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Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
Definitions
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Fatigue
F
Fatigue
ti
is
i th
the mostt important
i
t t crackk growth
th mechanism
h i
Fatigue is a process of crack growth which causes damage
to a component subjected to repeated loading. This damage
may result in final failure
failure.
Fatigue is a complex metallurgical process which is difficult
to accurately describe
Assessment for fatigue in design must be made
Fatigue can be divided into two periods
Initiation
Propagation
Total Life (NT) = Initiation Life (Ni) + Propagation Life (Np)
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 4 - Introduction
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 4 - Introduction
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Fail
F il - Safe
S f Design
D i
designed by aircraft engineers who could not tolerate
extra weight required by large safety factors nor the
danger resulting from small safety factors
Unlimited safety - requires design stresses to be safely
below the fatigue limit
multiple load paths and crack arresters
Aero engines
g
are fail - safe designs
g only
y in multi-engine
g
aircraft
Chapter 4 - Introduction
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Damage
D
T
Tolerant
l
Design
D i
Refinement of fail - safe philosophy
Assumes that cracks exist and uses a Fracture
Mechanics analysis to check whether such cracks will
grow large enough (critical size) to produce failures
before they are sure to be detected and repaired
In pressure vessels "leak before burst" is an example of
this philosophy
In aircraft multiple load paths, crack arresters etc.
Chapter 4 - Introduction
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 4 - Introduction
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
10
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
11
Department of Mechanical
& Aerospace Engineering
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
12
13
Effect of Notches
14
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
15
Stress Fluctuation
Variable Amplitude
p
Loading
g
However:
Most tests are carried out at
Constant Amplitude loading
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
16
17
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
18
m 4 m 3 m 2 m1
Chapter 4- Fatigue
19
a
Se
m
SU
1
2
m 1
:
S e SU
Soderberg :
Morrow
Se
Se
SY
Sf
1
1
20
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
21
Size Effect
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
22
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
23
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
24
25
Surface Finish
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
26
27
Surface Treatment
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
28
Surface Treatment
Thermal Treatment
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
29
Surface Treatment
Mechanical Treatment
Cold working the surface can set up residual compressive
stresses.
Cold Rolling of screw threads
Shot Peening - Steel or glass beads fired at the surface to cause
yielding. Shot Peening has the greatest effect at long lives.
Advantage - it can be applied to oddly shaped parts
Disadvantage - it dimples the surface
At high temperatures the residual stresses can fade 500oF for steel and 250oF
for aluminium.
Steels with yield stresses less than 80ksi are seldom cold rolled or shot
peened because with such low yield stresses it is possible to load to yield and
wipe out the residual stresses.
Shot peening has the greatest effect when it is applied to areas of high stress
gradients ((i.e. at stress concentrations).
g
)
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
30
31
Temperature
At low temperature
p
there is a tendency
y for the endurance
limits of steels to increase. However a more important
design consideration is that the there is a significant
decrease in fracture toughness at low temperatures
At high temperatures the endurance limit in steels
disappears
pp
At temperatures greater than 0.5 x the melting temperature
creep becomes important. In this range the stress-life
stress life
approach is no longer applicable.
Chapter 4- Fatigue
32
33
Environment
When fatigue loading takes place in a corrosive
environment the net detrimental effect is more significant
that if corrosion and fatigue were considered separately.
