be formed for in-class activity
work in PSYCH 340poses some special challenges. Group work requires coordinated action, for
example, but whose responsibility is it to bring about this coordination? The answer is "everyone" on
such teams. And in order for everyone to promote effective functioning of the team, everyone must be
knowledgeable about teamwork as such.
Consequently, material on teamwork has been developed for PSYCH 340 teams. This material
has been structured as a mini-training program on teamwork. The program components are:
A lecture concerning "Task Leadership," presented as a "podcast" (a voice-over-slides

recording)
A podcast lecture concerning "Group Process Leadership," which includes a video of a
skit intended to illustrate various points in the two podcasts
This study guide
The two "job aids" that appear as the last two pages of this study guide document
An assignment concerning teamwork process monitoring, to be completed in-class
An evaluation form that will be made available to students after the in-class session
Many schemes exist for describing events, issues, needs or challenges for work groups or teams.
Underlying many of these schemes is a division of issues into two categories: task issues and relationship
issues. On the task side, teams need to be effective at organizing and accomplishing the work necessary
for task accomplishment. On the relationships side, while accomplishing the task, team members'
behaviours toward one another should be ones that have positive effects on liking, trust, social motivation
(e.g., the desire to do a good job partly for the sake of the team), and, overall, the on the interpersonal
relationships among members.
Task Management
The input-process-output model that our textbook applies to the work of trainers is applicable as
well to team workers in a wide variety of contexts. (Please refer to the next-to-last page of this study
guide.)
Within this model, "inputs" consist of information available to team members plus the prior
knowledge and expertise of team members.
The "output" is, of course, the product that the team is tasked with producing.
The work process in the model developed for our course has 5 steps:
1. Envision the output. In a team or group context, this includes sharing perceptions about what
will meet the goal established for the team. Ideally it will also involve developing a shared vision of what
a truly excellent product would look like.
2. Identify inputs. In the case of in-class activity teamwork by PSYCH 340 students, the primary
inputs generally will be content material concerning the weekly topic provided in the textbook, podcast,
study guide, or other assigned sources, along with additional knowledge or expertise that team members
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Study Guide for Week 3,

Learning, Motivation and Performance
Why Cover Motivation in a T&D Course?
At different points the text and lecture address reasons why trainers need a good understanding of
motivational principles and practices, including the following.
Potential trainees may need to be motivated to undertake training in the first place.
Proper motivational conditions in training can enhance trainee effort, persistence, and ultimate
learning.
Unfavourable motivational conditions in the workplace may explain instances of poor
performance, in which case training would not be appropriate as a remedy.
The Importance of Theories and Models

The text and lecture emphasized the need to have a theoretical or conceptual understanding of
management practices and training practices, so that sound decisions can be made about where and when
to use particular practices. "There is nothing so practical as a good theory" is how Kurt Lewin put it.
Factors Determining Human Performance

Performance is a matter of whether work output meets individual or organizational objectives or
standards. Work output is generated by work behaviour. Thus the direction, intensity, and persistence of
that behaviourthat is, the extent of motivation driving that behaviouris one factor determining work
output. Another is the effectiveness of the behaviour as determined by the worker's level of knowledge,
skills, and attitudes. A further category of factors involves the work environment, including whether the
technology is optimal, whether the production or service system and other organizational systems are
favourable, and so forth. This categorization of factors produces Figure 2-1 (with expansion of the
definition of "environment" beyond the overly narrow definition given in the text's margin). Some
favourability of motivation, KSAs, and environment all must be present for positive performance, so we
may say that these three categories of factors have a multiplicative relation in determining performance.
Motivation
Motivation is a "state" of a person that predisposes behavior in a particular "direction." In a
general theory of motivation (see lecture slide) behaviour can be situated in a cycle in which behaviour
either leads to satisfaction (need reduction or goal attainment) or not. With dissatisfaction, more or
different behaviour toward the same end can be expected. With satisfaction, some other need or goal can
be expected to become prominent.
"Needs" theories view motivated behavior as being directed toward reducing the "tension" of an
unmet need such as a need or preference for social contact or personal accomplishment. Most needs
theories identify particular needs that people are motivated to satisfy by engaging in behaviour that will
meet those needs when there is a deficiency in need fulfillment. Alderfer's widely-known theory
identifies three broad categories of needs defined in the text. Human resource professionals should also
be aware that Alderfer's work was a refinement of earlier work by Maslow (see lecture slides) which also
is widely-known and cited. Another widely-known scheme, though not in the same tradition, was
developed by McClelland, who identified need for achievement, need for affiliation, and need for power.
Although students in this course are not responsible for knowing these categories of McClelland's
scheme, they should be aware of some differences of approach in needs theories that these three theories
illustrate. Maslow viewed the needs of his scheme as "hierarchical" in the sense that people are thought
to become focused on "higher" level needs (see slide) only as lower level needs are satisfied. Alderfer
relaxed this assumption somewhat, though, like Maslow, Alderfer considered most people to have at least
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Training Needs Analysis
Overview
The figure on the chapter's title page (p. 69) tells the major facets of Training Needs Analysis
(TNA). A TNA is warranted when there is a significant gap between expected and actual performance.
The major categories of the work done in a TNA are organizational analysis, operational analysis, and
person analysis. These are also categories of "input" to the primary work or tasks of this phasethe
"process" as the figure puts it. These primary tasks are to get clarity about the performance gap and,
especially, identify its causes. Clarity on these matters should tell whether training is an appropriate
response to the problemor not. Clarity also should tell what needs to be addressed in a training
response (e.g., K or S or A) or what can be done, apart from training, to address the problem.
Why and When to Conduct a TNA

Systematic use of TNA will help ensure that training dollars are spent where they are needed
most (e.g., because the performance gap has been shown to be sizable and otherwise meaningful to
strategically important outcomes, and the cause of the gap has been seen to lie in factors that training can
address). This evidence of the importance and likely benefits of training may enhance participants
motivation in training. TNA also provides a basis for evaluating training (by gaining clarity about an
existing problem, making it possible to judge later whether the problem improved after training).
However, a TNA may not be necessary (and thus wasteful) in some instances, as when all
members of an organization or group need to be exposed to particular information or involved in some
group process.
Although most examples of TNA probably are reactive, focusing on a performance problem in
the present, there are also examples of proactive TNA, which seeks to prevent future problems (as
elaborated in a later section).
Where to Look for Performance Gaps

Table 3-1 provides a list of many categories of indicators of performance shortfalls. The list is
quite varied because there are many kinds of performance that organizations need from their people. For
example, front line manufacturing and service personnel must produce outputs up to quality and quantity
standards; the "analysis of efficiency indexes" category addresses this most directly. As another example,
managers and supervisors must maintain employee motivation and morale; several of the "organizational
climate indicators" (e.g., widespread absenteeism) can signal shortfalls here. Students are expected to be
able to name and describe some of these (or equivalent) data sources for locating performance gaps, and
be able to identify data sources that could serve this purpose.
Figure 3-1 is useful but misplaced in this section on performance gaps. It is really after doing the
further steps of the TNA (further after the initial step of clarifying and documenting the performance gap)
when it will be possible to choose one of the branches in the figure. (See later section of this chapter and
this study guide, "Output of TNA"). Nevertheless the figure illustrates some key points. First, there are
various possible causes of any given performance gap. When the cause does not involve KSAs (e.g.,
reward/punishment congruence, as illustrated by the bank teller example discussed in class and a Bell
Telephone example in this chapter) then the solution will not involve training. Even when KSAs are
involved in the performance gap, alternatives to training should be considered. These include (but are not
limited to) job aids, further practice, changing the job, and transfer or termination of the employee.
Students should be able to give examples of these alternatives and identify instances of them.
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Organizational Analysis
In many instances where a manager suggests or requests training as a solution to a performance
problem, the source of the problem actually lay in "incongruities in the organizational environment that
inhibited or prevented the appropriate work behaviours" (p. 76). Therefore, in organizational analysis, a
wide variety of organizational factors should be considered as possible causes of performance problems.
However, the training needs analyst must use a lot of judgment about which organizational
factors to key on, because there are so many possible ones and many will be irrelevant. The text first
describes the major areas to examine as mission and strategies; capital resources; human resources; and
organizational environment. Students should read this material for exposure to examples in which
performance problems lay in various organizational factors. This text material does not lend itself to
memorizing particular points so students should not look at it with those eyes (pp. 76-79). Table 3-2 is
better for "take-away" concepts for the training needs analyst. That is, the list of "what to ask about"
provides a good illustration of the kinds of factors that usually should be asked about to diagnose possible
organizational causes of performance problems. Students should be able to recognize major categories of
factors that should be considered in organizational analysis (such as social influences) and be able to
name and describe a few of them. Students should be aware that the descriptions of some of the
categories as given in the "what to ask about" column are abbreviated, and other aspects of these
categories may come into play in some instances. For example, performance could be below standard
because of problems with the technology used by employees; this could be conceived as an aspect of job
design but is not listed there explicitly. Finally, note that the "job performance" category might be better
labeled "performance feedback."
In looking at Table 3-2 it may be instructive to ask yourself: If I were trying to identify a
potential organizational cause of a performance problem, would this scheme be likely to lead me to that
cause?
Operational Analysis
The method of job analysis called the job-duty-task method was covered in a previous week.
New for this week are the recommended data sources for operational analysis (Table 3-3), the distinctions
among approaches to job analysis (p. 82), and the elaboration of "What You Should Get from the Job
Analysis." Table 3-4 is to be read though not memorized.
Competency modeling and competencies were covered in a previous week and will not be
repeated here.
The concept of criteria development belongs someplace in a course ultimately concerned with
performance, because for present purposes a criterion is a measure used to judge whether a performance
standard has been met. In the terms of Figure 3-4, the criterion measure is the "actual criterion." The
point of Figure 3-4 is to remind HR professionals and managers that our measures (actual criterion) often
are not exactly the same as what we care about and want to maximize. For example, the ultimate criterion
for output from a manufacturing shop floor area might be conceptualized as "high quality" of precision
parts. The actual criterion might be a measure, in microns, of deviations of the parts' sizes or shapes
relative to the part design specification. There is some "criterion" relevance of this measure or "actual
criterion" because conformance to size and shape specifications is an aspect of quality. However there
may be other aspects such as weight that can also deviate and that bear on quality but have not been
measured. In this instance these other aspects constitute "criterion deficiency." The text gives a different
example involving training in interpersonal relations. The ultimate criterion must be something like
"behaving toward others in ways that promote trust and other favourable aspects of relationships."
However, the measure involves observation of a particular kind of behaviour in a particular situation (a
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role play), allowing for criterion deficiency. If there are features of the role play behaviour that go into
producing a higher score on the actual criterion but that don't really establish being high on the ultimate
criterion, then the actual criterion has some criterion contamination. For example, the acting ability of the
role player might have a sizable effect on the actual criterion measure's score, but in the rest of work life
this ability might have very little effect on interpersonal relations.
The preceding paragraph describes all of the concepts that students are expected to know from
pages 89-92 (i.e., we will skip various distinctions in bias, etc.). However, students who have
encountered similar material in other courses will benefit from seeing how these concepts apply here, and
of course others may take this opportunity to become familiar with them.
Person Analysis
As with organizational and operational analysis, for person analysis students should be able to
define and describe the basic task or approach and the output of this aspect of TNA.
Paralleling earlier sections, Table 3-5 in this section lists various sources for obtaining data for
person analysis. Again students should be able to identify whether a particular data source (e.g., when
stated in a quiz item) could be appropriate for person analysis, and be able to provide illustrations for
some. Notice that some kinds of data have multiple potential uses. For example, earlier in this study
guide it was mentioned that widespread absenteeism could point to an organizational shortcoming in
management or supervision; here it is indicated that an individual's absenteeism can be meaningful about
that individual's KSA deficit (e.g., involving attitude).
From the associated material on self-ratings, performance appraisal, 360-degree feedback,
students should gain a basic familiarity with what is entailed in these two measures and some strengths or
weaknesses. Similarly, the subsequent material on proficiency tests (including behavioural tests and
attitude surveys) should be studied, even though there isn't a lot there. It should be noted that assessment
centres and similar role plays seem most likely to be used in person analysis (measurement of individuals'
KSAs to assess potential training need) for employees with individual economic consequences justifying
such an expensive assessment procedure and for skills that are complex and otherwise difficult to assess
(e.g., an investment banker's approach to deal making).
Output of TNA
This is the section that explains and elaborates Figure 3-1, as mentioned earlier in this guide.
Approaches to TNA
Students should be able to distinguish proactive and reactive TNA after studying this section.
Training in Small Business

This material will not be quizzed but may become important later for students who become
training professionals and will have small business clients.
TNA and Design

This section provides a brief reminder of an important payoff of a properly conducted TNA.
Case Analysis: Fabrics, Inc.

Be sure to read the case material concerning Fabrics, Inc., as preparation for the week's in-class
learning activity.
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some amount of each of the needs in his scheme, making them "universal" needs in this sense. In
contrast, McClelland emphasizes individual differences, such that some people can be expected to have
very low levels of some of his needs but others will have high levels. For example, some people can
tolerate a lot of solitude or social isolation but others will quickly become motivated to affiliate if alone.
"Process" theories are more varied than needs theories in their forms and thrusts. In contrast to
needs theories, process theories do not specify particular content (e.g., particular needs) involved in
motivation. For example, a wide variety of consequences could be rewarding to a person, and
reinforcement theory focuses simply on the positivity/negativity of the consequence and not details of its
nature.
"Conditioning" approaches to motivation and learning are process theories in this sense of
allowing a wide range of content to be relevant. Classical conditioning is historically important in
Psychology as a perspective on motivation and learning, but it has little application in training and
students in this class are not responsible for learning about it.
Operant conditioning is a method of shaping behaviour that can be understood through B. F.
Skinner's reinforcement theory. Operant conditioning draws on the Thorndike's law of effect. Positive
consequences for behaviour increase the likelihood of repetition of the behaviour; negative consequences
reduce it. "Negative reinforcement" is not punishment but removal of undesirable conditions, and thus
negative reinforcement is likely to increase, not decrease the rate of a behaviour (see text Figure 2-3). As
an example of negative reinforcement, if a trainee who is using a machine in a particular way produces an
unpleasant, screechy sound, and then the trainee is told or discovers how to avoid that sound by altering
use of the machine, the trainee is likely to use the new, altered behaviour with the machine in the future.
Finally, although some instances of loss of desirable consequences of behaviour may be experienced as
punishing (bottom left of Figure 2-3), in other instances it is not, and "extinction" (removal of desirable
consequences) in operant conditioning may be helpful in shaping behaviour by successive approximations
toward a different form from its starting point. (This last point is for clarification to the aficionados of
basic Psychology, not to be examined in this course.)
Students in this course should have an awareness that the "schedule" of reinforcement is
important to the motivational and behaviour-altering effects of positive reinforcement (as mentioned in
lecture). A reinforcement schedule describes or specifies the contingency under which reward is
delivered in operant conditioning. The best schedule depends on the behaviour you are seeking. For
example, if a trainer wants trainees to persist over time within a training session attempting to master a
skill that has not yet been acquired, the trainer could use an interval schedule. The trainer would give
praise or some other reward as a function of elapsed time on task (say, every 5 minutes). (For the
aficionado: variable intervalaveraging every 5 minutes but varying around this amount of timemay
produce more persistence than fixed interval.) However, if a trainer wants to shape behaviour by
successive approximations, a "ratio" schedule will be more appropriate. When the ratio is 1:1 for a
particular behaviour, every instance of that behavior is rewarded. Actually a much lower ratio, say, 1
reward for every 5 instances of the behaviour, can be more effective because the person may not be as
dependent on reward for generating the behaviour (aficionados: and may resist extinction). The upshot is
that when a trainer (or supervisor, in the normal work setting) uses rewards such as praise or other
positive reinforcers that can be delivered more or less at will, the trainer should be aware of how the
effects of these rewards can vary depending on the schedule of delivery.
Overuse of these praise and some other rewards can backfire if trainees come to see the reason for
their behaviour (e.g., efforts toward mastering a skill) as being due to these extrinsic rewards that they are
receiving instead of the intrinsic reasons why they are in training (or at work) in the first place. Intrinsic
motivations include task mastery (i.e., it can be rewarding just to acquire a new skill, essentially for its
own sake or the sense of mastery gained) and task enjoyment (e.g., solving an intricate problem can be
"fun").
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Motivations connected with people's desire for autonomy or control are important in training and
in non-training work settings. Micromanagement or over-control tends to undermine motivation in most
settings, and trainees can be expected to be more motivated if they are given appropriate control over
various features of training including content, approach, setting, and so forth.
Expectancy theory is both a process theory of motivation (not specifying particular content, but,
instead, the way motivationally-relevant factors are processed) and a cognitive theory. Cognitive theories
of motivation hold that people's beliefs, thoughts, values, and other mentally stored and processed
information determine motivation.
As implied by Figure 2-4 in the text and the figure for expectancy theory in the lecture slides,
motivation to exert effort to accomplish a behaviour (learn a skill, make a sale, etc.) depends on three
things. First is "expectancy 1" in which the person assesses "'Can I' do the necessary behaviour for
learning or performance?" For example, an older worker might be convinced that she could never learn
to use a spreadsheet program, and thus not take advantage of opportunities for software training that
would be necessary for advancement to a more senior position in the organization. Second is
"expectancy 2" in which the person assesses the likelihoods of obtaining positive consequences of doing
the behaviour in question. Thus to be motivated to undertake the training for purposes of advancement,
the older worker must answer "yes" to the question "'Will I' be likely to obtain the outcome (consequence)
of being advanced to the higher position if I make the effort and learn to use a spreadsheet program?"
Finally "valence" is the theory's label for how the person answers the question "'Do I care' about the
benefits or other consequences of doing the behaviour?" If the older worker does not place a high enough
value on this career advancement, she won't be motivated to take the training even if expectancies 1 and 2
are favourable for motivation.
Thus, as noted in the text, the three main components of expectancy theoryexpectancy 1,
expectancy 2, and valencemay be conceived as having a multiplicative relationship in determining
effort. That is, we can expect very little or no effort if any one of the components is very low or deficient.
Self-efficacy
The preceding comments concerning expectancy theory indicate that people must have at least
some degree of self-efficacy (i.e., basically the same thing as expectancy 1 in expectancy theory) in order
to learn in training or to perform on the job. As indicated in the text, self-efficacy is a belief in one's
ability to perform successfully (e.g., to do a behaviour or larger task or job duty such as to make a sale).
This requirement for self-efficacy creates interesting challenges for trainers because trainees, in
fact, initially do not have the ability to perform successfully in the ways covered in training; the reason
they are taking the training is to acquire this ability (i.e., acquire the KSAs to be able to do some task or
behaviour). Initially trainees must have some reason to believe that they will be able to acquire the KSAs
after exerting the necessary effort in training (unlike the older worker in the earlier example, who was
highly pessimistic about her capacity to succeed in software training). Often this belief can be promoted
by one of the factors cited in the text as influence son self-efficacy beliefs:
Behavioural models: Successes and failures of other people observed attempting the behaviour.
Thus if others have been successful in the training, this should be made known to potential and actual
trainees to enhance their self-efficacy for training success.
However, this information about others's successes (so-called "vicarious experience") may not be
necessary for people who have had favourable
Prior experience: The person's past successes and failures and their consequences.
Once in training, direct experiences of success are thought to be key to development of selfefficacy. For learning complex tasks such as using a computer numerically controlled (CNC) machining
apparatus, the task should be broken down into subtasks not only to reduce the learning demands but also
to promote motivation by providing more occasions and likelihoods of success in subtasks.
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However, the learner must know when success has occurred (e.g., in setting up the apparatus as a
subtask) in order for change to occur in self-efficacy belief. Thus, the text cites the factor:
Others' feedback: The encouragement and discouragement provided by others.
Finally, people's beliefs in their ability to learn or perform may be influenced by their
Physical or emotional state: Physical or emotional limitations believed to affect ability to
perform.
Thus, if some people in a software training group are anxious around computers, it may be helpful to
compensate for the anxiety (and thus reduce its detrimental effect) by creating a less threatening
environment (e.g., with humour, games, etc.).
Learning
The behaviourist approaches, described above in the coverage of conditioning, involve learning
as well as motivation, in that people can be said to learn to do or not to do particular things based on the
consequences of their behaviours as experienced in a conditioning paradigm. This view of learning
corresponds with the first of the "Two Definitions of Learning" stated in the text.
In contrast, contemporary, cognitive views of learning are generally focused less directly on
behaviour and more on mental representations and mental processes. Or as the text puts it, "learning
represents a change in the content, organization, and storage of information" (p. 49). The text also says
"learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in cognition occurring as a result of experience" (p.
49). This definition is o.k. as long as "experience" is interpreted broadly to include relatively passive
intake of information (e.g., reading or listening) as well as more active "experiential" learning from role
plays or other skill display.
The text draws a nice contrast in the section on "Implications of Behaviourist Versus Cognitive
Approaches" and depicts these implications in Table 2-2. The implications for the cognitive approach are
consistent partly with earlier comments about learners' wishes for autonomy or control. For example,
training should be collaborative between the trainer and trainees.
The cognitive theory "example" which follows Table 2-2 in the text, based on Piaget, is worth
reading but will not be covered on quizzes or exams.
Social Learning Theory

One phenomenon that social learning theory tries to explain is "anticipatory" learning as the text
labels it, or "vicarious" learning as the text mentions as an alternative label. In this form of learning, "a
person finds out what consequences are associated with a behaviour (or set of behaviours) without
actually engaging in the behaviour or receiving the consequences." This phenomenon, demonstrated by
Albert Bandura and his colleagues, contradicts reinforcement theory's non-cognitive agenda. That is, if
people can learn vicariously, through "mere" observation, they must be engaging in cognitive processes
(contrary to what the "radical behaviourists" wanted to accept). The text lists and describes the basic
kinds of cognitive processes involved: Attention, Retention, and Behavioural reproduction, and Figure
2-5 depicts these processes. The model in Figure 2-5 includes "Motivation" to signal that the way the
person directs his or her attention and cognitive efforts (e.g., toward understanding and remembering) will
depend on many of the motivational factors covered earlier in this study guide (e.g., unsatisfied needs).
Students in this course should be aware that the broad processes or factors identified in this model
(Attention and Retention processes, Behavioural reproduction, and influences of Motivation) as important
to vicarious learning (social learning) are thought to be important to other learning that occurs in training.
For example, when a trainer is covering material concerning safety procedures in a work area, it is
believed that learners will learn most if they are in a favourable state of motivation, actively engage
processes of attention and retention to material being presented, and ultimately engage in pertinent
behavioural reproduction.
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Gagn-Briggs Nine Events of Instruction

"Instructional design" concerns how instruction should be conducted. Gagn and associates
appear to have taken the preceding, social learning model as well as other principles of learning into
account when they formulated the Nine Events of Instruction model. The text indicates that this model
"is relevant for all three types of learning outcomes: cognitive knowledge, skill-based, and attitudinal"
(p. 54).
Students will not be quizzed on this material in the current unit (or week) because we will return
to the model in a later week when instructional design is the focus. For the moment, students should
recognize more generally the connections between motivational principles, learning principles and models
(especially social learning theory), and this Gagn -Briggs model.
Learner Resistance and Group Dynamics

When learning will require personal change, some people will resist learning for the same reasons
they resist other personal change, such as "discomfort of change" as the text puts it (p. 57). For example,
learners in an emotional intelligence development program may not engage learning activities requiring
them to keep a diary of their emotional states throughout the day, sensing that greater awareness of these
states may itself be uncomfortable, or that subsequent attempts at self-control of emotions may be
frustrating and unsatisfactory.
Training is often connected with changes in one's position or role or with changes in the
organization itself. These changes can threaten one's effectiveness, status, influence, and so forth. The
text lists various threats of these kinds in a list of "fears" such as fear of the unknown.
The text indicates that potential or enrolled trainees will nonetheless be motivated to learn if they
believe that learning is worth the effort and discomfort. This suggests that management's communication
of benefits from training and employees' trust in management (to deliver rewards, consistent with
expectancy 2 of expectancy theory) are important to overcoming learner resistance.
Later in this chapter (pp. 61-62) it is mentioned that involving trainees in their own training can
also be very helpful in overcoming resistance to training, learning, or development. This suggestion is
consistent with writings concerning overcoming resistance to organizational change, from the literature
on organizational development.
One motivation shared by most people is that they want to be accepted and valued by others
including colleagues at work. People's need for social acceptance can lead them to comply with group
norms or pressures even if these are detrimental to learning or work performance. Thus if members of a
group express negative beliefs or attitudes about training and are likely to disparage a group member who
is enthusiastic about training, other group members may be less likely to undertake the training (to avoid
disapproval).
Adult Learning Principles

Most people's earliest experiences in learning settings occur when they are children in schools.
These experiences are less-than-wonderful for a lot of students, as it is often the case that educational
content and approaches are outside of students' control, the learning process is passive and rigid, and the
students would prefer to be pursuing other ends besides learning for its own sake. As adults, employees
aren't so accepting of such conditions, and they generally expect and even demand a very different
learning setting and approach.
By integrating material in the text section on "Training that motivates adults to learn" with
material on "Why are they resisting and what can I do about it?" the following three recommendations
result.
Page 5 of 6
1. Address training relevance and value

Unlike typical school children, employees often have many demands on their time and attention
that compete with training. As the text puts it, employees "must feel that the benefits of learning the
KSAs outweigh the benefits of not learning them" (p. 60), consistent with expectancy theory. Prior to
entering training, communication of these benefits may come from one's supervisor, from the HR
function, or other sources, depending, for example, on specifics of the "triggering event" for training.
These benefits should also be kept salient during the training by what the trainer presents, in group
discussions with trainees, or in other ways.
2. Allow control over learning and involve trainees in the process

Trainees will become more engaged and place a higher value on training activity in which they
have some control over content or approach or other aspects of the training. In this regard the text
emphasizes how people often have a preference for part of their learning to grow out of sharing
experiences with one anotherprobably partly because this ensures training relevance, but it also cedes
control from the trainer to the trainees in what is discussed or otherwise covered, and thus satisfies
motivational needs for control.
3. Provide "safety"
One of the fears or threats connected with learner resistance, "fear of incompetence," can and
should be anticipated and prevented as much as possible in the training setting. School children
constantly confront new material and challenges, and thus may come to accept that there often will be an
initial period of disorientation or inability to do a task as part of learning. For adults, training is likely to
be a much more novel event, and the challenges of training often contrast sharply with the familiarity and
efficacy of day-to-day experience of work.
This fear can be minimized initially by demonstrating or otherwise communicating others'
successful mastery of the pertinent material or skills (see earlier section in this study guide concerning
self-efficacy, specifically on Behavioural models). Thereafter, the training climate that the trainer
establishes is key. For example the trainer could encourage "taking chances" and could celebrate gallant
efforts that fall short of the performance standard. Everyone in the training session should be expected
and required to be supportive of one another's efforts. Humor, games, or other approaches that create a
positive emotional climate (again see self-efficacy section) also may signal to learners that they are in a
psychologically safe training environment.
Individual Differences Related to Learning

Students in this course are not expected to memorize the material in Table 2-5 as "dimensions for
trainee assessment prior to training" nor as the key individual differences related to learning. There are
many, many potentially relevant individual differences. At the same time it should be noted, as the text
points out, the even if we can assess seeming pertinent individual differences, little is known about how
training should be modified to take account of many of these characteristics of learners.
Therefore this final section closes with a list of some principles that are probably applicable in a
wide variety of situations and to a wide variety of types of learners. This list certainly does not exhaust
the possibilities of conclusions that could be drawn from the rest of the material in this chapter. However,
it is worth thinking about how each principle in this list relates (or does not relate?) to the rest of the
material in this chapter concerning learning, motivation, and performance.
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PSYCH 340
J. Michela
have acquired previously. When needed, the teaching assistants or the instructor may aid in deciding
which potential inputs are most relevant. Web searches or other research may also provide useful inputs.
3. Diverge. In this step, team members generate a wide variety of approaches to producing the
envisioned product. Ideally, instead of seizing on the first, apparently sensible path to the goal, many
divergent options are generated in this step. When the list of approaches is expanded in this way,
additional dimensions of the task or problem often are recognized, promoting higher quality of the final
product. These discoveries are applied in the next step.
4. Converge. Choices must be made among alternatives generated in the previous step. Agreedupon criteria for making these choices will not only speed the decision process but also make it more
comfortable for all by de-personalizing decisions. Careful analysis in this step will again pay off in
higher quality decisions and ultimate group performance.
5. Completion. For some in-class teamwork activities, the product to be submitted will consist of
answers to questions. For each question a mini-version of the preceding steps should occur, and an
agreed-upon answer will be generated question-by-question. In such instances, completion is essentially
a matter of determining who will submit the accumulated answers by the end of the class period. In other
instances, different parts of the product may depend on one another (e.g., as in a multi-part lesson plan
produced for a training session), so the whole must be roughed out before a more polished version can be
produced. Again the final product should be submitted by the end of the class period. In these latter
instances it may be especially worthwhile to monitor progress systematically in relation to the time
available in the class period.
When team members have a common understanding of the preceding five steps, and when they
coordinate their actions in line with those steps, teamwork can proceed quite efficiently and effectively.
A different, commonly-held understanding of how to work in teams is that team members should divide
up the work for individuals to do and then bring work products back to the group to assemble into a final
product. This approach is inferior to the five step approach advocated here. In this "divide and conquer"
approach, the end product is less likely to be fully envisioned at the outset; helpful inputs may be
overlooked; divergence is likely to be limited; and convergence may not be based on the best possible
criteria. Not only will the quality of work fall short of its potential; the learning experience for team
members is likely to suffer as a result of reduced sharing of information and ideas.
Group Process Management
Team member actions or behaviours are what move the team forward toward producing products
or reaching other goals. When the team follows a systematic problem-solving process such as the five
step scheme described previously for task management, many of these actions involve interpersonal
communication. In these communications, people share their understandings of the goal, their beliefs
about pertinent inputs, their suggestions for use of these inputs, and so forth. When the team is
functioning as it should within the five step scheme, team members will at times agree or disagree, build
on others' ideas, change the subject being discussed, and so forth.
As illustrated in the podcast lecture for this course unit, these and other actions produce various
impacts on team members' thoughts and feelings. For example, when Larry states his agreement with
Jane's suggestion, Jane's confidence about making suggestions may increase a little, and her feelings of
comfort with the group may increase. When Linda seems to reply to Bill's suggestion by making a
different suggestion, Bill may wonder whether his suggestion was judged by the group to be poor. Thus
the overall group climate is affected by the manner in which people work together on the task. The term
"group process" refers to these ways of working and their effects on group climate, generally, and on
Page 2 of 3
PSYCH 340
J. Michela
individuals' thoughts, feelings, and the relationships they develop with one another and with the group.
These social and psychological effects have further effects on team effectiveness because team members
are likely either to spiral downward into a de-motivated state, if the team interactions are negative, or
upward into a highly motivated state. (We will see in a later unit that some of the factors that enhance
task motivation are ones under discussion here, such as the factor of one's confidence ["self-efficacy"] and
the desire to "come through" for the sake of the team [an aspect of "social motivation"].)
In the most effective teams, members take responsibility for ensuring that the ways they interact
with one another are ones that promote a positive climate and positive task and social motivation. This
involves consciously thinking about the impacts that one's own communications and other behaviours are
likely to impact on others.
Admittedly, if team members become overly concerned with exactly what they say and do in
every aspect of their interactions, things would get weird to say the least. This is not what this training is
advocating. Your team training designers arrived at two principles for positive group process:
1. Always signal respect for your team members. A context of unquestionable respect provides
"psychological safety" for communication and production of products that will be reviewed and revised
by others on the team. It also promotes interpersonal trust and other positive sentiments.
2. Engage the task energetically. Most likely you have seen in previous teamwork that
withdrawal can be contagiousWhy should you exert efforts if others don't? Similarly, high energy can
be contagious on the positive side, inducing others to exert themselves. In addition, when others see your
energetic contributions, their sentiments toward you are likely to become more positive, thus contributing
further to positive sentiments toward one another and subsequent social and task motivation.
In the podcast and on the handout that appears as the last page of this study guide, these two
principles are restated as "end goals" for team members' conscious efforts at making the group process as
positive as possible. Corresponding to these ends, various means are illustratedspecific actions such as
praising one another's work as warranted, and making sure everyone feels they are being heard.
Page 3 of 3
Team Leadership in Leaderless Teams

All teams or working groups must receive leadership of two kinds:
Task Leadership: Task definition and organization, work process guidance, and follow-through to completion
Group Process Leadership: Group development, relationship maintenance, and management of climate and conflict
In leaderless groups, group members must step up and collectively accomplish leadership in these areas.
Task Leadership
Teamwork is like other workit involves transformations of inputs to produce assigned outputs.
Input
Work process
Information
expertise
etc.
Output
Steps
Written descriptions
designs or plans
etc.
below
Step 1 (Envision Output)
Step 2 (Identify Inputs)
Step 3 (Diverge)
Step 4 (Converge)
Step 5 (Completion)
Reach consensus on:
Identify available/relevant
resources such as:
Generate a wide variety of

ideas, approaches, etc.
as may apply
Evaluate ideas based on

agreed upon criteria
Produce final product
Instructions or Task
Assignment
End product
Textbook
Other media
Experience/expertise
within the team
External expertise
Offer new ideas or

ideas that build on
contributions with as
little evaluation as
possible
Evaluate each idea

each member is an
active evaluator
Document a short list

of ideas or an
approach to the task
Ensure every member

has been heard from
Check for consensus
Throughout All Steps:

Monitor progress in relation to time and deadlines.
Be mindful of group process (other handout page).
Coordinate members'
contribution to the
team product in an
agreed upon way
Jointly integrate, review

and revise
Submit end product
Team Leadership in Leaderless Teams

Group Process Leadership
Group process consists of what people say and do toward one another in a grouptheir behaviours while working on a task. These behaviours
have consequences for group members interpersonal relationships, motivation, and effectiveness.
Group members show leadership in this regard when they thoughtfully choose their behaviours as means toward two ends:
Respectful interaction, which is at its highest when members show that they treasure one anothers contributions and well-being.
Energetic engagement, which exists when members are intensely involved in teamwork, eager for learning or other development, and
striving for excellence.
End Goals
Energetic Engagement
Strive for excellence

Be open to novel ideas
Have an enthusiastic attitude
Respectful Interaction
Make it safe to make suggestions

Make it safe to disagree
Get everyone to feel theyre being heard
Means
Share constructive enthusiasm about team assignment

Set goals on quality of task
Praise: great idea, I like that idea, nice one
Challenge ideas: Can you expand on that?, Why are you
saying ?
Make it safe to make suggestions
Praise: Great idea! I like that idea. Nice one.

Agree: I agree I think so, too
Support: We havent heard from (name) yet, what do you
think?
Consensus: What do you think?
Make it safe to disagree
Disagree Respectfully: Im concerned that because ...
Get everyone to feel theyre being heard
Listen actively
Acknowledge: nodding, thanks
Important Concepts
Learning is obviously central in training. The text's definition of learning is briefly expanded in
the lecture to include instances when cognition is not as central (e.g., "motor learning") and not
experiential in the usual sense of the term.
We will use this text's meaning of "KSA" Knowledge, Skills, and Attitudes instead of its
meaning within "KSAO" from I/O Psychology, to avoid some of the conundrums surrounding the KSAO
scheme. Traditionally, KSAO stands for Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other attributes (including
attitudes). However, this text's "KSA" scheme is appealing because
distinguishing between skills (S) and abilities (A in KSAO) can get arcane
(see https://email.rutgers.edu/pipermail/hrdiv_net/2006-November/002146.html), and
when "A" stands for attitude, this attribute is made appropriately prominent.
Thus, you should learn the text's definitions of Knowledge, Skill, and Attitudes, and be able to
illustrate and discriminate between them.
Competency is defined as a set of KSAs.
Additional required reading on pp. 85-89 of the text provides more information about
competencies. This will help to illustrate what the present definition of competency actually means.
From this material you are expected to glean some differences in emphasis implied when either the
concept of KSAs vs. the concept of competencies is used in training and other HRM practice.
Other important terms in the text are Training, Development, and Education. Learn the text's
definitions and consider any further observations offered in the corresponding lecture material (e.g.,
differing nuances of "Training" vs. "Education").
The lecture highlighted behaviour as an important concept. Development of KSAs through
training ultimately matters only if it affects employee behaviour. Effective behaviour is directed toward
meeting individual and organizational objectives. Training may be seen as one of the organization's
means of influencing behaviour (essentially through development of KSAs).
The lecture also introduces the concept of the job. This concept is key because holders of
particular jobs generally need to have particular KSAs, and thus may need particular training. The lecture
defines jobs in terms of collections of tasks, on the one hand, and duties or responsibilities on the other
hand.
This definition is elaborated on pages 81-85 and this material is required reading for the current
week (Week 2). After studying this material you should be able to provide a definition of the "job"
concept in your own words. You should also be able to apply the job-duty-task method (Figure 3-3; see
also the illustration on page 111) to jobs that are familiar to you. However you are not responsible (at
least not this week) to make the kinds of distinctions among job analysis methods as illustrated in the
margin of text page 82, nor know about special circumstances as in Table 3-4.
The Role of HRD in the Organization, and The Role of HR/HRD in

Supporting the Strategic Plan
Many reports of trends in business hold that HRM leaders are being called upon increasingly to
contribute to strategic decision making and implementation. These two sections of the text describe some
of the rationales and forms taken by these contributions.
Figure 1-4 provides one very basic approach to strategic analysis (left-hand box) and it illustrates
how organization-wide and departmental objectives, based on strategy, often should be translated into
objectives that are specific to employees.
Page 2 of 3
Although you should read about some distinctions in strategic approach (e.g., proactive vs.
reactive), positioning (market leader, etc.), and structuring (mechanistic vs. organic) these will not be
examined (not quizzed) for purposes of this course on training.
However, you should give some thought to the implications for the necessary KSAs and thus
training in the distinctions between routine vs. non-routine technology, lesser vs. greater decision
autonomy, and narrower vs. more expansive division of labour.
In addition, the last major section of this chapter, "Putting it All Together," draws a few
connections between particular strategies and training approaches, which will make this material more
meaningful. You should be able to state one such connection (i.e., for an organization with a ____
strategy, part of the approach to training should be ____, because ____).
One way to describe how people should be fully considered in strategic analysis is to draw
parallels between employee selection, development, and management on the one hand and technology
selection and implementation on the other. Leaders of some firms are knowledgeable and otherwise
comfortable with technological aspects of their production or service without fully appreciating the
personnel aspects that require systematic human resource management approaches.
Organization Development (OD), Strategy, and Training