This is Corrosion Fatigue
Corrosion fatigue is not clearly understood - involves many
variables
This topic will be considered later in course
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
34
35
S e( un notched )
K f ( notched )
Se
q
K f 1
Kt 1
K f Kt
q is the notch sensitivity
factor which takes account of
the sensitivity of the material
to stress raisers
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
36
1
a
1
r
Kt 1
Kf 1
a
1
r
a = material constant
r = notch root radius
= material constant
N b : q
Neuber
Kt 1
Kf 1
300
a 0 .001
S
k
ksi
i
U
1 .8
in
1 .8
2070
a 0.025
mm
S
MPa
U
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
37
S U ksi
1 .8
1 .8
in
2070
a 0.025
mm
S
MPa
U
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
38
Peterson
Neuber
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
39
Notch Sensitivity
y for Two Geometrically
y Similar Plates
Kt 1
a
a
1
1
r
r
Approximations for a for ferrous materials
Peterson : q
300
a 0 .001
S
ksi
U
K f 1
1 .8
in
Plate 1
Plate 2
W1 = 5.0 in
d1 = 0.5 in
Su = 100 ksi
Kt = 2.7
q = 0.97
Kf1 = 2.65
2 65
W2 = 0.5 in
d2 = 0.05 in
Su = 100 ksi
Kt = 2.7
q = 0.78
Kf2 = 2.32
2 32
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
40
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
41
Miner Summation
ni
1
Ni
n1 n2
n3
ni
Damage
D
N1 N 2 N 3 N i
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
42
Stress Range
)Fi (MPa)
No of
Cycles
Ni
455
400
345
30
300
70
250
300
210
700
170
3,000
130
7,000
90
30,000
10
55
70,000
11
30
30,000
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
43
m
t
log N log a log
m log
4
22
where log a 1163
. and m 3.0
Determine the damage accumulation
and hence estimate the cycles to failure
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
44
log N log a
m
t
log m log
4
22
3.0
40
log 3.0 log
4.0
22
l N 1144
log
. 3.0 log
l
411110
1.3 106
0.3151
Block
ni
Ni
ni/Ni
455
2924
0 0014
0.0014
400
4303
0.0014
30
345
6707
0.0045
70
300
10200
0.0069
300
250
17627
0.0170
700
210
29740
0.0235
3000
170
56060
0.0535
7000
130
125363
0.0558
30,000
90
377809
0.0794
10
70,000
55
1655434
0.0423
11
300,000
30
10200847
0.0294
ni = 411110
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
D = 0.3151
45
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
46
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
47
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
48
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
49
P
Ao
Engineering Strain
l
lo
True Stress
True Strain
dl
lo l
l
ln
l
lo
ln((1 e)
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
S (1 e)
50
e p
in terms of amplitudes
e p
2
2
2
The area within the loop is the energy dissipated during a cycle
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
51
y
y harden
Cyclically
Cyclically soften
Be cyclically stable
Have mixed behaviour
(harden or soften depending on strain range)
Chapter 4- Fatigue
52
Cyclic Softening:
"Hard" material - strain cycling
y
g
causes a rearrangement of
dislocations which offers the
least resistance to deformation
- therefore the material softens
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
53
sult 1.4
ult
12
.
y
n 0.2
n 01
.
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
54
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
55
f 2 N f
2
Where:
/2 = true stress amplitude
2Nf = reversals to failure ( 2 rev = 1 cycle)
'f = fatigue strength coefficient
b = ffatigue
ti
strength
t
th exponentt (Basquins's
(B
i ' exponent)
t)
'f is approximately equal to the true fracture strength f
b is usually between -0.05 and -0.12
f 2 N f
2
Where:
/2 = true strain amplitude
2Nf = reversals
l tto failure
f il
( 2 rev = 1 cycle)
l )
'f = fatigue ductility coefficient
c = fatigue ductility exponent
'f is approximately equal to the true fracture ductility f
c is usually
y between -0.5 and -0.7
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
56
Strain-Life Relationship
Total Strain in terms of strain amplitude
e p
2
2
2
e
2
2E
f
2N f
2
E
f 2 N f
2N f
2
E
f 2 N f
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
57
Strain-Life Relationship
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
58
MORROW :
Modify the elastic term
( f o )
2N f
2
E
2 N
b
59
max
f 2 N f
2
( f o )
2N f
2
E
c
b
f o
2 N f
f
f
2
( f )
max
2N f
2
E
max is evaluated
as
2b
f f 2 N f
o
2
since max N f
when max < 0 this is undefined
Therefore this approach assumes that
no fatigue damage occurs when max < 0