In keeping with a theme of the course and textthat although training is very important to
organizational effectiveness, it isn't the only thing that matters either within or beyond the domain of
HRMthis section describes some aspects of OD and its relation to training. For purposes of this course,
some take-away points are provided in the portion of the lecture slides concerning OD, so you should
learn these (i.e., basic approach or philosophy of OD).
Some of the specifics in this section of the text go beyond what we need to know for purposes of
training and will not be examined. These concern material connected with Table 1-1, Table 1-2, and
Table 1-3.
Page 3 of 3
Training Needs Analysis (TNA) in a Nutshell

after Thacker & Blanchard (2006)
Analyzing The Performance Gap
What is the Nature of the Data (counts, other measurements, complaints)
What is the Source of the Data (company pronouncements, financial reports, HR reports, employee
surveys, etc.; see Table 3-1 in Thacker & Blanchard, 2006)
What is the Expected Performance (EP), for example the Objective or Standard?
What is the Actual Performance (AP), for example, the quantity or quality of output?
Is this performance discrepancy worth addressing?
Organizational Analysis (see Table 3-2)

Mission, goals and objectives (e.g., have they been communicated to employees, can people connect
them with their own work, and are they consistent with existing KSAs, technology, and systems?)
Social influences (do people care about meeting these objectives, and are norms promotive?)
Are rewards congruent with desired behaviour?
Does the design of the job promote motivation (e.g., by meeting autonomy needs) and effectiveness
(in terms of human factors in use of technology; demands in relation to the production system,
etc.)
Is job performance facilitated by clearly communicated performance standards, performance
feedback, and available coaching or other immediately available help?
Are the overall methods and practices (technology and systems) appropriate given the objectives and
the people employed?
Operational Analysis
Obtain basic information about the job -- descriptions, specifications, etc. (Table 3-3)
Obtain information about performance standards or specifications, if any (e.g., output expectations)
Use the Job-Duty-Task method to derive required KSAs (Figures 3-2, 3-3)
If desired, integrate this job-related information with strategic ends and means to derive competencies
Person Analysis (see Table 3-5)

Performance Data
Supervisor ratings (e.g. performance appraisal) or self-ratings, although both have many pitfalls
Objective performance data from records (productivity/work output, quality, waste, downtime,
customer complaints, absenteeism, accidents, etc.)
Objective observation of behaviour and performance on the job
Proficiency Tests
Measurement of behaviour and performance using paper-and-pencil tests or other assessment as such
(including assessment centres, structured interviews, etc.)
Attitude measures
Organizational surveys concerning strategy (awareness, buy-in), satisfaction/motivation, etc.
Training and Non-Training Needs (see Figure 3-1)

Is a KSA deficiency the cause?
Even if it is, can this deficiency be addressed in other ways besides training? (job aid, change the job)
Study Guide for Training Design II

Constraints
Constraints are organizational and environmental factors"realities" if you willthat limit or
otherwise shape the "what" and "how" of training. Organizational strategy (an "organizational factor")
can function like a constraint because training priorities should follow strategy to some degree. An
example of an environmental factor is government mandates for training of particular kinds, such as
hazardous waste education. This is a constraint in the sense that training dollars spent here cannot be
spent elsewhere.
Table 4-1 gives several examples of constraints. To demonstrate knowledge of what a constraint
is in the context of training, students should be able to list a few of these or similar constraints. It may be
helpful to conceptualize constraints in categories such as performance demands, trainee characteristics,
timing considerations, and financial circumstances of the organization.
Table 4-1 also illustrates various ways of dealing with particular constraints. Following this
table's lead, students should be able, for example, to identify constraints faced in the teaching of
Psychology 340 and to suggest some approaches to addressing those constraints.
Budgeting Time and Money

Table 4-2 shows various considerations that may be useful in planning the amount of time that
will be required to develop a training program or module. Students should give these considerations
enough thought to be able, for example, to recognize (though not memorize, in rote fashion) factors likely
to make it necessary to plan more time to prepare training. The specific calculation offered with
Table 4-2 should be taken with a big grain of salt.
Table 4-3 shows one particular training workshop's budget for development of the workshop.
Notice the categories (more than the specifics), such as background research/interviews with the client,
development work of the kinds depicted in the overview figure at the beginning of the chapter, and
developing the training materials, visual aids, and evaluation material to be detailed in later chapters.
Table 4-4 shows a more complete budget (for grievance-reduction training) in which
development is just one component. Students should be able to define or describe development and the
other components if asked. These components are:
Developmental costs including time and effort of trainers and support staff (e.g., graphic design,
etc.); materials consumed; costs of prior TNA etc.
Direct costs costs in delivery of training itself (costs that only occur when training actually
occurs) such as travel, facilities, food, equipment (e.g., projectors), trainer compensation
Indirect costs the rule of thumb is: these costs are not recoverable if the training does not occur,
e.g., marketing, clerical support for signing people up; preparation by trainer.
Overhead costs the programs share of general operating costs of the training and development
department. Example: T&D delivers one program a week, 40 weeks out of the year (downtime
for vacations, development, etc.). If each program is equally resource-intensive, you can divide
facilities cost (rent, heat, electricity) by 40; full time clerical assigned to T&D by 40, etc., for
each program
Participant compensation Employees who are off the job are still getting paid. Organizations
vary on how and when they include this cost in their budgeting for training. It is a cost in any
case.
Evaluation costs development of assessment tools; data processing, developing reports,
delivering reports (travel cost) all can be pertinent
When a trainer or training firm is brought in to provide training, this may be on a fixed cost basis.
That is, the trainer may be required to state a fixed price for which the training will be offered. In that
case the trainer usually will need to add an amount to the price above all anticipated and budgeted
expenses to ensure against losing money for unforeseen circumstances (such as difficulty in obtaining
needed information, thus increasing preparation time). With experience different trainers or firms arrive
at different amounts for this "contingency" component of the pricing; 40% and 100% (i.e., double what
you can find, ahead of time, to budget for) are two figures that the instructor has seen used this way.
Impacts of Individual Differences and Trainee Motivation

Differences among individuals who enter training may need to be dealt with if training is to
succeed in meeting its objectives. The text describes some different kinds of individual characteristics
and their impacts on how training should be designed or conducted.
One of these characteristics is readiness for the trainingdo trainees vary in whether they have
the requisite KSA in order to learn or otherwise develop through the training? For those who do not,
some prior training then would be needed.
Learning style preferences is another characteristic that might impact on training effectiveness.
For example, some people might learn most efficiently from a condensed, conceptual approach, while
others might tune out such an approach and learn better by engaging case examples and other, more
concrete instructional material.
Figures 4-1 and 4-2 depict some ways in which different training approaches ("Training Design
A" and "Training Design B") might or might not have different effects or consequences for different
people. In Figure 4-1, both of the training approaches yield more learning for people with more of a trait.
However, approach A yields more learning than approach B in every instance of people's level of the trait
(low to high level of the trait). Therefore unless the cost-benefit relation is poor, approach A should be
used with everyone. (That is, approach A might be much more costly than approach B, so if amount of
learning with A were not greater by enough to justify the cost, approach B might still be preferred.) In
Figure 4-2, approach B is best for people with the lowest levels of the personal trait in question, while
approach A is best for people with higher levels. So if it would be cost effective to do so, training of both
kinds should be made available; people should be assessed for their levels of this trait; and people should
be matched to approach A or B consistent with Figure 4-2 (each kind of person receiving the kind of
training that provides the most learning). In practice, however, cost effectiveness of this matching may
not be favourable, as when it is too costly to develop two programs to develop the same KSAs, too
difficult to measure the trait, impractical to match people to A or B, and so forth. Matching of this kind
requires solid research behind itresearch that usually is not done, and when it is done, often does not
point to large enough differences like those in Figure 4-2 to make matching cost effective. Thus,
although the concept of Trait-by-Treatment interactions (see title of Figure 4-2) is appealing, in practice it
is difficult to realize practical benefits from the concept.
Expectations toward training can vary among trainees. "Those with positive expectations are more
motivated" (Thacker and Blanchard, 2006, p. 130). By "positive expectations" the text authors also appear
to mean "positive attitudes." They suggest that it may be worthwhile for trainees with less positive
expectations or attitudes to attend pre-training that addresses attitudes and expectations around the KSAs
addressed by a training program. They go on to show how considerations of expectancy theory might
provide "leverage" for the pre-trainer to influence these expectations and attitudes. This material will not
be quizzed, but students who anticipate doing training certainly could gain from looking it over.
As mentioned in an earlier week (and not be re-examined this week) people vary in what they
find rewarding, and therefore training design, other planning, and implementation should take account of
these differences if rewards are to be used in training to induce or maintain trainee motivation.
Goal setting is an important motivational technique that receives its first mention here. Students
should be able to recognize and state principles or recommendations for using goal setting to motivate
people. For example, challenging goals usually are more motivating than easy goals.
Training Design Implications of Social Learning Theory

In the a previous unit, Social Learning Theory was described as the basis for recommending to
trainers and other educators that they induce attention, retention, and behavioural reproduction. It was
also noted that retention is enhanced when trainers conduct instruction in ways that activate memory
(making learners receptive to adding to what they already know), and that facilitate symbolic coding in
ways that promote cognitive organization that favours remembering, understanding, and use of
knowledge on the job. For example, a firefighter who acquires appropriate cognitive categories for major
factors in fire danger (e.g., effects of air flow patterns, building structure, etc.) will be more able to act
effectively in potentially dangerous situations.
At http://www.nwlink.com/~Donclark/hrd/learning/transfer.html, the following example is given
of a novel way of conducting instruction that might turn out to promote richer, better cognitive
organization and understanding. (The author emphasizes the benefits of this approach for transfer
outcomessee belowbut the reason for better transfer would be better learning in the first place.) A
typical course in computer use might involve one day of introduction, one day of word processing, one
day of spreadsheet, and one day of database training. Alternatively, there could be a half day each on
starting and setting up the three applications; typing, copying/pasting, and formatting text into the three
applications; performing operations in the three applications, and so forth. If this alternative approach is
superior as the author claims, most likely it is because instead of acquiring a mechanical set of steps for
what to do with each kind of software, learners will acquire a more conceptual understanding of what they
are doinga conceptual understanding reflected in a richer or otherwise better-structured cognitive
organization.
This material will not be re-quizzed as such, but again a reading of the associated material (pp.
135-138) is worthwhile for seeing some concrete or practical implications of Social Learning Theory for
trainers.
Transfer: Design, Relapse, and Organizational Factors

"Transfer" is the extent to which KSAs acquired in training are displayed in behaviour on the job.
Failures of transfer can occur for many reasons. For example, working conditions might be different
between the training setting and work setting (e.g., work load or other stressors in the work environment
might make it more difficult to recall knowledge or enact a skill than had been the case in training).
"Transfer outcomes" refers to the extent of change in job performance as a result of exposure to
training. (Recall that behaviour and performance are not identical; "performance" puts the focus on
whether standards for work output and outcomes are met.) Positive transfer exists when training is
followed by a higher level of performance; negative, by a lower level; zero, no change.
"Conditions of practice" refers to three particular facets of training design that affect learning
and, thus, transfer outcomes.
1. Massed vs. spaced practice distinguishes between spreading out occasions of training over time
instead of bunching them or using a single occasion (as is often done, as in a "one-day workshop").
Students should understand this distinction, be able to supply examples of each alternative (massed or
spaced), and be aware the spaced practice is usually, but not always superior for learning and for
transfer outcomes.
2. Whole vs. part learning concerns whether a task is broken down into parts trained separately or kept
intact and trained as a whole. Again students should understand the distinction, be able to give
examples of each alternative, and be aware that in general the whole method should be used if task
organization is high; the part method may be preferable if task organization is low and task
complexity is high. Task organization is the degree to which subtasks are interrelated, as when the
operator of a backhoe must coordinate hand and feet motions simultaneously. Task complexity is
equivalent to task difficulty in this context. Students should look in the text for how trainee
intelligence and massed vs. spaced practice design may be relevant in the choice between whole and
part learning, but this will not be quizzed (because these effects probably depend on the particular
tasks, training, and trainees). "Progressive part training" is a hybrid approach that illustrates how
there may be times when training design elements should be reconfigured.
3. Overlearning "is the process of providing trainees with continued practice far beyond the point at
which they perform the task successfully" (p. 139). Overlearning in training may be beneficial for
tasks that are important but not done often on the job, or for tasks that should become "automatic"
such as the way a worker should respond when equipment danger arises suddenly.
For some skills, the transfer outcome of training is more likely to be positive if the training
maximizes similarity between the training environment and the work environment, using identical
elements such as the same equipment (computer terminal, teleprompter, etc.) or by making the
surrounding environment as similar as possible in pertinent ways (noise or other distractions, etc.). For
other knowledge or skills it may be better instead to allow variation between the training setting and what
will arise on the job, because the work situation itself may be quite variable in how the knowledge or
skills covered in training will come into play. For example, in much management training and education it
is believed that the focus should be on general principles that the manager should acquire and be able to
apply flexibly in various ways.
Opportunities for trainees to receive feedback that gives them knowledge of results should be
built into training designs to facilitate learning and transfer. As covered in an earlier unit, one benefit is
promotion of trainees' self-efficacy.
Relapse prevention is warranted as part of training if the skills acquired are ones that might not be
used after trainingthat is, might not be transferred to the jobbecause of competing demands, motives,
or other factors that could lead the trainee to "relapse" to former ways of behaving. An emotional
intelligence development program provides an illustration. In the final session out of five sessions,
learners discuss the circumstances in which they believe they would be most likely to relapse to less
emotionally intelligent responses (e.g., when facing disagreement from co-workers). In this discussion
learners also generate ways of coping with relapse-risk situations so that the skills acquired in the
program will be more likely to be used (e.g., planning to respond to disagreement first by asking
questions about the basis of the disagreement, and to use emotional-control skills during this questioning).
About relapse training, students should learn when its inclusion in the training design may be warranted
and they should be familiar with its seven components. Although students will not be quizzed to list these
seven components, students should be able to give an example if one of the components is described, or
recognize a named or described component as a component of relapse training.
Finally in the discussion of transfer, there is a list of organizational conditions back in the
workplace that facilitate transfer: supervisor support, peer support, reward systems, climate and culture,
and trainer support. These or similar concepts were covered in earlier units and will not be re-examined
here except for trainer support which is new. As the text says, "one idea is to have trainers monitor
trainees at some point after training to assess how they are doing and provide feedback. The trainer sits in
and observes the trainee in a situation where she is required to use the trained behaviour" (p. 144).
Obviously this approach will be more practical and useful for some skills than others. For example, a
customer service representative's interactions with customers might be monitored, after which the trainer
would give feedback to the trainee. Students should be aware of this possible role of trainers (essentially
as a coach after training) and its potential contribution to transfer. Voluntary choice, confidentiality, and
exclusively developmental focus of this trainer-trainee interaction should be recognizable by students as
factors in how helpful trainer support is likely to be in promoting transfer of training.
In a later unit when coaching is covered, it will be apparent that a supervisor could act as coach to
an employee in a way that closely parallels this description of trainer support. Whether the trainer or
supervisor performs this role will depend in part on how trainers are used in an organization.
Gagn-Briggs Theory
The Gagn-Briggs theory of instructional design "provides a set of procedures to follow for each
instructional event to enhance learning" (p. 146). As shown in Table 4-8, "the theory identifies nine
events of instruction, which are tied to social learning theory" (p. 147). Although some of the links that
tie Gagn-Briggs and social learning theory are one-to-one, others may not be. Therefore students will
not be quizzed on the links between these theories or schemes as such; instead, think of social learning
theory as the guiding force behind the inclusion of particular events of instruction and their ordering in
the Gagn-Briggs scheme. Students should be able to describe or give an example of any of these events
of instruction if they are named. Students should also be able to recognize named or described events of
instruction as part of the Gagn-Briggs scheme. However students will not be asked to recall these events
of instruction "cold" from memory. That is, questions on this material will be in a multiple choice format
requiring familiarity with this material. Tables 4-9 and 4-10 will not be quizzed as such, but studying
them should help to provide this familiarity.
Study Guide for Training Design I

Overview: This Phases Inputs, Process, and Output
The figure on the chapter's title page (p. 114) tells, as usual, the inputs, process (key tasks or work
to be done), and outputs of this phase of training. The figure has some nice subtleties that you should
notice. It says that the training objectives (see "Training Objectives" heading in this study guide) should
take account of applicable learning theory, training needs as specified in the TNA, and organizational
constraints. It shows that there should be an analysis of factors that will facilitate (or inhibit) learning and
transfer and that learning theory and the training objectives should inform this analysis. This analysis
should influence the selection of methods of instruction (e.g., whether to use a lecture method or to put
people into simulations). Organizational constraints will also affect the choice of methods of instruction.
Finally, the evaluation objectives should be tied to the training objectives.
Training Objectives
The term "training objectives" refers to the various major kinds of objectives that can be set for
training. Here are the categories of training objectives and what they concern:
1. Trainee Reactions employees' evaluations of training in terms of relevance, enjoyment, etc.
2. Learning Objectives acquisition of KSAs and how learning will be demonstrated
3. Transfer of Training specifications of the changed behaviour that should be seen on the job
4. Organizational Outcome Objectives how the organization should benefit in terms of
outcomes such as sales, customer satisfaction, production efficiency, etc.
We will return to these categories of objectives in the later unit on evaluation of training, so
students will not be quizzed on them now except for Learning Objectives. It is worthwhile to be aware of
all four kinds of objectives now, however, because they should shape decisions made in the design and
implementation of training. For example, "all else equal," the instructional methods selected should be
ones that trainees will enjoy (satisfying an aspect of the first of these four kinds of objectives).
Learning Objectives
Learning objectives concerns the KSAs that trainees are expected to acquire from training.
Statements of learning objectives describe the type of behaviour that will demonstrate the learning, the
conditions under which the behaviour must occur, and the standards that will signify that a sufficient
level of learning has occurred. Students should know this definition and be able to state examples of
learning objectives containing all three of these components.
When composing learning objectives, training designers should think "Verbs." Examples of
verbs appropriate for demonstrating particular kinds of KSA acquisition are:
Knowledge display: states orally when asked

Intellectual skill display: classifies into appropriate categories when told
Motor skill display: constructs, executes, etc.
Attitude display: chooses given choice of
Thus the "formula" for writing a properly composed learning objective is:
Write the desired behaviour as a verb (count, place, list, etc.)

State the conditions of the behaviour, such as with aids or tools
State the standards for judging whether the behaviour has been exhibited sufficiently (e.g., within
3 minutes; with 80% accuracy)
Although formulation of learning objectives can seem tedious, it can have several benefits. When
trainees are informed about them, it can help provide focus for learning. When kept in mind by the
trainer, he or she can check instructional content and methods against the objectives to stay on track in
design and delivery. When available to the training program evaluator, learning objectives provide a
basis for developing and scoring measures of KSA acquisition. Other benefits are provided in the text as
well. Students should be able to recognize which benefits are accrued by which audience (trainee, trainer,
or developer) if presented with a list, for example (as in a multiple choice quiz item).
Your text argues against the arguments against developing and using learning objectives, and
that's a good thing. But there are some pitfalls or limitations to be aware of, as well.
1. Don't make specificity an end in itself. The point is to have a better objectivebetter for
trainees, trainers, and so forth. At some point, greater and greater specificity doesn't get you any more
benefitthere are "diminishing returns" and, ultimately, counter-productivity of getting too specific.
2. Don't focus the learning objective on performance in the training setting without an eye toward
transfer to the regular work setting. That is, if you work out in great detail only how to state a learning
objective for the training setting, you might have to state it in a way that isn't realistic for transfer to the
work setting.
Study Guide f or Week 7,

Traditional Training Methods
Matching Methods with Outcomes
The case at the opening of the chapter illustrates how, in practice, a variety of training methods
may be directed toward simultaneous change in various KSAs toward an overall outcome (in this
instance, a shift to team-based management).
"The various methods can be divided into cognitive and behavioural approaches. Cognitive
methods provide verbal or written information, demonstrate relationships among concepts, or provide
rules on how to do something. Behavioural methods allow the trainee to practise behaviour in a real or
simulated fashion. (p. 159)
Lectures
A lecture is a structured presentation in which a speaker (or writer) provides information or, more
simply, tells someone about something. Although most lectures are received in oral form, printed
material can provide the content of a lecture as well. An oral lecture can be live or recorded (audio or
audio/visual such as streaming video).
The overall structure that is recommended for a lecture is to provide an introduction (tell them
what you are going to tell them), present the content information (tell them), and provide a summary (tell
them what you told them). In the main body of the lecture, in which the content information is presented,
there should be a logical sequencing of information as an aid to comprehension and retention. One
helpful organizing principle is timeas when topics are ordered according to what to do first, next, etc.
Another is to use familiar distinctions such as correct vs. incorrect, basic vs. advanced, etc. Usually it is
best to use a conventional organizing logic (that is, the overall organizing logic or principles for a lecture
are usually not what a trainer should be creative about).
With a straight lecture or lecturette there is relatively little interaction between the presenter
and the audience, and there is relatively little activity by the audience other than paying attention, taking
notes, and, hopefully, mental operations for understanding and retention. A primary advantage of the
lecture is its low cost, especially if it is presented in written or recorded form. However, it can be
appropriate when the primary need is for people to acquire information. In addition, a lecturers
credibility and presence can command attention if presentation skills are strong. One disadvantage is that
people can have difficulty remembering a lot of information when it is presented orally; to address this,
written material may be provided along with the oral presentation.
Lecture/discussion uses a lecturette (short lecture of perhaps 20 minutes) plus interaction between
the trainer and trainees. Trainers can achieve more complex learning objectivessuch as problem
solvingthrough the use of logically sequenced lecturettes followed by immediate discussion and
questioning (p. 160). Questions posed by the trainees
maintain trainee focus on the material,

promote personal relevance (see pp. 164-165), and
provide feedback to the trainer about what is being understood or not.
Questions posed by the trainer help to maintain trainees interest and stimulate trainees thinking
about the content of the lecture (enhancing understanding and retention). Six types of questions by
trainers are defined and described in the text (closed-ended, open-ended, overhead, direct, relay, reverse).
Although students need not memorize these definitions they should be familiar enough with these
varieties of questions to be able to answer general questions such as whether it is considered good
practice to ask a question of a particular trainee even if the trainee has not volunteered to give an answer.
Trainees must get involved and respond to questions in order for trainer questioning to yield its
benefits. The text gives three tips: leave time for response; instruct trainees to write their responses down
or share them with one or two trainees; use the guided discovery method. The text does not mention one
further practice that can enhance or at least maintain trainee response to questions or other participation,
namely the trainers avoidance of commenting upon whatever trainees say. This is connected with the
concept of psychological safety for trainees as introduced in coverage of trainee motivation. That is,
comments by the trainer about whatever trainees say can induce a climate in which trainees feel their
answers are being judged, and it may be safer to say as little as possible. Thus when a trainer is using
questions or other audience participation, the trainer should be very aware of how he or she is responding
to trainee input and whether input truly is being encouraged. Students in our course will not be quizzed
on this material, but as usual, students are advised to look over this useful material.
Table 5-1 lists typical errors in lecture presentations and ways to avoid them. This material, too,
is very useful but does not lend itself to being quizzed (and wont be). Table 5-2 seeks to connect ten
components of lectures or lecture/discussions with basic learning processes such as attention and
retention. Students need not memorize the connections one-to-one (because they arent completely one to
one anyway), nor the components. However, students may gain a better understanding of how to attract
attention and induce retention by examining this table.
Demonstrations
A demonstration is a visual display of how to do something or how something works (p. 163).
It is usually best to combine a demonstration with a lecture/discussion on the same material. It is also
usually best if trainees copy the demonstration immediately after seeing it. Trainees might copy the
demonstration in groups, with trainees taking turns and being viewed by others. These others can provide
feedback and repeatedly recall the steps in the demonstrated behavior (and their rationale and other
information given about the steps in an accompanying lecture/discussion). This approach also presents
opportunities for question, instructor clarification, and group discussion, all of which contribute to a
common understanding of what should be done, and why (p. 163).
The task should be broken down into smaller, easily learned parts by the trainer. Then the two
main components of a demonstration are to present it and for trainees try it out. The text describes three
aspects to the presentation component
tell trainees what they will be shown (e.g., the parts and what they entail),
demonstrate, describing what is being done while it is happening, and
explain the rationale for doing things that way, separately for each part of the task.
One way to start the try it out component is for trainees to talk through the task before
actually doing it. Next they should do it, describing what they are doing and why (if it doesnt interfere
with doing it). Then trainees should receive feedback about stronger and weaker aspects of the
performance. Finally trainees should have additional opportunities for practice. Students should be able
to list these steps (the components of a demonstration) as shown in Table 5-3. Students need not
memorize the connections of these steps to the learning processes or areas of learning also given in the
table.
Games and Simulations

Training games and simulations are designed to reproduce or simulate processes, events, and
circumstances that occur in the trainees job. Thus trainees can experience these events in a controlled
Quotations are from J. W. Thacker & P. N. Blanchard (2006), Effective Training, Pearson Education Canada. | Page 2
setting where they can develop their skills or discover concepts that will improve their performance
(p. 168).
Equipment simulators are mechanical devices that require trainees to use the same procedures,
movements or decision processes they would use with equipment back on the job jobs such as airline
pilots, telephone operators, and many others (p. 169). Physical fidelity of the simulation concerns the
degree to which the simulation replicatesthe physical aspects of the equipment and operating
environment that trainees will find at their job site. Psychological fidelity concerns the degree to which
the simulation replicates, as closely as possible, the psychological conditions under which the equipment
is operated (such as time pressure and conflicting demands). Training in Action 5-1 describes an
instance in which lack of physical and psychological fidelity was detrimental.
Effective use of simulations requires that trainees receive feedback about performance. Physical
and psychological fidelity also must be assured.
Business games are simulations that attempt to represent the way an industry, company, or unit
of a company functions. Trainees are provided with information describing a situation and are asked to
make decisions about what to do. The system then provides feedback about the impact of their decisions,
after which trainees are asked to make another decision. This process continues until some predefined
state of the organization is reached or a specified number of trials are completed (p. 170). Trainees are
assigned to teams that compete against one another in the simulation game (p. 171).
Business games often target skills of leadership and/or decision-making. They may also be
designed to demonstrate principles or concepts (e.g., the dynamics of an industry or market) or to
integrate separate components of training into an integrated whole.
Games are available for purchase or other acquisition from various sources. However, the game
must align with the purposes of using it, and existing games may not be well-suited to given purposes.
Business games should be accompanied by other methods (lecture, readings, discussion, etc.) to
ensure that the purposes of the games are met. Business games can be considered a form of experiential
learning. Experiential learning will be covered in a later unit, so students will not be responsible now for
the following sketch of this concept. D. Kolb holds that one way people deepen their understanding of
concepts is by having consequential experiences that they can interpret and understand in light of those
concepts. Further, learners must have an opportunity to reflect on the consequential experience if concept
acquisition or expansion is to occur. Consistent with these notions, the text indicates that a very
important part of the training occurs after the game when trainees meet to discuss the results, as well as
the logic and criteria they used in making their decisions (p. 172).
The in-basket technique is a simulation in which trainees receive a packet of information (in the
in-basket) such as memos and reports. Subsequently trainees are required to make decisions based on
the information. This technique is used in assessing peoples abilities (such as for promotion) but it can
also be used to engage trainees to learn about factors in the kinds of decisions simulated (such as criteria
and processes that should be used in the decision making). Learning occurs when trainers and trainees
discuss or otherwise cover content involving decision criteria and processes.
Case Studies
A case study may be seen as a type of simulation as well. Usually the emphasis is not on arriving
at the right answers to questions about the case (there are no right or wrong answers) but on analyzing
the case in ways that clarify the problems or issues, generate a variety of approaches, and recognize
advantages and disadvantages of these approaches.
A variation of the case study is the incident process, in which trainees are given only a brief
description of the problem and must gather additional information from the trainer (and perhaps others)
by asking specific questions. Since managers gather most of their information from questioning and
interacting with others, this is activity is meant to simulate a managers work more closely.In such
instances, the focus is on understanding the criteria that separate relevant from irrelevant information and
learning where an how to gather relevant information (p. 174).
In addition to being able to recognize the preceding features and distinctions of the case study
method, students should be aware that the trainers role is much more oriented to process than content
with case studies. For example, the text states that when using case study methods, the trainer guides the
trainees in examining the possible alternatives and consequences without actually stating what they are.
The trainer must also direct the discussion of the case toward achieving the training objectives. Suppose
problem analysis is the objective of the training. Here you allow the case to go in the direction the
trainees wish it to go, as long as they are pursuing a problem and analyzing it. The role of trainer also
requires facilitation of group discussion, keeping the communication climate open while ensuring that the
focus remains on important learning points. The trainer becomes the catalyst for discussion by calling on
trainees for opinions and encouraging others to confront aspects of a position they do not support. In this
role the trainer must remember to deflect requests from trainees to give her own solution to the case.
Instead, use relay or reverse questioning techniques (p. 175).
Role Playing
When using role playing, trainees act out a part in a scenario presented by the trainer.
Approaches to role play vary in terms of how much structure is given to the players. Students should be
aware that this extent of structure can range from providing scripted dialog along with descriptions of
characters feelings, opinions, and so forth on the one hand, to spontaneous role plays on the other. The
different methods lend themselves to different purposes. Another distinction involves whether all trainees
are engaged in role playing simultaneously (multiple-role play) as opposed to having one group play for
the rest. Role rotation is sometimes combined with some of these approaches.
As with most other methods, feedback is important to effectiveness. When there are many
trainees present, feedback may need to come from peers because the trainer cannot view and respond to
all role play performances. However, peers usually are reluctant to give feedback and may not be
sufficiently knowledgeable to provide useful feedback. Sheets that show learning points to look for
may give the necessary guidance and backbone for peer feedback (p. 177). Another solution may be for
trainees to be videotaped so that they can view tapes later either alone or with a trainer or other expert.
The text describes many pitfalls in use of role plays. Students in this course should be aware of
the main kinds of pitfalls and their solutions. These are
Lack of fidelity (generalizability) of the
role play to the actual work situation
Modify the role play (they are

reasonably easy for trainers to write)
Unrealistic or trivial scripts
Modify the role play
Confusion about how to behave in the

role play
Keep it as simple and straightforward as

possible (e.g., dont provide too much
information or too much structure)
Conflicts left unresolved or the role play

otherwise does not have a natural ending
point
Follow tips in Table 5-4 for developing

and presenting role plays so they will
know where it is supposed to go
Behaviour Modeling
Behaviour modeling is a form of demonstration typically used when the task involves complex
social interaction such as making a sales call or giving feedback to employees. (The text mentions that
other kinds of behaviours such as safety behaviours also have been the focus of behaviour modeling.) As
was described earlier for demonstrations, behaviour modeling also calls for breaking down the task into
smaller units, presenting the demonstration, and giving trainees an opportunity to imitate the model. Also
as with other demonstrations, trainees should be told ahead of time (before viewing the model who
performs the behaviour) the key learning points and behaviours to look for; they should be told which
behaviours are which, during an enactment of the modeled behavioural performance; they should be
given rationales for doing things as done by the model; and they should receive feedback on their
performances that imitate the model. Often the model performance will be presented with audiovisual
material such as a videotaped movie in which actors are seen in their roles in the actual work setting
such as an office, shop floor, sales floor, and so forth. In contrast, a generic demonstration generally will
be performed by the trainer, perhaps with equipment that trainees will then use, or with problem solving
approaches that trainees will then attempt. For example, if the instructor of a course in training and
development were to demonstrate how to do a part of a task assigned as part of an in-class learning
activity (e.g., generate learning objectives), potentially we could call it behaviour modeling but it is
better-termed just a demonstration.
Given the nature of the skills often addressed with behaviour modeling, this method is generally
accompanied by role playing as the mode of imitating the models behaviour. Learning aids such as a
card that lists smaller units of the behaviour may be helpful (see Table 5-5, although students are
expected to know the summary of it and the text that is given in this study guide, but not everything in
Table 5-5). Vicarious reinforcement of the behaviour may be built into the models performance of the
behaviour, as when the model reaches the goal of the interaction by doing the prescribed behaviours.
On the Job Training

Most training, especially in small business, probably is done by on the job training (OJT). With
OJT, supervisors or employees with greater knowledge or skills instruct new hires or existing employees.
Informal or less-structured OJT is common but unwise.
One feature of formal OJT is that the trainer is selected partly for training skills, not just the skills
that the trainee needs to acquire to be able to do job tasks. Organizations using formal OJT may conduct
train-the-trainer training for supervisors or employees who will provide OJT.
Another key feature of formal OJT is its established sequence of learning events in the job
instruction technique (JIT). These events are listed in the text (p. 185) and in Table 5-6. Notice how the
steps parallel those of other instructional methods covered in this unit to a large degree (prepare present
try out follow-up). Students should have enough familiarity and recall of these steps to be able to
answer questions about what formal OJT does or does not involve. (Students will not be asked to list the
steps from memory, however.) Study of Table 5-7 will provide concrete examples that will help students
gain this familiarity. Table 5-8 will not be covered on the quiz, but, as usual, students considering future
work in training will gain from looking it over.
OJT offers some clear cost advantages if it is done effectively.... OJT also speeds up the
learning process (p. 192). OJT provides a great opportunity to get employees off on the right foot by
clarifying the norms, expectations, and culture of the work unit.... If knowledge acquisition is required to
perform the job , OJT techniques should be supplemented with other techniquessuch as apprenticeship
trainingthat are more suited to knowledge acquisition. For skilled trades, it is important to develop the
skills of the trade; however, certain knowledge is a prerequisite for that skill development. For that
reason, a significant amount of classroom training is also required as a part of that training. Computer-
based training, role-playing, reading of texts and manuals, and other techniques can all be combined
successfully with OJT (p. 193).
Apprenticeship training may be considered to be a form of on the job training. Typically it
combines classroom training, which may occur in community colleges, with work experience of a
specified duration. Most apprenticeships are in skilled trade and professional unions such as boiler
engineers, electrical workers, pipe fitters, and carpenters (p. 188). Government agencies regulate or
otherwise provide oversight to formal apprenticeship programs of this kind.
Coaching and Mentoring

Coaching and mentoring will be covered in a later unit of the course and so are not covered here.
Audiovisual Enhancements to Training

Audiovisuals (AVs) may be used with most any of the training methods covered in this unit, to
support acquisition of knowledge, skills, or attitudes. Audiovisual aids consist of any physical,
mechanical, or electronic media used to provide or assist instruction. The range of AV alternatives is
quite large, from simple chalkboard or whiteboard text and images to interactive multimedia
presentations (p. 194).
Static media are presentations of fixed (stationary) text or images such as printed matter and
computer-generated projections (p. 194). Figure 5-2 and the PowerPoint slides used in
Psychology 340 provide examples. A common mistake by trainers is to make these too dense or
complex. The texts guidelines (p. 195-196) are not completely consistent with one another. Still,
students in this course should be able to identify (though not recite from memory) the following
principles design and use of static AV aids (such as slides with lines of text):
Present one idea or concept per slide or other division (e.g., overhead or flip chart page)
Print in large letters
Limit to 6 or 7 lines with 6 to 8 words per line
Locate the visual aids where there will be a clear line of sight
When pointing at something on the slide, usually try to use a pointer, mouse, etc., in a
way maintaining eye contact with the audience instead of turning your back to the
audience
However, you may turn to the visual aid to identify a point and give it emphasis, on
occasion, provided that you turn back to the trainees and avoid speaking to the AV aid
Similarly, when writing on a large pad, whiteboard, etc., try to face the audience
When a visual aid is no longer being discussed, remove it.
This part of the text closes with commonsensical recommendations about testing out AV equipment ahead
of time, bringing back up equipment (e.g., projector bulbs) or otherwise planning for equipment failure
(e.g., knowing whom to call; bringing alternate media such as overhead transparencies), and arriving early
for setup when the presentation will occur. Students will not be quizzed on this, however.
Dynamic media create sequentially moving stimuli where the information is presented in a
continuously moving progression from beginning to end, as with audiotapes and videotapes, computergenerated presentations, and moving film (p. 194). Unlike static visuals, these methods can be, and
frequently are, used as the sole method of training (p. 196).
Audio recordings provide, in effect, a straight lecture as defined above. They are widely used as
a training medium. They ensure that trainees will receive the same information, but of course they lack a
live trainer to command attention or to interact with trainees. They have the flexibility that they can be
played in many settings (ones home, car, office, training room, etc.). They are likely cost less to produce
than some other dynamic media.
Videos are even more widely used, second only to classroom instruction in frequency of use. A
video, too, can constitute a straight lecture. However, as noted above, a video can, instead, be a
component of other instructional methods such as behavioural modeling. Training in Action 5-4 appears
to describe a video lecture and demonstration (though it is unclear whether in full course of training the
video is followed by a try it out in training period or OJT or some other follow-up).
In principle, an audio recording could be used for some kinds of behavioural modeling (centrally
involving speech) or other potential uses of video. Most likely a visual image of some sort, such as a
picture of the speaker, will accompany the audio recording to help maintain attention. Alternatively,
static text media such as bulleted word slides could accompany an audio recording, as is done with some
podcasts for university courses. Then synchronizing the audio and visual can be accomplished with a
computer-generated dynamic presentation.
Some principles for effective use of dynamic media are the same as for static, such as keeping the
line of sight clear, pre-testing the display devices, and having a plan for equipment failure. Dynamic
media may require turning lights down (as for viewing a video in some training settings), but the text
recommends bringing up the lights for group discussion of the material.
Although the initial cost of producing customized dynamic media can by quite high (e.g., $1000
per minute of finished product as of the time the text was written), these costs can be more than offset by
other savings. The text gives the example of a firm that produced and distributed its own video and thus
avoided spending $150,000 to bring 60 salespeople to headquarters for training. Commercially available
videos on standard topics such as sales training or customer service encounters may be an alternative to
custom production, although of course they must be suitable to the learning objectives and other training
objectives.
AV aids promote learning through their connections to the basic learning processes covered in
previous units. Ever-changing, static or dynamic AV aids (though not so changing or lively as to be
distracting) can maintain attention which would otherwise flag. Regarding retention, the symbolic
coding process is enhanced when pictures or graphic images provide visual cues that supplement or
complement auditory or written cues. Cognitive organization can be facilitated by graphic images that
demonstrate how the training relates to familiar concepts (p. 202). Regarding behavioural reproduction,
dynamic AVs can provide models or other demonstrations.