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
60
b c
Material
Properties
Component
Geometry
Loading
History
Stress-Strain
Analysis
Damage
Analysis
Fatigue Life
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
61
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
62
Smooth Specimen
p
Notch Tip
p
a)
peak
Stress
Stress
peak
peak
peak
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
63
Smooth Specimen
p
Weld Toe
b)
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
64
f
2 N f
2
E
/
/f 2 N f
n'
'
E K
where:
E is the modulus of elasticity,
K cyclic strength coefficient,
n strain hardening exponent
where:
f - fatigue
f ti
strength
t
th coefficient,
ffi i t
b - fatigue strength exponent,
f - fatigue ductility coefficient,
c - fatigue
at gue duct
ductility
ty e
exponent
po e t
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
65
66
Analysis of external
f
forces
acting
ti on the
th
structure
b) Component
H
Q
c) Section with welded
joint
Selection of
particular welded
joints
Weld
R
peak
Analysis of
internal loads in
chosen
h
cross
section of a
component
hs
n
d)
Chapter
- Fatigue
Chapter
6 -4Fatigue
peak
67
Weld
R
V
peak
hs
n
d)
peak
hs
h
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
68
g)
Assembling of the
stress peak
history
'
K
'
Neuber :
peak
f)
h)
1'
1,1'
peak
5,5'
3
7,7'
5
Determination of
the elastic-plastic
response at the
critical location
2,2'
6
4
j)
2N f
2
E
Chapter
- Fatigue
Chapter
6 -4Fatigue
log (/2)
i)
'
'f 2 N f c
69
peak
h)
1'
1,1'
5,5'
5,5
3
Identification of
cycles represented
b closed
by
l
d stresst
strain hysteresis
loops
i)
7,7'
peea
f)
2,2'
6
log (/2)
j)
2N f
2
E
'
'f 2 N f c
Calculation of
fatigue damage
f/E
e/E
e=
Fatigue damage
by Miner
summation
k) Fatigue damage:
g
l)) Total damage:
D1
2N
log (2Nf)
2Ne
1
1
1
1
1
; D2
; D3
; D4
; D5
;
N1
N2
N3
N4
N5
D D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 ;
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
70
Steps
p in a Fatigue
g Life Prediction
Analysis of external forces acting on the structure and the
component in question (Fig. a, b),
Analysis of internal loads in chosen cross section of a component
( Fig. b),
Selection of particular welded joints in the structure (Fig. c),
Calculation of the peak stress, peak, at the critical point (Fig. d)
Assembling of the stress peak history in the form of appropriate
sequence of stress peaks and valleys (Fig. e-f),
Determination of the elastic-plastic response at the critical location
(Fig. h),
Identification (extraction) of cycles represented by closed stressstrain hysteresis loops (Fig. i),
Calculation of fatigue damage (Fig. j-k),
Fatigue damage summation (Miner- Palmgren hypothesis, Fig. l),
Determination of fatigue life (Fig. m) in terms of number of stress
history repetitions, Nblock, (No. of blocks) or the number of cycles
to fatigue crack initiation, N.
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
71
2
2.
3.
STRESS/LOAD
State of Stress
Stress Range
g
Stress Ratio
Frequency
Maximum Stress
GEOMETRY
Stress Raisers
Size
Stress Gradient
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
3 STAGES
NT Ni N p
72
Crack Initiation
CRACK INITIATION
at a surface
- stress concentrations
- surface
f
scratches
t h
- dents
- machining marks
- fillets
SURFACE TREATMENTS
1. MECHANICAL - Shot Peening
- Cold Rolling
- Grinding
- Polishing
2. THERMAL
- Flame Hardening
- Induction Hardening
3. SURFACE COATING
- Nitriding
g
- Plating
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
73
Crack Growth
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
74
min max
1
max
max
max
1 R max
K min min a
K max max a
K
K min
K max
K max
K
1 R
da
f ( K , R )
dN
The process of crack growth is a complicated one,
and
d it d
depends
d
on material behaviour
therefore it is not possible to obtain this function
through rigorous mathematical description.
It must be obtained from material tests,, i.e. empirically.
p
y
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
75
K a
If the da/dN vs K results are plotted on a log-log plot the results are
approximately a straight line of the form y= mx + C, i.e.
da
log
m logK logC
dN
da
C K m
dN
This is known as the Paris Equation
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
76
m3
log C 9.3
C 6.3 10 10
da
6.3 10 10 K 3
dN
where da/dN is in m/s and MPam
NOTE:
The values of C and m depend on the units of the test data and conversion
from one set of units to another should only be attempted with great caution.