Computer-Based Training Methods
Overview
Computer-based training (CBT) refers "to any training that occurs through the use of a computer"
(p. 210). CBT is a general term that covers a broad array of training approaches using a computer.
As noted in a previous unit, "live" lectures, discussions, or other forms of discussion have the
potential to be especially engaging as a result of instructor style (energetic, amusing, etc.), as a result of
direct interaction with trainees (allowing trainees' own issues to be addressed, etc.), or other attributes.
Although CBT may provide less of this immediacy and responsiveness, it has its own strengths which
may compensate. The potential benefits of CBT include
Reduced cost
Reduced learning time
Consistency of instruction
Easier tracking of trainees' learning
Privacy to learners (avoiding embarrassment)

Greater individualization of training
Increased access to training (e.g., home study)
Reach to geographically dispersed learners
CBT uses many of the same methods and principles of more traditional forms of training, but
delivers material by use of a computer as the medium. For example, established principles for designing
and delivering a live lecture should be followed when corresponding material is delivered with CBT.
Although students are not expected to memorize the contents of Table 6-1 per se, they are
responsible for knowing the corresponding content as it arises elsewhere in this study guide.
Learning Management and Electronic Delivery of Training

"Management" of particular processes in organizations centrally refers to leaders' and managers'
efforts to create conditions favourable to those processes, to monitor them, and to intervene if the
processes do not produce the desired outputs. "Quality management" is an example, as "quality
managers" are responsible for creating conditions favourable to quality (e.g. the right technology and
systems), for monitoring quality of outputs, and for intervening as warranted. Correspondingly,
"Learning management" refers most generally to creating conditions favourable to learning, monitoring
learning, and doing something about it if people are not learning in the ways needed by the organization
(as for health and safety compliance, continuous improvement of quality and productivity, etc.). Students
may find it interesting to think about training from this point of view.
A "learning management system" (LMS) as defined in the text consists of "software of varying
degrees of sophistication that manages the delivery of training content and monitors and records trainee
activity" (p. 212). Some possible LMS functions are:
Class Management
Knowledge Management
Competency Management
Certification or Compliance Management
Some organizations already use software to track employee competencies, KSAs, career history, and
other attributes for purposes such as promoting career development and succession planning. Ideally, as
one of its functions, an LMS would provide information to the employee and employer about training
requirements and training opportunities for progression to higher levels of competency, for eligibility for
promotion, and so forth. This function could be accomplished for traditional training methods as well as
CBT; evidently the concept of the LMS is introduced here because if CBT is delivered through an LMS,
monitoring and recording of employee learning may become automatic or otherwise more reliable.
Figure 6-1 suggests that an LMS could be a repository of all or at least many of the training
program or content offerings in an organization (see knowledge base at lower left and arrow leading up).
This figure further depicts the LMS as a possible hub for training program or content delivery to
employees (middle-top arrow). However Figure 6-1 also shows the possibility of training delivery
outside of the LMS (the arrow at lower right) even when the monitoring and recording functions of the
LMS are accomplished.
Implied by the figure and this part of the text is a strong distinction between training program
content versus delivery system. Another term for the content is "knowledge base." Subject matter
experts for the topic of training should, of course, be the ones to determine the content. For example,
manufacturing engineers for, managers of, and experienced employees in a manufacturing plant's paint
shop would be subject matter experts for determining the content of a training program for new hires who
will work in the paint shop. Whether the delivery, or at least part of it, will be by use of a computer or
other electronic display is a question for training experts and other human resources experts, in
collaboration with subject matter experts.
"E-learning" is defined in your text as "the delivery of training through electronic media" (p.
211). The terminological distinction between "e-learning" and "computer-based training"if anyis
increasingly less important as the distinction between computers and other electronic devices (iPhone,
etc.) diminishes. If someone were to receive training by viewing a video or listening to an audio
recording with an iPod, this would be e-learning but not CBT strictly speaking. If they used a computer
to view or hear the same material it would be CBT. Thus the broader category here could be considered
to be e-learning; what matters is not whether the playback device is a computer but, instead, the pros and
cons of electronic presentation of material as opposed to live or other presentation (e.g., printed).
At the time this study guide was produced, Wikipedia had an excellent entry on "E-learning"
which students may want to access for their own interest.
Programmed Instruction
Programmed instruction (PI) is "a method of self-paced learning managed by both the trainee and
the learning system (e.g., computer program or text)" (p. 213). In principle PI can be delivered without a
computer (e.g., in printed material), but computers greatly increase its usability. "Material to be learned
is grouped into chunks of closely related information. Typically, the trainees are presented with a chunk
of information and then tested on their retention of that information. If the trainees have not retained the
material, they are referred back to the original information. If they have retained the information, they are
referred to the next chunk of information to be presented" (p. 210).
Table 6-2 illustrates how PI proceeds. The illustration assumes that the topic of the training is
something like "Principles of Programmed Instruction." (The trainee might be a new hire into HR.) The
"chunks" of information in this example are numbered 1 through 4 in the "learning stem" column.
Perhaps inadvertently, Table 6-2 also illustrates the limitations of printed text and the benefits of
computer delivery of PI. That is, with a computer the "instructions" (right hand column) to "compare
your answers" would not appear; the computer would do the comparing, give feedback, and either return
the trainee to material not learned (i.e., about which the trainee had given incorrect answers) or advance
the trainee to new material.
In some applications of PI it may be optimal to use a "blended" learning approach, in which PI is
used initially to give trainees background before using more traditional, live approaches such as role
playing.
The text claims that "development of PI is a difficult and expensive process" but this may depend
on the content and the learners. Particularly when factual knowledge is to be imparted, the work of
chunking it and developing questions about it (as shown for Table 6-2) may not be onerous. Still, a fairly
large training group may be needed in order for this work to be cost effective.
Intelligent Tutoring Systems

"An intelligent tutoring system is a more-sophisticated form of programmed instruction. It uses
artificial intelligence to assist in tutoring or coaching the trainee. ITS provides guidance and selects the
appropriate level of instruction for the trainee. In addition, an ITS can learn from its own process what
worked and what did not work in the training process. Based on this information, the ITS improves its
methods of teaching the trainee. Intelligent tutoring can be a text-based system or a combination of text
with graphics and other types of audiovisual aids" (p. 215).
Figure 6-2 provides a simple example. The kinds of mistakes in addition that are made by
Trainee A, Trainee B, and Trainee C are different from one another. A system with artificial intelligence
that could categorize these mistakes (e.g., as "never carries over when doing addition") could then provide
additional instruction to remedy the particular mistake (e.g., demonstrating "how to carry over" once
again or in a new way).
Components of an ITS may include a trainee model and a training scenario generator among
others. Students are not expected to memorize these components. However, a close reading the account
of how an ITS works will give a better idea of its nature, benefits, and challenges for the training
designer. ITS is much more expensive than PI to develop, and probably is not widely usedyet.
Interactive Multimedia
"Interactive multimedia integrates the use of text, video, graphics, photos, animation, and sound
to produce a complex training environment with which the trainee interacts" (p. 261). The text claims
further: "Typically, PI methodology is applied to learning chunks that are converted into a multimedia
format to facilitate learning" (p. 261). This is mostly true, in that chunking is an important task in the
creation many multimedia presentations. However, "PI methodology" implies a requirement to provide a
correct response to questions about a chunk before going on to the next chunk. Interactive multimedia
(IM) presentations often do not have this requirement, as when the learner merely proceeds at his or her
own pace and advances to the next chunk at will. When IM does have this requirement, it is PI, enhanced
with multimedia. Thus the "interaction" part of IM may be a simple as clicking the "next button"
periodically to follow a fully linear sequence or as complex as branching off to various content by various
rules or other contingencies. Table 6-3 gives more examples of possibilities for interactive structure.
Students need not memorize the contents of the table point-by-point, but they should be able to state at
least a few characteristics that make an IM presentation stronger (left hand column) or weaker (right).
Ideally trainees will become "immersed psychologically into the situation" with multimedia. For
example, if sales training includes spoken dialog in a demonstration in which a sales person interacts with
a client, the trainee may receive a fairly vivid depiction of the encounter.
IM may be used to impart basic knowledge (by using a computer or other electronic display
device instead of printed material), to promote interpersonal skills (by including elements of behavioural
modeling), and to develop KSAs of various other kinds. The text provides several rich examples.
Greater physical and psychological fidelity of IM material probably enhances transfer of KSAs
back to the job.
A "blended" approach as defined earlier with PI may also be optimal with IM. "Instructor-guided
discussion will generally be helpful as a supplement to IM" (p. 219). Such discussion may enhance
transfer, perhaps by enhancing fidelity in the sense of making connections between what was presented
with IM and the realities of the work setting.
Virtual Reality
In virtual reality (VR) training, an artificial environment is generated for trainees on a viewing
screen, in goggles, or with some other apparatus. As trainees operate in this artificial environment
(turning, walking, doing hand movements, etc.) the portrayal of the environment and of the trainee within
it changes accordingly. "To date, VR has been used for training complex and dangerous skills, such as
flying outside the earth's atmosphere and more traditional skills, such as teaching someone to speak in
front of large audiences" (p. 221). However, "few actual VR training systems exist" (p. 221). The
technology is not very accessible to most organizations and development costs are very high. There can
also be problems of "simulator sickness" such as vertigo or motion sickness. Nevertheless for some
specialized occupations or training VR's benefits could outweigh its drawbacks.
Strengths and Limitations of CBT Methods

Cost can be a strength if the number of trainees will be large; otherwise it is more likely to be a
weakness. "On average, an hour of CBT instruction is reported to require about 200 hours of
development time" (p. 222). CBT can be easy and inexpensive to deliver and use, as is the case with IM.
Cost savings can include travel and lodging costs when the training goes to the trainees (e.g., on DVDs or
over the internet) instead of the reverse.
Control over the content and process of training is strength of CBT. With traditional training,
different trainers or different training sessions may show variation that CBT can either eliminate, by
design, or else track (if learners have flexibility of how they interact with IM, for example). However,
loss of control can occur in the sense that the intended trainee may get someone else to go through the
training in his or her place (illustrated by examples given in the text). Users of CBT should anticipate this
possibility and build in compensating control mechanisms (knowledge tests, fingerprint scanners, etc.).
Knowledge and some categories of skills are very suitable for CBT approaches. A few examples
exist as well of enhancement of psychomotor skills. Blended approaches nonetheless may be warranted,
and especially when attitudes are the focus of training.
In terms of attention as a learning process, "CBT is generally seen as more interesting and
motivating than instructor based training such as the lecture" (p. 227). For retention-symbolic coding,
"CBT can provide multiple cues that can be used in the symbolic coding process." Retention-symbolic
rehearsal can be built into CBT if a simulation occurs in which trainees do behaviours and receive
feedback about their effects. CBT can be blended with actual behavioural reproduction that follows
viewing modeled behaviour in the CBT medium.

Development and Implementation of Training
Design, Development, and Implementation
A previous unit on training "design" concerned various matters that should be addressed early in
the process of designing or developing training, including formulation of learning objectives, budgeting,
and anticipating challenges to transfer of training (e.g., relapse), among others. This unit begins with
training "development," but the line between "design" and "development" is blurry at best. Here we
continue and complete the presentation of basic principles and tasks for trainers who design and develop
training programs.
Because the design of training is dependent in many ways on realities of implementation, such as
who will do the training and where it will be done,, implementation considerations also will be covered in
this unit.
Components of Instructional Strategy: The Program Development Plan

The figure that opens chapter 7 of the textbook (p. 231) indicates that that the central work to be
done in the development phase is to arrive at an instructional strategy. Thacker and Blanchard clarify
what they mean by "strategy" by detailing their concept of the Program Development Plan in Table 7-2.
In Thacker and Blanchard's conception of the Program Development Plan (PDP), learning
objectives are reached when specific learning points are covered in training. "A learning point is an
important piece of information that a trainee must acquire in order to accomplish the learning objective"
(p. 234). The text gives several examples. Covering these learning points usually will require some
display of information (printed or AV) or some physical materials for trainees to operate upon, so these
are specified in a properly constructed PDP. The instructional method for covering the pointswhether
lecture, simulation, or some other methodalso should be specified. In sum, the "strategy" is the
combination of how the content is organized (e.g., into learning points), how the content is presented
(instructional method), where and by whom it is presented, and what follow-up will occur either in terms
of transfer or feedback to the trainer and trainee ("evaluation" at the bottom Table 7-2).
Within a training session, different learning objectives might be addressed by different methods,
so the PDP is arranged (horizontally) so that it is apparent which methods will address which objective.
(The same is true, of course, of learning points and materials/AV.) However, some other aspects of
training, for which trainers must plan, usually do not vary with the objective but are a constant throughout
the session or training program. These aspects are listed at the bottom of Table 7-2 and are detailed in the
text: Facilities, trainer, method of evaluation, and measures that will assist transfer. Note that "measures"
in this context are not measures in the sense of evaluation but, instead, management actions that will
assist transfer, such as making provisions for the trainer to go to the trainee's work area after completion
of training.
A PDP may be seen as a particular way of arranging or expanding on elements of a more widelyused tool, the lesson plan. As implied in its name, a lesson plan concerns a "lesson"for example, a
2-1/2 hour session in which trainees will be introduced to particular concepts and try to apply those
concepts in problem solving. Most centrally, the plan specifies the nature, order, and (usually) timing of
instructional events such as posing questions to gain learners' attention, or explaining or demonstrating.
Although there is no single scheme for the remaining elements of a lesson plan, some common elements
overlap considerably with those listed in the text for a PDP. For example, when this study guide was
produced, Wikipedia listed the following among these elements (not all elements apply to all lessons):
The title of the lesson

The amount of time required to complete the lesson
A list of required materials including AV displays, handouts or training manual, etc.
The set or lead-in to the lesson, e.g., asking leading questions, or reviewing previously
taught lessons
A list of objectives, possibly stated as behavioral objectives (what the student is expected
to be able to do upon completion of the lesson) or as knowledge objectives (what the
student is expected to know upon completion of the lesson)
The instructional componentthe sequence of events which will take place as the
lesson is delivered such as lectures, demonstrations, role-plays, etc.
The summary (often with opportunity for questions or discussion)
Evaluationhow the trainer checks for mastery of the instructed skills or concepts
Other sources list some of the same and some different elements. In practice a training designer
may use various layouts to document his or her analysis of learning points and decisions about methods,
facilities, and other aspects of training design. That is, the horizontally-oriented PDP is excellent if the
various learning objectives require distinct learning points, methods, and materials. Otherwise the
elements shown and any other pertinent elements may just be addressed one after the other in a logical
sequence. For example, necessary background of the trainees or trainers is not shown in the preceding list
of elements, but the training designer should specify these and other requirements or considerations if
failure to specify them could spell trouble for other trainers using the lesson plan.
Training Method Effectiveness at Meeting KSA Objectives

As noted above, choosing appropriate instructional methods is key in this phase. Table 7-1
provides guidance for matching methods to training objectives. (Please note there is a misprint in the
table on the line near the top where it labels the two of the columns "skills" and two other columns
"training methods." This line should not be there at all; only "Objectives of Training" should appear
above all of "Knowledge," "Technical," "Interpersonal," and "Attitudes.")
As with other tables in this text that contain such specific quantification, students are not expected
to memorize the particular effectiveness scores of particular combinations of methods (which are listed in
the leftmost column) and objectives (remaining columns). However students are expected to be able to
tell, consistent with this table, which methods are clearly better than which others for meeting particular
kinds of objectives. For example this table indicates that discussion is particularly effective for changing
attitudes; discussion is also said to be ineffective for instilling technical skills. Other key points in the
table are:
Programmed instruction is better for imparting knowledge than for other objectives
Interactive multimedia is potentially effective for all four kinds of objectives
Equipment is especially suitable for technical skills
Role play is relatively ineffective for knowledge and technical skills but generally
effective for interpersonal skills and attitudes
Behaviour modeling is especially effective for interpersonal skills
On-the-job training is effective not only for knowledge and technical skills but also
attitude change
All of these summary points should be apparent by now, based on your understanding of the instructional
methods from material in earlier units.
Approaching this material from another angle, and also putting the table out at "arm's length,"
each of the instructional methods may be seen to use one or more of the following three modes of
instruction. As a general rule, to the extent that a method involves a mode, it has more potential to have
impact particularly on knowledge, skill, or attitude, in the following way:
Mode
Particularly (but not

exclusively) suited to
having impact on:
Conceptual explanations
Knowledge
Illustration/demonstration
Skill
Discussion
Attitude
Trainer and Trainee Manuals

Trainees generally should be supplied with a manual, perhaps in the form of a three-ring binder,
which "often includes all lecture materials, learning points, and supplemental readings. It may also
include exercises and some blank sheets for jotting down notes and lists in small group meetings"
(p. 236).
The trainer's (or "instructor's") manual will contain all of the information that trainees receive,
plus instructions for the trainer. These instructions generally will take the form of lesson plans as defined
and described above.
Facilities
"Facilities" encompass the physical space where training will occur (training room or work area)
and its characteristics such as furniture and AV display resources (projector, large pad on easel, etc.). The
text makes many recommendations that are worth reading but not worth memorizing (for a quiz).
Examples are: "a windowless room is best" and "check the soundproofing" (p. 236). This part of the text
could provide for trainers a useful checklist of aspects of facilities to consider when developing training.
Worth remembering is an implied principle of seating arrangement (Figure 7-1): The seating
should be consistent with the desired focus of attention for trainees. For example, an informational
session could be set up with a conventional classroom-type seating arrangement with all trainees facing
the trainer, in order to keep the focus on the trainer who mostly is providing information to trainees.
However, if discussion of this information also is considered to be important, and if trainees should, in
effect, talk to one another as well, then some other arrangement such as a U-shape should be used instead.
Use of an off-site facility (such as conference rooms in a hotel) can be advantageous if it helps
people "get away from work" and focus on their learning and development tasks in training. Of course
the particular facility must be conducive to this result of going off-site.
Both on-site and off-site, trainers may need to set or negotiate ground rules around multitasking
or interruptions (from cell phones, Blackberries, internet connections, etc.) to maintain focus on
training.
The Trainer
Table 7-3 presents a list of KSAs that trainers should possess in order to be effective. Students
should be able to state some of these attributes in each of the three categories when presented with a short
answer question about trainer KSAs. The list may not be complete but provides good illustrations of
attributes in each of the categories.
In the attitude category, Table 7-3 implies, sensibly, that training is a helping role. Thus people
who seek to become trainers should enjoy, value, and otherwise have a strong preference for jobs that
place them in a helping role. The mention in this category of self-efficacy could be reworded more
simply as, "confidence."
The knowledge category includes "subject matter" knowledge. In a previous unit covering onthe-job training it was noted that the trainer need not be the person who is most knowledgeable about the
job; however in this chapter it is noted that the OJT trainer does need "to know the job to be trained" (p.
241). Similarly in other forms of training the trainer might not be extremely knowledgeable about the
topic. He or she does, however, need to know enough about it to be able to give clear explanations and
answer questions. Some instructor's manuals include extensive background about the topic of the
training, to provide sufficient subject matter knowledge when it is practical to acquire it in this way.
The next sub-section of the text ("Experience") provides very useful suggestions about ways for
trainers to handle the question (from experienced trainees) of whether they have direct experience with
the topic at handwhen they don't. "A trainer does not need to have the same work experience as the
trainees to be effective" (p. 241). One tactic is for the trainer to acknowledge trainees' experience and
take on the role of discussion facilitator, leading trainees in discussion with one another of their pertinent
experience. Another tactic is for the trainer to note that information and recommendations being
presented were obtained from highly experienced workers, so the trainer's informational role is to convey
insights and approaches from experienced workers to the present trainee group.
More generally, often the best stance for the trainer to take is not that he or she is a sophisticated
expert on the topic at hand; instead, the trainer should function as a facilitator of trainees' learning and
developmentby presenting information, by providing developmental tools such as role play scenarios,
by facilitating discussion among trainees, and so forth. This orientation not only lifts a burden (and
potential stressor) from the trainer; it also puts the onus for learning and development on trainees, where it
belongs.
As noted in an earlier unit, even though trainers for on-the-job (OJT) training usually as coworkers or supervisors, these trainers should have many of the same KSAs as other trainers, including
knowledge about adult learning, skills for interpersonal interaction (e.g., so that trainees will experience
respect and psychological safety), and a confident attitude (so that impediments to the trainee's
development or other challenges in the training process will be handled productively).
The text notes that some organizations do not provide appropriate incentives for OJT trainers, as
when time spent training cuts into trainers' productivity and income or leisure time.
Alternatives to Development
For acquisition of generic KSAs (such as many topics in management development) for
compliance with some regulations (e.g., some safety regulations) and for some concerns shared by many
organizations (e.g., diversity management), it may be unnecessary and even wasteful for an organization
to develop its own training program because of availability of programs from outside the organization.
The text first notes the "consultant" option, which is when a particular trainer's or training firm's
program is brought to the organization. Besides possible cost savings, there is also a savings in time
when the program is already developed and ready to go. The savings come with the cost that the program
is generic, not tailored to the particular client firm. Some trainers may give the option for some tailoring
or customization, however (for a price).
A middle ground between in-house development versus hiring an external consultant would be to
obtain training materials (lesson plans or PDP, presentation materials, etc) for the firm's own trainers to
use in training that they deliver. This approach may include a train-the-trainer phase (so that the trainers
will have sufficient knowledge of the subject matter or the instructional method, if novel).
Finally there is the option of "outside seminars." These, too, involve generic topics and may be
the most economical if only a few employees need this training.
Consistent with the rest of the course, the following should be considered when choosing external
providers of training (bringing consultants in, or sending trainees out to seminars):
Are the objectives clear and are they relevant to the organization's needs?
Does the content of the training really address the objectives?
Will there be evaluation of whether the objectives are met?
The Implementation Phase of Training

Corresponding to the figure depicting the Development phase at the opening of chapter 7, there is
a figure for the Implementation phase on page 246. The input to the Implementation phase is the various
plans (such as lesson plans) and decisions (as about facilities to be used) from the Development phase.
The figure shows the process as conducting the training, first in a dry run (defined on p. 254) and then in
a pilot program (p. 255).
However, beyond the pilot program, at least, "implementation" will also involve making
arrangements for trainees to access training (through travel, time off work, access to computers for CBT,
or whatever is required) and for the training to be delivered.
The output is development of KSAs ("learned KSAs in the figure). Evaluation should be
conducted to determine whether KSAs were, in fact, developed.
Implementation Ideas for Training

This section of the text, like some others in this chapter, may be useful to students who will
design training, because it provides recommendations and reminders consistent with earlier material. For
example, the "icebreaker" is partly an attention-getter (consistent with the Gagn-Briggs scheme) and
partly a motivational technique (e.g., providing psychological safety or affiliation). However, nothing in
this brief section will be covered on quizzes.
Experiential Learning
The experiential learning model that is presented in Figure 7-2 is not identical to the model from
David Kolb that is most often cited and depicted on this topic. It does, however, share with the
conventional model the following basic ideas:
Trainees depth of understanding of concepts can benefit from undergoing related

experiences in exercises, games, take-home assignments, and other activities
This deeper understanding requires not only a related experience but also a lecturette or
other presentation of the conceptsso that trainees will have abstract concepts to
which they can connect their concrete experiences.
The connection of concrete and abstract experience requires active processing of the
experience, often called reflection, which can be accomplished through discussion in a
training session (as noted in the text) or in other ways such as keeping diaries containing
reflections on experience.
Implementation Ideas for Trainers

Again this section of the text may be useful to students who will design training, because it
provides recommendations about the nuts and bolts of training delivery. However, for many of the
recommendations there is the proviso, it depends (p. 251), so material in this section will not appear on
a quiz. Some material here overlaps with material in earlier units. The tips on dealing with different
trainees is unique to this unit and potentially very helpful to trainers.
Dry run and Pilot program

In essence, the dry run is not intended to actually train the participants. Instead, it is designed to
determine the value and clarity of the various pieces of the training program in a controlled setting
(p. 254). The main goals of the pilot program are:
To provide the trainees with the relevant training

To assess further the timing and relevance of modules and various training components
To determine the appropriateness, clarity, and flow of material (p. 255).
One final note: Although this pilot program will help to improve the program, examination and
appropriate revisions should not stop here. Training evaluation goes on continuously (p. 255).
Transfer of Training
The material in this section also repeats material in earlier units, and thus will not be covered
again on quiz material. Nevertheless, Figure 7-3 provides a useful summary of some key factors in
transfer of KSA development from the training setting to the work setting.

Evaluation of Training, I, Measurement
The Evaluation Phase of Training
As indicated in the figure that opens the chapter, in the evaluation phase of training our inputs are
Objectives, which the text calls Evaluation Objectives but may be better-termed Training
Objectives because they are the same objectives that have been driving the rest of the training
program
Organizational constraints, which may include limited budget for the evaluation specifically
Design issues, which are specific practicalities related to aspects of design, discussed later.
The basic work in this phase (process) is to design the evaluation and carry it out. Evidently
this figure from the text only shows design but not execution because design is usually the harder part.
Unfortunately the word design has two different meanings in this and most discussions and
uses of research design. One meaning corresponds with the general meaning of design, which
encompasses constructing and planning. Thus, trainers are designing an evaluation when they decide
on the overall priorities and approach (strategy in the figure) and when they construct assessments such
as questionnaires. The other meaning is more specific to research design. In this meaning, design
essentially involves the comparisons that will make your measures interpretable. For example, if you
have an outcome measure concerning someones attitudes, how do you know whether attitudes have
become more favourable as an effect of the training? You need to design-in some basis of comparison
such as when you use a pre-test/ post-test design that can demonstrate change over time.
Finally, the figure distinguishes process measures and outcome measures as output.
Ideally, evaluation is not really a final phase but is, instead, integrated with earlier formulation of
objectives, decisions about instructional design, and implementation. For example, objectives should be
stated in ways that will facilitate evaluating whether they are met.
Rationale and Resistance to Evaluation

Why evaluate? Organizations have a variety of systems and processes in place to keep track of
expenses, revenue, profit, return on investment, customer satisfaction, and other critical indicators of
organizational effectiveness. Training effectiveness should be monitored similarly so that employee
effectiveness can be achieved as efficiently and fully as possible. When training is ineffective, there can
be serious consequences not only for employees day-to-day work but also for safety, morale, regulatory
compliance, and other management concerns.
Formative vs. summative evaluation. Summative evaluation is directed toward judging
whether the outcome of some effort was a success or failure. A lot of evaluation received by a university
student is summative in the sense that its primary purpose is to document whether the student has met
some criterion of having learned course material. In an organizational context, evaluation would have a
summative emphasis if the main questions of the evaluation research were along the lines of Did we get
our moneys worth? or Should we continue with this program?
A formative emphasis is reflected in questions such as How can we make this training program
more effective? Many students receive less of formative evaluation compared with summative. An
example of a purely formative approach would be when student work groups exchange products that they
have generated and then provide feedback to one anotherwithout producing scores that will figure into
course marks. In this example, the purpose of the evaluation is to enhance students learning, by
revealing alternate approaches or areas for improvement of the approach taken.
Why not evaluate? Thacker and Blanchard recommend that most evaluation of training
programs in organizations should be formative, not summative. This is because some of the reasons for
not evaluating training stem from the risks created by a summative emphasis of evaluation. In particular,
if an evaluation study shows that training has had no impact on KSAs or job behaviour, then the trainer,
training program designer, and/or training department manager may be at risk for sanctions. When the
emphasis is formative, data collection and analysis are geared toward learning why any shortcomings
were seen relative to objectives so that remedial action can be taken. Although Thacker and Blanchard
suggest that there is a fairly widespread sense of risk for training departments surrounding evaluation, the
prevalence of evaluation is increasing, with perhaps half or more of Canadian organizations evaluating
learning, behavioural change, or organizational results (p. 263).
Another reason for not evaluating training is the claim that there is nothing to evaluate when
training is something that people receive when it is their turn to receive training that is largely a reward
and when little thought has been given to the KSA or behavioural changes that are supposed to result
from the training. Obviously this claim reflects poor training design (tracing back to the TNA phase).
Inclusion of an evaluation component might sharpen the focus of the training program in these
circumstances and make it more likely that the training will be worth the efforteven if the evaluation
focuses on whether people experience the training as a reward (if a key objective is to reward people).
Thus the point is that whatever the implicit or explicit objective might be for the training, evaluation
should at least be considered.
A further reason is that evaluation of training is often seen as unnecessary and expensive.
Evaluation may be unnecessary in some instances, as when post-training job performance is high in
nearly all cases. Even in this instance, however, it could be worthwhile to collect data to help identify
areas for improvement of the training or unnecessary/wasteful aspects of the training. Moreover, a
cost/benefit analysis of this training, justifying future budgets, might require some evaluation data. As far
as expense of the evaluation itself is concerned, evaluators can try to keep the expense proportional to the
need and benefit of the evaluation. For example, when the training program appears to be meeting its
objectives, evaluation data might be collected only in the training setting; with indications of program
shortcomings, data collection might be expanded to the post-training work setting.
Process Evaluation
Process evaluation concerns what actually takes place in the training program (p. 265). Thus,
process evaluation involves collecting data on what happened (e.g., Was the schedule followed? Did
trainees receive their trainee manuals?) and examining the data to see whether those events are consistent
with the design or plan for the training. This comparison between what was and what should have
been can be essential to understanding failures of training programs to meet their objectives. As we saw
in previous units, the design or plan of a training session or program may be rather complex, and it is
important to include all the programs components. For example, even a single lesson plan may be fairly
complex, entailing many of the Gagn-Briggs events of instruction. If the events do not all occur, training
effectiveness is likely to suffer (if the design was a good one). When process evaluation is conducted, it
becomes possible to analyze whether disappointing effects of training stem from shortcomings of
implementation (including trainer performance, AV failures, inappropriate facilities, etc.) or shortcomings
of the plan or even the thinking behind the plan (e.g., TNA shortcomings).
Table 8-1 provides a list of potential questions to address in a process evaluation. The list is not
exhaustive (nor particularly well-organized) but it illustrates several common areas focused upon in
process evaluation, including:
Conformance with the overall schedule and particular lesson plans
Lecture process (e.g., effective use of questions)
How designated methods (case study, role play, etc.) were used (e.g., with debriefing, as
recommended?)
If the training design has other elements such as follow-up by the trainer in the trainees work
setting post-training, then the process evaluation should collect and analyze data on these elements. This
could be as simple as documenting the occurrence of the follow-up.
Keep in mind that the trainer often is not the training designer. The designer might not have
specified some important elements, leading to their omission. Or the trainer might not understand
or appreciate the importance of some elements. Or the training facilities or unforeseen events
might have made it difficult or impossible to implement some aspects of the design. Thus there is
considerable potential for slippage between what was intended and what occurs in training.Table
8-2 indicates that process data is mainly of interest to the training department and not to
customers including trainees, their supervisors, and upper management of the organization. This
claim is understandable because process data concern the implementation of training and this is
the concern of the training department. When customers care about evaluation, their concern is
likely to be with outcome evaluation.The text is very terse about what the sources of data
should be for a process analysis. Students should be able to list some of these sources:Trainer
logs or other trainer records
Materials (completed booklets for exercises, etc.)
Peer or supervisor observation
Trainee answers on questionnaires that ask what happened during the training
Outcome Evaluation
Outcome evaluation concerns how well training has accomplished its objectives (p. 265).
Kirkpatricks hierarchy of outcomes in evaluation. D. L. Kirkpatrick devised a widely-known
scheme that describes four kinds of outcomes or objectives of training. These four are often conceived
with the hierarchical relationship shown in Figure 8-7.
Reaction Outcomes (lowest in the hierarchy) how trainees react to the training in terms of
perceived relevance or benefit, enjoyment, and other perceptions, emotions, and evaluations
Learning Outcomes the extent to which the learning objectives were met
Job Behaviour Outcomes (also known as Transfer Outcomes) the extent to which learned
behaviours are transferred to the job
Organizational Outcomes (Organizational Results) the extent to which the intended benefits to
the organization, such as improved efficiency, quality, revenue, and so forth are attained
Reaction Outcomes
Thacker and Blanchard distinguish two key aspects of trainee reactions as affect (how people
feel about the training) and utility (beliefs about the value of training).
T&B imply that utility is more worthy of assessing because data on utility are more valuable for
making changes (p. 270) to the training program. However, affect is important, too. If trainees dislike
the training, their motivation and their learning and development are likely to suffer. (Admittedly, the
same is true if trainees perceive little or no utility.) Consulting firms that sell training programs also
regard trainees affective reactions as important, partly because happy trainees will recommend continued
use of the program. The training department within an organization may have a similar stake in trainee
affect.
Figure 8-1 illustrates a questionnaire for assessing trainee reactions. This questionnaire will be
familiar to university students who have filled out course evaluations. The text indicates that some of the
common categories of reaction evaluations are
Training relevance
Training materials and exercises
Reactions to the trainer
Facilities and procedures
Many trainers refer to reaction questionnaires as smile sheets because trainees overall liking of
the training often is so dominant in this kind of assessment. Nevertheless, a set of carefully crafted
questions that ask as specifically as possible about relatively stronger and weaker aspects of the training
can focus the trainers and training designers improvement efforts.
Many organizations (including universities) collect data only on reaction outcomes to assess
instructional effectiveness. This is misguided because although trainees are, by definition, the only
source of information on reactions, trainees do not really know some of the most important things there
are to know about effectiveness of training or education. Trainees generally will not know about
organizational-level outcomes. They may have beliefs about their acquisition of knowledge or skills in
relation to learning objectives, but these perceptions could be erroneous and thus poorly assessed on a
questionnaire given to them. Reaction questionnaires often are administered before transfer of training
can be assessed, making these questionnaires useless for transfer assessment in organizations. Even if
reaction questionnaires are administered later, trainees may not have accurate perceptions about the extent
of their transfer.
Another problem with exclusive reliance on reaction data is that it could assume too much
importance. Trainees might not be delighted with the training because it requires attention, effort, a bit of
risk taking, and so forth. These reactions might call into question the training approach. Still, trainees
might learn and otherwise develop to the greatest practical extent through the approach. Therefore,
learning and development should be assessed more directly by obtaining assessments at other levels of
Kirkpatricks hierarchy.
Developing a reaction questionnaire. Your primary task when developing a reaction
questionnaire is to compose a set of questionnaire items concerning perceived usefulness of the training
(utility) and evaluations of whether various aspects of the training (exercises, trainer performance,
physical conditions) were interesting or otherwise enjoyable (affect). Often these items will take the form
of statements, with which the trainees may agree or disagree (see Figure 8-1 and page 301 for examples).
Figure 8-2 provides some useful reminders about developing a reaction questionnaire. Point 2,
concerning writing out questions, corresponds with the immediately preceding statement that items
concerning utility and affect should be composed concerning exercises, trainer performance, and so forth.
Point 3 is illustrated in Figure 8-1 by the use of a rating scale for trainees to use to tell the extent of their
agreement or disagreement with each statement. The remaining points are self-explanatory. Students
should be able to list some of these procedures for developing a reaction questionnaire and some of these
components (reaction items, rating scale, demographic questions illustrated in point 5, sections for
additional comments).
Questionnaire construction. More generally on this topic of questionnaires, students should be

aware of the following points implied by Figure 8-5 about proper questionnaire construction:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Use the simplest possible language.

Dont combine multiple questions into one question (double-barreled questions).
Label the scale points as clearly and completely as possible.
Set the number of response options so that answers will be meaningful yet the load or complexity
for respondents will be as low as possible.
5. Match the response mode to the question.
Specifically, students should be able to recognize and identify errors in these regards (double-barreled
question, mismatched response mode, etc.).
Learning Outcomes
The training programs learning objectives should have specified the knowledge, skill, or attitude
acquisition or change that is sought by the program.
Knowledge acquisition may be assessed efficiently and effectively in most instances with a
paper and pencil test such as a short answer test or a multiple choice test. Page 302 provides an
illustration of short answer format for the Fabrics, Inc. case. Figure 8-3 provides some pointers about
developing a multiple choice test, although the text authors say that their coverage of this topic is
insufficient and that other sources such as Evaluating Training Programs (authored by the American
Society for Training and Development) should be consulted. Your instructor is not so sure that this task
is that difficult. However, as students in this course may have seen, once in a while the trainees (or
students) will interpret a question differently from how it was intended from the writer, leading to
inaccuracy of the assessment. Pre-testing (point 6 of Figure 8-3) is desirable but often impossible; in
place of pretesting, ongoing revision and continuous improvement of assessments should occur. The
text does not mention that it is often useful to look at whether people who answered any particular
question correctly also tended to answer other questions correctly This is expressed as a correlation in an
item analysis report. Usually when an item has a low correlation of this kind, it means either that the item
is poorly written or that the content that it concerns was not covered adequately in the training.
For purposes of our course, students are not expected to know these details of multiple choice test
construction (nor know Figure 8-3 specifically) but they should be aware of their common use to assess
knowledge. Students should also be aware that there may be reasons either to be sure to assess
knowledge or to decline to assess knowledge. Assessments may be especially warranted when the overall
purpose is to ensure safety or regulatory compliance, for example. In some uses of training, however,
knowledge testing may be in conflict with principles of adult learning (e.g., promoting psychological
safety for learners) or with the kind of climate or relationship sought between the trainer or organization
and the trainees. To deal with this, the instructor once used a Jeopardy game with a training group to
find out whether they had acquired the knowledge content of the program. Although individuals could
not be scored in this way (reducing risk of failure and promoting the positive climate sought), the trainer
received feedback on whether, in general, the intended content had been covered and the intended
knowledge acquisition had taken place. Students also received feedback in the sense that they could see,
as the game progressed, whether they knew the answers (or at least recognized them after someone else
gave them). This training had been voluntary, so this feedback positioned trainees to seek further training
if the Jeopardy game signaled they needed it.
Skill acquisition is more difficult to assess. Students should be aware of these two approaches.
When application of the skill produces measurable output, the conformance of the output to
standards can serve as a skill acquisition measure. For example, machinists skills are evident in
their production of machined parts that conform to specifications. As another example, after
train the trainer training, trainees could demonstrate production of lesson plans containing
recommended elements.
For interpersonal skills with less measureable effects (e.g., telephone customer service
interaction), the skilled behaviour itself must be assessed. Trainees would enact the behaviour in
a way that is standardized (relatively consistent from one trainee to the next) and that can be
scored. A structured role play can provide the standardized conditions for demonstrating the
behavioural skill. Scoring can be accomplished by establishing a set of behaviours (e.g.,
questions of clarification) or aspects of behaviours (e.g., friendliness) and criteria for judging
their occurrence in the trainees role play performance. The Fabrics, Inc. case material on pages
302-307 provides extensive illustrations.
If assessment in the training setting is difficult or otherwise costly, it may be adequate to assess
skills on the job. For example, bank tellers conformance to procedures may be evident in alreadyexisting tracking of their use of computer terminals, money dispensing machines, and other technology in
the bank branch.
However, for some jobs and skills it may be worth the relatively high cost of measuring
proficiency in the training setting. For example, a police academy might include training in "defusing a
tense situation." To evaluate learning before allowing the officer to wear the badge, the trainer might
stage an elaborate role play in which the trainee receives a score reflecting the extent to which he or she
performed the behaviours that were prescribed as responses to problem behaviour. (This behaviour
would be acted out by the trainer or an accomplice within the role play, for example.)
Attitude change is also difficult but not impossible to measure. There are several challenges to
accurate assessment of attitude change, of which students should be aware:
Measures must suit the purpose