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
77
PARIS EQUATION
FORMAN EQUATION
This equation shows the growth rate depends on R and
also at fracture when K =Kc the growth rate goes to 4
KLESNIL & LUKAS
SCHULTZ
COLLIPRIEST
da
C K m
dN 1 R K C K
da
C K m K thm
dN
m
m
da C K K th
dN 1 R K C K
ln K 2 1 R K C K th
Kc 2
d
da
2
arctan
C K th K exp ln
dN
K th
ln 1 R K C K th
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
78
ksi in
3/2
Nmm-3/2
3/2
kp mm-3/2
MPa m
0.9101
31.623
3.2235
Ksi in
1.0988
34.747
3.5420
N mm-3/2
0.031623
0.02878
0.10194
kp mm-3/2
0.31022
0.28233
9.8067
STRESS
MPa
ksi
N/mm2
kp/mm2
0.1449
0.1019
6 904
6.904
6 9033
6.9033
0 7037
0.7037
N/mm2
0.1449
0.1019
kp/mm2
9.8067
1.4211
9.8067
MPa
ksi
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
79
3 Regions
Threshold
Propagation
P
ti
Fracture
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
80
MN/m3/2
constant
R > 0.1
Kth = 6 MN/m3/2
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
81
Paris Equation
dda
C K m
dN
Nf
integrating
1
dN
C
af
da
a K m
i
K m Y a
Nf
1
dN
C
af
da
ai
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
82
Nf
SIF of an edge
g crack
K m 1.12 a
Nf
Integrating (for m 2)
da
a K m
i
1
dN
C
af
da
1.12
ai
2
1
1
Nf
m2
m2
(m 2) C (1.12 ) m 2
ai
a f 2
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
83
2
1
1
Nf
m2
m2
(m 2) C (1.12 a ) m 2
ai
a f 2
K f (g ) a
1 KC
af
f g
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
84
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
85
k i
(138 MN/m
MN/ 2)
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
86
K IC
150
acr
2.81 in
87
2.25
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
88
)N
GN
(cycles)
(cycles)
0.35
23.5
12,500
12,500
0.5
0.45
26.7
9,750
22,250
0.5
0.6
0.55
29.4
7,550
29,800
0.6
0.7
0.65
32.2
6,150
35,950
0.7
0.8
0.75
34.6
5,200
41,150
0.8
0.9
0.85
36.6
4,600
45,750
0.9
1.0
0.95
38.8
4,100
49,850
1.0
1.1
1.05
40.5
3,700
53,550
1.1
1.2
1.15
42.5
3,300
56,850
1.2
1.3
1.25
44.5
2,950
59,800
1.3
1.4
1.35
46.1
2,700
62,500
ao
(in)
af
(in)
aavg
(in)
0.3
0.4
0.4
)K
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
Total Life
86,700
86
700
cycles
89
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
90
IIncrease af by
b using
i
a tougher
t
h material
t i l i.e.
i Higher
Hi h KIC
Lower the design stress max i.e. Increase acrit at failure
Lower stress
1.
2.
4.
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
91
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
92
Next Section
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
93
References
N.E. Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Metals, Prentice Hall, New
J
Jersey,
1999.
1999
A. Baumel and T. Seeger, Materials Data for Cyclic Loading,
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1990.
H.
H Neuber
Neuber, Theory of Stress Concentration of Shear Strained
Prismatic Bodies with Arbitrary Non Linear Stress-Strain Law,
ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics, vol. 28, 1961, pp. 544-550.
K. Molski and G. Glinka, A Method of ElasticPlastic Stress and
Strain Calculation at a Notch Root, Material Science and
Engineering, vol. 50, 1981, pp. 93-100.
A. Moftakhar, A. Buczynski and G. Glinka, Calculation of ElastoPlastic Strains and Stresses in Notches under Multiaxial
Loading, International Journal of Fracture, vol. 70, 1995, pp.
357-373.
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
94
References
95
References
Chapter 4 - Fatigue
96