The design of the evaluation research must be able to detect attitude change
The self-report nature of attitude measures complicates things
Attitude measures often take a form similar to reaction measures, consisting of various statements
with which trainees will rate their extent of agreement or disagreement. Items in Figure 8-4 illustrate this
approach. The text says that existing attitude scales should be used when possible. However, many of
the attitudes in published measures wont be pertinent, as when they are of a general nature (e.g., ones
commitment to their organization) but the training program seeks something more specific. Even in
these instances, it may be worthwhile to do a literature search and try to find related, published
assessments, if only for inspiration toward developing your own questionnaire. For example, items in
Figure 8-4 concern attitudes toward empowerment, which presumably, was the target of a training
program in this example. These or similar items may have appeared in books or research studies on
empowerment and its implementation. Ultimately the items must correspond closely with the attitudes
that are targeted in the training. When using the format of Figure 8-4, it should be apparent, for example,
that people who strongly agree with the items have a strongly favourable attitude toward the approach
(empowerment in this case) or issue or whatever the matter was for which attitude change was sought.
Research design often is a greater concern for attitude assessment than it is for knowledge or skill
assessment. Trainees often can be assumed to have very little of the trained knowledge or skill at the start
of the training program. Thus, a "post-test only" design may be sufficient. In contrast, trainees usually
have pre-existing attitudes about matters addressed in attitudinally-focused training. Therefore detection
of attitude change is paramount. Various elements of research design discussed later become important to
whether a valid inference of change is possible.
The self-report nature of attitude data does not, by itself, make these data invalid. One
complication, however, is that the issues addressed in attitude-oriented training may be charged issues,
such as attitudes toward advancing historically disadvantaged groups within an organization. Trainees
may perceive correct answers to the items and give these instead of what they truly believe. Anonymity
of responses is critical to valid measurement in these instances (and is wise to maintain in other
instances).
Job Behaviour Outcomes (Transfer)

The third of four levels of training outcomes is known variously as job behaviour or transfer
outcomes. As the text authors note, many of the same measures of behaviour as used in the training needs
assessment (TNA) may be usable to assess transfer after training. After stating accurately that the
primary sources of data are interviews, questionnaires, direct observation, and archival records of
performance (emphasis added) Thacker and Blanchard then declare that questionnaires are often
preferred (p. 275). This is an odd declaration. Questionnaires may often be preferred but it is
questionable whether they are best in many instances. In the example of Figure 8-5, use of a
questionnaire does make sense if the good versions of items are used. We might think of this
questionnaire as a partial assessment of the training given to supervisors at Fabrics, Inc. To the extent
that employees give favourable answers to these questions, the supervisors can be considered to have
transferred their training to actual supervision. In contrast, imagine training for telephone customer
service representatives styles of interaction with customers. Behavioural observation by supervisors is a
natural approach to assessing transfer here.
Thacker and Blanchard also are overly positive about the questionnaire-based approach to
assessing transfer that is illustrated in Figure 8-6. Even though this kind of questionnaire appears to hold
specificity of response options as an advantage, this advantage evaporates when raters must guess what
the rated individual would do in situations never observed by the rater. Thus, students are not expected to
be able to answer quiz questions concerning this "scripted behaviour" approach to measurement.
Finally with regard to transfer, Thacker and Blanchard note that timing of measurement should be
considered. "If the objective were to learn how to complete certain forms, simply auditing the work on
the job before and after training would determine whether transfer took place. This could be done soon
after training was complete. When learning objectives are more complex, such as learning how to
problem solve or resolve conflict, wait time before assessment should be longer" (p. 277).
Organizational Outcomes
Organizational outcomes are the increased levels of revenue, profit, quality, customer satisfaction
or other consequences for the organization that the training was intended to produce. Particularly when
the triggering event for training (see TNA unit) was an organizational-level outcome of this kind,
measures should be taken after the training to verify the intended effect. It might be necessary to allow
some time to pass between the training and this measure in order to detect the effector it might not.
Factors Affecting Various Training Outcomes

Figure 8-7 reminds us that when we measure the four kinds of outcomes there are many other
factors besides training design and implementation that may influence findings. For example, an
otherwise well-designed and delivered program might not yield very favourable reactions if trainees'
expectations for the content or style of the program were violated.
Study Guide f or Week 11, Evaluation of Training II:

Cost-Benefit Analysis and Design
Benefits in relation to Costs of Training
As its name implies, cost/benefit analysis compares training costs to benefits so that costeffectiveness may be judged.
Actually Thacker and Blanchard want to reserve the term "cost-effectiveness evaluation" for
instances where specific dollar figures may be stated for training's monetary benefits; they revert to
"cost/benefit evaluation" when only non-monetary benefits may be specified (such as increases in
employee morale, perhaps assessed on an annual employee survey). This terminology is not universal;
HR professionals may commonly use the term cost/benefit analysis or evaluation for what the text
insists is cost-effectiveness evaluation. Nevertheless the distinction between monetary and nonmonetary benefits is valid and widely-recognized.
When it is difficult to place a monetary value on trainings benefits (so-called cost/benefit
analysis), managers must judge subjectively whether the benefits were worth the monetary cost. It may
be sensible in some of these instances to conclude that training was worthwhile. For example, training of
supervisors might produce improvements in employee morale, in an organization in which organizational
leaders believe employee well-being to be an end in itself. Nevertheless, with greater effort, some way of
putting a monetary value on trainings effect may be found, thus allowing a more objective assessment.
Continuing with the morale example, higher morale might translate into lower absenteeism, fewer
grievances, higher work output, and so forth, and monetary values could be placed on these.
In other instances, trainings monetary benefits can be determined more readily, as when remedial
training yields a reduced cost of materials because of fewer errors being made, or when sales volume
increases.
Table 8-3 illustrates a costs savings analysis, that is, an instance in which the monetary benefit
consisted of specified savings. This example is a good one because it is fairly elaborate, showing various
costs that grievances had been creating for the firm before the training occurred, and how these costs went
down after the training. Notice how an attempt has been made to identify various costs (union
representatives time as well as managers time), thus giving as complete a picture as possible of the
savings. In other instances the cost savings analysis may be simpler, as when materials cost in a work
area is, for illustration, $100,000 per month before training and $80,000 per month afterward. These
costs would be compared with the training cost; if that cost were $20,000, then the training would break
even in the first month and yield a net gain of $20,000 every month thereafter (provided that the
behavioural/performance improvements were maintained fully).
When possible, it may be worthwhile to calculate return on investment (ROI) as the ratio of
monetary benefits to training cost. For example if a training program saves the company $188,000 for an
investment of $33,000 for training, that is a ratio of 5.7, indicating a savings of more than $5 for every
dollar spent on training. A text on training by R. Noe indicates that this method is used by major
corporations and appreciated by many managers and executives.
Utility analysis is a more complex form of cost-benefit analysis, and it is not as widely used as
the others. Consequently students in this course are not expected to be able to use nor explain this
method, but they should be aware of its existence. Three further points about utility analysis (also not to
be quizzed) are:
It adds a time dimension to the benefitsthe longer the effect of training, the more utility
It takes account of measurement error (r_yy in the equation for utility analysis)
It may be optimal when:

o
the data available to the training evaluator involve the kinds of estimates of payoffs that
appear in equation
the equations other components (decay or augmentation over time; measurement error)
are pertinent
the scale of savings warrants the effort and other cost to use the method.
What makes use of any of these cost-benefit analysis methods worthwhile? According to
Thacker and Blanchard, use of these methods will
Justify and expand training budgets
Contain and allocate costs more rationally
Improve the image of training.
The last of these effects may be beneficial not only to the training department but also to the organization
as a whole, because it may improve demand for training and thus training's contribution to the
organization.
Who is interested in outcome data? Table 8-6 provides the following overall, logical answer to
this question:
The training department generally cares about most or all of the four kinds of outcome data.
Customers vary more in what they care about, depending on the category of customer.
o
Trainees certainly care about reactions and, hopefully, learning and transfer
As you go further up in management, organizational results become the more important

criterion of success, and trainee reactions become less important
Types of Validity in Evaluation Research

The first thing that a training evaluation research design must accomplish is to provide a
convincing basis for being able to conclude that trainingand not some other factorproduced desired
learning, behaviour change, or other outcomes. This is an issue of internal validity. The text's definition
of internal validity is o.k. as far as it goes, though it is vague. In the context of training evaluation,
internal validity concerns whether apparent effects of training do, in truth result from training. An
internally valid research design reduces or eliminates the likelihood that factors besides training could
account for post-training superiority of learning, behaviour, and so forth. For example, at the end of
social skills training, trainees might display greater social skills in a role play than they did at the
beginning of training. However, it is possible that merely retesting social skills in a role-play scenario
paralleling the initial test will typically result in higher retest (post-training) scores, regardless of the
effectiveness of the training, perhaps because of a "practice effect." An appropriate research design
would promote internal validity if the design rules out this and other plausible alternatives to training as
the cause of the post-training superiority. For example, if the design includes not only trainees with preand post-training assessment, but also a comparison group of non-trained but similar individuals with
initial and later assessment of the same kind, the alternative explanation by practice effect is ruled out.
External validity concerns whether "results of the evaluation are generalizable to other groups of
trainees" (p. 289). When we ask whether a training approach used at Fabrics, Inc., will work with other
trainees, we are asking a question of external validity. For example, the training consultant might obtain
internally valid evidence of favourable effects of training at Fabrics, Inc. However, it is not automatically
the case that the same effects would be seen in other organizations. Ideally, external validity is
established by demonstrating favourable effects in other settings. However, it may be reasonable to

expect generalization from one setting to another if features of those settings, relevant to the effect of
training, can be identified and be seen to be similar across settings (e.g., features such as workforce
characteristics, nature and intensity of task demands, etc.).
In the text's section on external validity, the "Hawthorne Effect" is mentioned in the subsection on
"reaction to evaluation" (p. 289). HRM and other management professionals sometimes refer to
Hawthorne effects, so students should be aware of this concept. According to Wikipedia (2008), "the
Hawthorne effect is a form of reactivity, and describes a temporary change to behaviour or performance
in response to a change in the environmental conditions, with the response being typically an
improvement. The term was coined in 1955 by Henry A. Landsberger[1] when analyzing older
experiments from 1924-1932 at the Hawthorne Works (outside Chicago)." Applying this concept to
evaluation of training reminds us that people might show similar improvements in attitude or affect (e.g.,
morale) to other experiences besides training. Thus if the evaluator only looks at outcome measures preand post-training, improvements seemingly from training might, instead, be due to "change of scenery"
provided by training, or attention to employee well-being that training represents, and so forth. Bullet
points in the associated text provide other possible bases for Hawthorne effects; students need not try to
memorize these but should, instead, understand the basic definition or nature of a Hawthorne effect (as
described here and in the text). Also just for students' information (not to introduce another term to
memorize) Hawthorne effects might be better described as matters of "construct validity" (not external
validity) because what is at issue is whether the basis of the heightened outcome measure after training is,
indeed, training-based development or something else (such as feeling appreciated for having had the
opportunity for training).
Statistical conclusion validity concerns whether the study has been designed in a way that will
allow favourable effects of training to be detected if they are present This form of validity takes its name
from the fact that statistical tests, such as t-tests, are used as a basis for drawing conclusions such as "the
amount of difference between the trained group and the control group is greater than the amount we
would expect if the training had no effect (i.e., the amount expected by chance)." Designers of training
evaluation studies should be aware of the following three contributors to statistical conclusion validity
factors that should be taken into account even if statistical testing, as such, is not part of the evaluation
plan. (Students in this course may be quizzed on only the first of the three points below, however.)
Larger N of cases increases sensitivity to detecting differences (so that group averages will be as
accurately reflective as possible of the group)
Higher reliability of measures increases sensitivity (again helping the averages of the trained and
non-trained group or of the pre-test and post-test to be as accurate as possible)
Using both a pre-test and a post-test increases sensitivity.
However, this last point brings up the point that there are various trade-offs in research design and thus
there is no "one best design" for evaluation research. That is, if a pre-test will lead to serious problems of
its own (e.g., "pre-test sensitization"), then the research designer should use a post-test-only design
giving up the extra sensitivity of repeated measurement to prevent a "testing" threat to validity (see text).
Threats to Internal Validity

Connected with this problem of trade-offs, another reason there is no "one best design" for
evaluation research is that different situations make it more likely that some of the following threats to
internal validity are of concern while other threats are less likely in particular situations. "Internal validity
threats" are plausible alternative explanations (alternatives to training) for apparent improvements in
KSAs after training.
The text lists more than the following threats, and all are well worth knowing about. The
following six threats are the most common ones. Students should be able to recognize these six threats by
name when they are described in a multiple choice or true/false quiz item.
1. History events within or outside the organization, other than training, that could produce
observed changes in outcomes (e.g., economic calamity or bonanza)
2. Maturation changes typical in the group in the absence of training (e.g., acculturation)
3. Testing effects from measurement itself, such as doing better on a test with practice
4. Instrumentation post-test non-equivalence with pre-test (i.e., when post-test scores are different
because the measurement instrument or procedure itself is different, not the trainee KSAs)
5. Selection refers to any differences between a "treated" (trained) and control group (such as
initial ability differences) that could explain different outcomes in the two groups; note this is not
just self-selection because the groups could be existing departments or other groupings
6. Mortality with some training there are "drop outs" over the course of training; if the group the
provides post-training outcome scores is smaller than the pre-training group, a simple comparison
of pre- and post-test averages may be misleading (if those who stayed were superior on the
measured outcome at the outset, and those who left depressed the pre-test average)
One further threat, not to be covered on a quiz, warrants some explanation beyond what is given
in the text. Statistical regression refers to the tendency for people with especially low scores (as on a test
of performance) to obtain higher scores later (to "regress to the mean") for no other reason than
measurement error. All measures contain some error. Scores that are more extreme contain more error in
the same direction away from the mean as the observed score. For example, a score of 10 on a scale that
runs from 0 to 100, with an average of 50, usually contains more error than a score of, say, 45. But error
is connected with a measurement occasion, by definition. Thus on a future occasionafter trainingthe
amount of error in the direction away from the mean is likely to be less than it was on the earlier occasion,
leading to a score that is closer to the mean (maybe 15 or 20 on the later occasion). Note that the
regression to the mean being described here has nothing to do with the training that occurred between the
first and second measurement occasionit is solely because of measurement error on the first occasion.
An evaluation design should rule out this threat to validity.
For example, if low scorers on some assessment are sent to training, half of the low scorers might
receive training one week, and the other half, two weeks later. Both the immediate and delayed training
groups would be identified as needing training around the same time (say, the beginning of November, T1
in the figure below). Both would be assessed after the immediate group received training (say, midNovember, T2). Both would be assessed again after the delayed group received training (say, end of
November, T3). If the results looked like this, regression to the mean would be a plausible explanation:
Results like this would make it much less likely that regression to the mean alone explains score
increases, and that training was effective:
The logic is that in the span of time when training occurs (i.e. between the T1 and T2 measurement
occasions for the Immediate group, and between T2 and T3 for the Delayed group), the amount of
increase in scores is greater than the amount seen when training does not occur. That is, the amount of
increase in the absence of trainingattributable to statistical regression or "regression to the mean"is
seen to be the amount of increase from T1 to T2 for the Delayed group. The corresponding increase for
the Immediate group, T1 to T2 is much greater, and the Delayed group also shows a much greater
increase when it receives its training after T2.
Basic Elements of Research Design

The primary "elements" or building blocks available to the designer of evaluation research
involve:
Time
Whether data will be collected both before and after training (Pre vs. Post) or only after
training (Post-test only)
Whether data will be collected at multiple time points beyond post-test ("time series")
Group comparisons
Whether data will be collected only from trainees (as in a pre-test/post-test design) or
whether a comparison will be made of "Treated" or exposed (trained) individuals vs.
"Control" individuals (not trained)
Group composition
If there are group comparisons, whether the groups will be selected by a random process
("random selection") or whether group composition will be based on existing groupings
such as existing departments within an organization.
Bases of group composition other than random assignment are generally called "self-selection"
but this is a misnomer. Any time when comparisons are made between trained and non-trained groups,
and when participants in trained and non-trained groups are in those groups on the basis of anything other
than random selection, a "selection bias" is a threat to internal validity.
As its name implies, random assignment entails forming groups by a random process. First a
total sample is identified, such as supervisors in a manufacturing plant. Then by coin toss, random
number table, or other device, each supervisor is assigned to one or another group. Random assignment
rules out the "selection" threat to internal validity because it is unlikely that there will be, on average,
outcome score differences between the groups before training. Therefore if differences are observed after
training, it is more likely that training and not pre-existing differences produced the outcome score
differences.
Basic Designs
Research designs may be diagrammed by using an "X" to denote occurrence of a "treatment"
(training in our application of research design principles) and by using T1, T2, and so forth to denote
occasions of measurement.
Thus the simplest post-test only design looks like this:
X
T2
Trainees in this design first receive training, and then an assessment that taps the KSAs with which the
training was concerned. The design may be adequate if the evaluator merely wants to ensure some level
of proficiency (e.g., adequate skill in using safety equipment). However, the design does not really tell
whether the training is responsible for the level of proficiency. For that we need to bring in one of the
"elements" of research design that were described earlier in this study guide, time or group comparisons.
The pre-test/post-test design brings in the time dimension. It is diagrammed as
T1
T2
If greater KSAs are demonstrated at T2 compared with T1, this supports the claim that training enhances
the KSAs. However, as Table 8-7 indicates, this design is vulnerable to several of the threats to internal
validity, including history, maturation, testing, and instrumentation. It is not vulnerable to selection. It
may or may not have a "mortality" problem (contrary to the table).
Some of these threats, particularly maturation, may be addressed in this design by using an
"internal referencing strategy." This involves taking two kinds of measures at T2 in the pre-test/post-test
design. The first kind concerns the KSAs with which the training was concerned. The second kind
concerns KSAs not addressed in the training. The hope would be that the first kind shows change across
time but the second kind does not. This course's instructor has used this strategy in evaluation of an
Emotional Intelligence development program.
More Complex Designs

Students in this course are expected to be able to identify the three preceding designs or strategies
in multiple choice quiz questions. Students who want to be able to answer "extra credit" questions
should be prepared to answer questions about the following designs as well. Moreover, any student
involved in training evaluation or any other program evaluation is likely to encounter the following
designs, so it is worth pondering them.
The post-test only with control group design is
Trainee group
Control group
T2
T2
This design provides a comparison we use to judge the effect of training and it reduces or eliminates some
of the threats to internal validity. For example, when the times of assessment are the same between the
groups (e.g., at the end of July), history cannot explain group differences if these differences are obtained.
However, selection is a threat unless the groups were formed by random assignment.
The pre-test/post-test with control group design is

Trainee group
T1
Control group
T1
T2
T2
Again assuming similar times of assessment, as indicated in Table 8-7, this design rules out history,
maturation, testing, instrumentation, and regression. Contrary to Table 8-7, mortality could be a problem
if, for example, training is demanding (e.g., time consuming), people drop out of the trained group at a
higher rate, and the ones who stay were initially higher on the outcome scores (i.e., at T1). This threat
could exist even with random assignment because differential mortality between groups defeats random
assignment.
The time series design, shown in the text, extends the occasions of measurement beyond the one
or two occasions of the previous designs. Suppose the design is:
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
In that event, the following graph of results would support a conclusion of training effectiveness.
It is unlikely that trainee KSAs will be measured on so many occasions, so this design probably is
more practical for assessments involving organizational outcomes that are routinely measured and can be
made available to the training evaluator. For this example, think of the Y-axis as thousands of dollars in
materials costsa cost that is reduced when training is provided in "just in time inventory control."
The multiple baseline design, shown in the text, basically expands the time series design with "X"
inserted between different time points for different groups. For example, a training program might be
offered to one among several similar manufacturing plants in April, then in May to a different plant, in
June to another, and so forth. A graph similar to the preceding one then would have one line for each
plant, and the drop off point for each plant would be expected to occur right after the training (or however
long after the training is required for the effect of training to be realized).
Which Design to Use

This final major section of the text illustrates how evaluators can "mix and match" the design
elements described in this study guide to construct novel designs that address whatever threats to internal
validity are salient in particular situations. The four group design that is provided could be a good one for
ruling out history and maturation, for example.

Training in Canadian Organizations
Training as One of Several Facets of HR Management
The applications of training covered in this unit mostly involve special uses of training to address
social, cultural and motivational issues. Other special uses, as for promoting safety or for implementing
new organizational forms, also are touched upon.
A key point running throughout this unit is that training should be one of several kinds of
management action to eliminate cultural bias, promote safety, or achieve the other aims addressed here.
Human resource policy and procedure, on the one hand, and organizational culture management activities
on the other hand, must align with what happens in training if training is to matter. Examples will be
given below.
Orientation Training
Orientation training "introduces new employees to the organization, the job, and their coworkers. The orientation begins the socialization process for new employees, helping them to learn
about the way the organization works and what it values" (p. 310).
Some of the positive outcomes that may result from orientation training are listed in Table 9-1
(e.g., reduced anxiety, reduced turnover, higher level of commitment). But how are these achieved?
Orientation training should be approached like other training.
Objectives should be spelled out
In designing this training, instructional or influence methods should be chosen for fit with these
objectives, with trainee characteristics, and with organizational attributes (and constraints)
In implementation, aspects of "facilities" including the physical setting and trainer characteristics
and style should promote achieving the objectives (e.g., an objective to reduce anxiety)
Evaluation should be accomplished.
Some of the same management actions recommended for culture change should be used in the
initial acculturation of new hires. These actions may include telling about the history of the company,
who the heroes have been, and what some significant stories have been. If the company promotes
particular values or other principles as part of its culture, these should be described and made meaningful
through concrete examples or discussion. (One example consists of values of firms that use Total Quality
Management.) It may be possible to make the orientation itself a "rite of passage," instilling a greater
sense of belongingness with the organization. Contests or diplomas connected with the orientation
might promote this experience of having been through a rite of passage.
In sum, orientation training generally seeks to instill
Values and norms consistent with the organizational culture
Commitment to, and identification with the organization (including a sense of membership)
Of course orientation often will also cover
Informational topics such as HR policies or benefits information.
Orientation received by incoming university students may reflect these common objectives.
Informational topics may include health and safety, dealing with the "system" (e.g., the registrar), and
available resources (library, computing, etc.). Sense of membership may be instilled through social
activities, games, teamwork for charity, and so forth. Values and norms probably receive less overt
attention in university orientation compared with employment orientation, although in specific academic
departments or programs there may be explicit coverage of expectations as a way of indicating norms and
values. For example, the Graduate Program in Industrial/Organizational Psychology at the University of
Waterloo provides a two-page description to incoming students, telling the range of educational
opportunities (courses, research assistantship, practical experience) that will be available and expectations
about getting involved in those opportunities during the period of graduate study.
Although the initial training of new hires may include some combination of job-specific
(knowledge and skills-oriented) training along with orientation training as described here, "orientation
training" should be understood to consist of the part of that training that does not concern job-specific
knowledge and skills.
Diversity Training
Diversity training "focuses on understanding the differences that are found among people of
different backgrounds (race, age, ethnicity, gender). Diversity training can help everyone in the
company understand how differences can be useful to an organization" (p. 314). Diversity training has
become important in many organizations as the participation of women in the work force and the
population of visible minorities has grown dramatically.
Why is this understanding important? When supervisors and co-workers lack appreciation of
diversity they are more likely to favour "people like themselves" and show bias against people different
from themselves. This bias may be subtle and it may occur completely outside of the awareness of person
showing the bias (though not always). For example, a male department head at a university may provide
more start-up funds to a new male professor compared with a new female professor, justifying it to
himself as being based on the different needs for the different research areas of the two professors. In
inidividual cases it is often impossible to say whether bias lies behind different treatment of individuals.
However, organization-wide, a lot of subtle biased actions will aggregate to underutilization of talents of
diverse individuals, as those individuals perceive unfairness and become less motivated, with some
leaving the organization. More quantifiable costs may be incurred as employees file grievances internally
or externally (e.g. with governmental rights commissions). An overall pattern of less favourable
treatment toward women or minorities, if documented, can become evidence against an organization in a
lawsuit filed against the organization.
Table 9-2 lists three other advantages to effective diversity management besides the social,
motivational, and monetary costs just mentioned: a larger applicant pool, access to more markets, and
creative problem solving.
Diversity training is a good example of the key point raised in the first section of this study guide,
"Training as One of Several Facets of HR Management." If the only thing the organization does to
promote appreciation of diversity is to talk about it in training, that training is likely to have little effect.
Table 9-3 is a somewhat arbitrary yet illustrative listing of some other things besides training that
organizations can do to promote appreciation of diversity. When top management makes a commitment
to promoting diversity, these or other actions will accompany training, and managers and supervisors will
see that they really are accountable for treating employees fairly and making full use of their capabilities.
The text also mentions that managers' and supervisors' promotion of diversity could be tied to
performance appraisals. For example, meeting target rates of hiring, promotion, provision of training,
provision of special assignments, and other support of diversity initiatives could be monitored and
rewarded.
It is implied in Table 9-3 that the organization should have an accessible and effective internal
grievance procedure that people can and will use if they feel treated unfairly. In fact an organization
could set up informal as well as formal means of bringing grievances. Informal means might operate
through a union, employee association, or open door policy of "bosses' bosses" (i.e., a norm that for
diversity issues, an employee may visit the boss's boss). Formal means would have a designated office
while the grievance would be filed and investigated. Effective grievance procedures send a strong signal
(i.e., as an aspect of organizational culture) that bias will not be tolerated.
What content should be covered in diversity training? Here is a partial, illustrative list:
How and why bias can operate unintentionally

o
o
o
o
Effects of stereotypes on judgments of other people (e.g., assuming neglect in instances

when the same assumption wouldn't be made of a majority group member)
Discomfort with differences in dress, manner of speaking, etc.
Resulting tendency toward bias (e.g., having less contact with and information about
others who are different; assuming different others are less effective)
What bias actually looks like (small things as well as large)
Benefits to the organization of effective management of diversity

(similar to points made above in this study guide and in the text)
Company policies and procedures concerning diversity management
How to help visible minorities and women to be more effective

o
o
Religious holidays, scheduling, work-life balance accommodations

Mentoring, training, special assignments
Once again, what's going on the rest of the organization is critical to the effectiveness of this
training. For example, if the organization does not have mentoring or diversity promotion policies or
programs, there is nothing to say on those points in the content of the training. And, once again, because
diversity training is training, the training designer should be concerned with formulating objectives,
choosing instructional methods well-matched to the objectives and trainees, conduct evaluation, and
otherwise follow the rest of this course's advice for sound design and implementation of training.
In addition to knowing some of the basic needs and goals surrounding diversity training and some
of the content of diversity training, students in this course are expected to be able to identify and describe
some of the non-training supports for diversity that have been described in this section.
Students with a special interest in this area may find many published works on the topic,
including Diversity Dynamics in the Workplace by Kecia M. Thomas (Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005).
Sexual Harassment Training

"Sexual harassment is one specific type of behaviour that diversity training attempts to
eliminate. In Canada, 16 percent of the complaints filed with the Canadian Human Rights Commission
in 2002 and 2003 were related to sexual harassment" (p. 316). "In Canada, a survey showed that 48
percent [of employed women] indicated being sexually harassed in the previous year, with only 3 percent
indicating the harassment was of the quid pro quo type" (p. 317).
"Sexual harassment is an unwelcome advance of a sexual nature. It is prohibited under human
rights legislation in Canada.
"Quid pro quo harassment occurs if an employee higher in the organization makes an offer to a
subordinate of some job perk (raise, promotion, easier job) in return for sexual favours. If a supervisor
sexually harasses a subordinate, the company can be considered liable, even if no one else was aware of
the harassment. If an employee is harassed by someone other than a supervisor the employer can still be
liable if evidence shows that the employer was aware or should have been aware of the harassment.
"When words, gestures, and/or behaviours make someone feel uncomfortable based on their
gender, the result is hostile work environment. Sexual harassment training needs to define these
concepts in ways that fit the specific workplace" (pp. 316-317).
"To win a harassment suit in which the supervisor sexually harassed someone, the organization
must prove that the supervisor's harassment was against the company's harassment policy. Therefore
maintaining such a policy is critical. The courts accept training supervisors in the use of these policies as
compelling evidence of the company's concern regarding the issue.
"But there are more than just the obvious [legal and thus monetary] costs associated with sexual
harassment. Sexually harassed employees experience psychological distress and in some cases posttraumatic stress disorder, both of which interfere with productivity. A more direct impact on productivity
is that these employees experience higher levels of absenteeism and turnover. Allowing an employee
to be sexually harassed by others in the company is morally and ethically reprehensible" (pp. 317-318).
"A survey of 663 human resource practitioners indicated that in 500 of the responding
organizations, sexual harassment complaints declined after initiating training. However, many
organizations are not doing a good job in this area. For that reason, we continue to hear of flagrant
violations of the various human rights codes." (p. 318).
Table 9-4 provides a list of training and non-training approaches to dealing with sexual
harassment. As in the broader area of dealing with diversity-related bias or mistreatment, it is crucial for
employees to be able to complain internally, formally or, ideally, informally, so that external (e.g., human
rights commission) complaints may be avoided. As the table indicates, in response to internal complaints,
investigation should occur promptly,
information should be kept confidential
punishment must be known about, ahead of time, based on training or other communications, and
applied equally (e.g., delivered to highly placed employees if warranted).
This table also indicates that sexual harassment training
may include not only lecture or lecture/discussion but also role play instructional methods (to
make it clear what is or is not acceptable)
should include evaluation of learning with a written exam, to document for legal protection that
learning has occurred
should be followed-up with refresher training.
Relevant law, recourse within the organization (informal and formal), and recourse outside the
organization also should be covered in the training
Teamwork Training
When organizations re-organize and make greater use of teams (as opposed to maintaining more
traditional supervisor-subordinate structures), teamwork requires new KSAs for team members (formerly
subordinates) and team leaders (supervisors). Teamwork training seeks to develop these KSAs. In
organizations that have used teams for some time, teamwork training is also needed for newly hired
employees (unless new hires come in with teamwork KSAs).
Some of these KSAs are broadly applicable to teams; among these KSAs are
Interpersonal skills such as skills for listening to team members and handling conflict
Teamwork-specific skills as for planning, conducting, and participating in team meetings
Other KSAs are particular to the new work roles assigned to the team. For the Coca-Cola
example in the text (p. 321), these are termed
Technical knowledge or skills, such as obtaining a broader knowledge of how team or

departmental outputs are produced, thus enabling greater contribution by individuals
As another example of technical skills, in the transition to team-based organization, some

production teams will take on additional functions such as materials procurement and quality monitoring.
These teams will need training to accomplish these functions.
The text notes two categories of benefits from effective use of teams:
Improved organizational outcomes such as greater quality (e.g., fewer service errors or
manufacturing defects) and productivity
Improved outcomes for employees such as increased job satisfaction and lower
absenteeism and turnover
As with the other special topics discussed in this unit, training must be accompanied by
alignments in HR management and other management structures and processes if teams are to be
effective. Examples include appropriate job design (e.g., affording autonomy and task identity),
appropriate team composition (e.g., right sized), purpose and goals consistent with team organization, and
contextual supports including effective team leadership aligned reward systems. Students in this course
are not expected to be able to answer questions about these alignments, however.
Other Training Programs and Issues

"The glass ceiling is a metaphor for an invisible barrier that prevents minorities and women from
moving up the corporate ladder" (p. 323). Diversity training and sexual harassment training contribute to
overcoming the glass ceiling. Other HR policies and programs also are important in this regard. The text
mentions or implies the following as some examples:
Building career developmental planning and review into the annual or semi-annual performance
appraisal process with supervisors
Developing central monitoring by the HR department to tell how women and minorities are faring
in developmental opportunities (e.g. training) and promotions, and assigning a high-level
committee to track success in these aspects of diversity management
Creating a mentoring program.
Training equity exists when all employees have equal access to training. In the absence of
policies and procedures to achieve training equity, bias may operate against women and minorities.
Training should be an aspect of accommodating people with disabilities. Managers and
supervisors need to know that it is unlawful "to discriminate on the basis of person's disability, whether
physical or mental, if it does not prevent the person from doing the job. Basically, a job analysis
describes the critical KSAs. Based on that information, it is possible to assess whether the disability will
negatively affect job performance. If not, then the candidate must be provided with the same opportunity
to be hired, promoted, or trained as anyone else" (p. 324). Special needs of people with disabilities
produce a duty to accommodate, that is, "adjustments to working conditions and/or requirements of the
job expected to be taken by the employer in order to allow a person with a disability to do the job" (p.
324). Not only the regular work setting but the training classroom or other training setting may need to
make accommodations for mobility, hearing, or other needs of the disabled. An exception is when the
organization can make an undue hardship argument, providing "evidence that accommodating the
particular employee will place undue hardship on the organization" (p. 324).
Some organizations hire employees who need basic skills training in reading, writing, and
arithmetic, also called literacy training. The text cites a statistic that 22% of adults in Canada "struggle
with a severe literacy problem. Organizations find that, even when hiring high school graduates, they
need to provide remedial skills training to get them ready for the job. In addition to issues within the
school system as immigration increases, new employees with English as a second language will be
more prevalent, making reading and writing in English more problematic." Concerning effectiveness, "a
survey of workplaces in Canada where literacy programs were installed revealed a drop in error rate in
employees' work, improved morale, and a general improvement in health and safety." Concerning
training design, "developing basic skills (or literacy) training is similar to developing any other training
program. The first step is a TNA. [However,] here, more than in other TNAs, the need to ensure
confidentiality is critical. Workers who are illiterate generally take great pains to hide it out of
embarrassment and shame" (p. 326)
With the globalization of business, people from different cultures are being exposed to training
methods that may be unfamiliar or uncomfortable for them. Training in North America may include
games or exercises to increase interest along with a lot of give-and-take discussion of trainer and trainees
or among trainees. This style may clash with other cultures' expectations for more formal lecture-type
instruction (e.g., among Chinese) or a "nuts and bolts" approach without the flash (European clients,
according the source cited in the text, p. 327). Thacker and Blanchard take the position that most clients
can become comfortable with most North American methods after they have had some exposure to it
(and, presumably, if the methods are used skillfully by the trainer). However, there are taboos such as
risk of loss of face by Asian leaders, as could be the case if junior managers were able to answer
questions or others demonstrate better performance than their superiors. One solution to this risk would
be to train the levels of management separately.
The Learning Organization

The text correctly notes that term learning organization has different meanings depending on
who is using itand a lot of people have used it in the last decade or two. Students should be able to
identify in a general way, in multiple choice questions, three views or definitions of the learning
organization.
Perhaps the most basic definition is:
A learning organization continuously seeks new knowledge and capabilities as part
of its overall strategy to accomplish its mission or vision.
For example, if Rubbermaid shifts its focus from manufacturing of household goods toward a vision of
designing continuously innovative household goods (i.e., a market leader strategy), learning requirements
concerning ever-changing consumers and the marketplace will generate a need for continuous learning
among employees. As another example, workers in technical fields such as engineering and computing
have continuous learning needs that their organizations should support, as through technical vitality
programs.
However, Peter Senges more elaborate conception of the learning organization is often what
writers, including Thacker and Blanchard, are referring to when they discuss the learning organization:
A learning organization has a sense of common understanding among individuals
and an enhanced capacity to create desired results through continually learning how
to learn (p. 329).
Table 9-6 describes this conception. Students are not expected to be able to identify or list these
components, although they should look them over and be aware that Senges conception, presented in this
table, is widely known and cited among HR professionals. Frankly this conception is about more than
learning; it concerns common understanding, shared purpose, personal mastery, and specific kinds of
knowledge promoting these states, including understanding of systems. Again, this is mentioned here
for students information, not to signal a need to memorize these specific points for this course.
The texts subsection concerning HRDs Role in the Learning Organization provides, in effect, a
third perspective on the learning organization. The text sketches a shift in which HRD accumulates and
makes available learning resources (video disks, networked learning libraries, conventional training
programs) to individuals and groups (e.g., departments) in the organization on demand [study guide
authors term]. Rather than directing the learning experiences of employees, training entails helping
employees learn how to learn on their own and also developing the means for that learning to happen.
Xerox, Samsung, and Corning implemented these systems with much success some time ago. Corning
for example, set a company-wide goal that 5 percent of each employees annual workload would be spent
in job-related training. A few years later, in 1991, Business Week recognized Corning as a prime example
of an effective competitor. Corning attributes its success to a commitment to employee and
organizational learning (p. 331)

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Study Guide for Week 2, Foundation Concepts

Training Processes Model

Training in Canada: Opportunities and Challenges

Continuous Improvement(CI) and Total Quality Management (TQM)

Psychology 340, Univ. of Waterloo

2009, John L. Michela

Additional Study Guide for Week 2,

A lecture concerning "Task Leadership," presented as a "podcast" (a voice-over-slides

Study Guide for Week 3,

The Importance of Theories and Models

Factors Determining Human Performance

2009, John L. Michela

Study Guide for Week 4,

Why and When to Conduct a TNA

Where to Look for Performance Gaps

2009, John L. Michela

2009, John L. Michela

Training in Small Business

TNA and Design

Case Analysis: Fabrics, Inc.

Psychology 340, Univ. of Waterloo

2009, John L. Michela

Psychology 340, Univ. of Waterloo

2009, John L. Michela

2009, John L. Michela

Social Learning Theory

2009, John L. Michela

Gagn-Briggs Nine Events of Instruction

Learner Resistance and Group Dynamics

Adult Learning Principles

Psychology 340, Univ. of Waterloo

2009, John L. Michela

1. Address training relevance and value

2. Allow control over learning and involve trainees in the process

Individual Differences Related to Learning

Psychology 340, Univ. of Waterloo

2009, John L. Michela

Team Leadership in Leaderless Teams

Step 1 (Envision Output)

Step 2 (Identify Inputs)

Reach consensus on:

Generate a wide variety of

Evaluate ideas based on

Produce final product

Offer new ideas or

Evaluate each idea

Document a short list

Ensure every member

Check for consensus

Throughout All Steps:

Jointly integrate, review

Submit end product

Team Leadership in Leaderless Teams

Strive for excellence

Make it safe to make suggestions

Share constructive enthusiasm about team assignment

Make it safe to make suggestions

Praise: Great idea! I like that idea. Nice one.

Make it safe to disagree

Disagree Respectfully: Im concerned that because ...

Get everyone to feel theyre being heard

The Role of HRD in the Organization, and The Role of HR/HRD in

Psychology 340, Univ. of Waterloo

2009, John L. Michela