Vectors and Geometry in Space

To locate a point in a plane, two numbers are

necessary. We know that any point in the plane can be
represented as an ordered pair ( a, b) of real numbers,
where a is the x-coordinate and b is the y-coordinate.
For this reason , a plane is called two-dimensional .
To locate a point in a space, three numbers are
required . We represent any point in space by an
ordered triple (a, b ,c) of real numbers.
In order to represent points in space , we first choose
a fixed point 0 ( the origin) and three directed lines
through 0 that are perpendicular to each other , called
the coordinate axes and labelled the x-axis, y-axis,
and z-axis. Usually we think of the x- and y-axes as
being horizontal and the z-axis as being the vertical,
and we draw the orientation of the axes as in the
figure below:

The three coordinate axes determine the three

coordinate planes illustrated in the figure :

The xy-plane is the plane that

contains the x- and y-axes;
the yz-plane contains the yand z-axes; and xz-plane
contains the x- and z-axes.
These three coordinate
planes divide space into eight
parts, called octant, in the
foreground, is determined by
the positive axes.

Vectors in the plane

The term vector is used by scientists to indicate a quantity
(such as displacement or velocity or force) that has both
magnitude and direction. A vector is often represented by
an arrow or a directed line segment. The length of the
arrow represents the magnitude of the vector and the arrow
points in the direction of the vector. We denote a vector by
printing a letter in boldface ( v ) or putting an arrow
above the letter (

).
2

For instance , suppose a particle moves along a line

segment from point A to point B. The corresponding
displacement vector v , shown in the figure below , has
initial point A ( the tail) and terminal
point B ( the tip) and
uuu
r
we indicate this by writing v AB .

uuur
Notice that the vector u CD has the same length and the

same direction as V even though it is in a different position.

We say that u and v are equivalent ( or equal ) and we
write u=v. The zero vector, denoted by 0 , has length 0. It is
only vector with no specific direction.
Combining Vectors
Suppose a particle
moves from A to B, so its displacement
uuu
r
vector is ( AB ). Then the particle changes direction and
uuur
moves from B to C, with displacement vector ( BC ) as in
the figure:

The combined effect of these displacement is that the

particle has moved from A to C . The resulting
uuur
uuu
r
displacement vector ( AC ) is called the sum of ( AB ) and (
uuur
BC ) and we write
uuur uuur uuur
AC AB BC
In general , if we start with vectors u and v, we first move v
so that its tail coincides with the tip of u and define the sum
of u and v as follows
Definition of vector addition
If u and v are vectors positioned so the initial point of v is
that the terminal point of u, then the sum u + v is the vector
from the initial point of u to the terminal point of v.
The definition of vector addition is illustrated in the
following figure , that is why we sometimes call it the
triangle law .

In the following figure

We start with the same vectors u and v as in the previous

one and draw another copy of v with the same initial
point as u. completing the parallelogram , we see that u
+ v = v + u. This also gives another way to construct the
sum: if we place u and v so they at the same point , then
u +v lies along the diagonal of the parallelogram with u
and v as sides . ( This is called the Parallelogram Law)

Example
Draw the sum of the vectors a and b shown in the
figure :

Solution
First we translate b and place its tail at the tip of a, being
careful to draw a copy of b that has the same length and
direction. Then we draw the vector ( a +b) ( see the
figure)

Starting the initial point of a and ending at the terminal

point of the copy of b.
Alternatively , we could place b so it starts where a starts
and construct ( a +b) by the parallelogram law as in the
figure :
6

Scalar Multiplication
It is possible to multiply a vector by a real number C. ( we
call the real number a scalar to distinguish it from a vector
). For instance , we want 2v to be the same vector as ( v +
v), which has the same direction as v but is twice as long.
In general , we multiply a vector by a scalar as follows:
Definition of scalar multiplication
If C is a scalar and v is a vector, then the scalar multiple
cv is the vector whose length is c times the length of v and
whose direction is the same as v if c>0 and is opposite to v
if c< 0 . if c=0 or v=0 , then cv=0
The definition is illustrated in the following figure:

we see that real numbers work like scaling factors here;

that is why we call them scalars. Notice that two nonzero
vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiplies of one
another.
In particular, the vector v =(-1)v has the same length as v
but points in the opposite direction. We call it the negative
of v.

Position vector
Since the location of the initial point is irrelevant, we
typically draw vectors with their initial point located at the
origin. Such a vector is called a position vector. For the
position vector a with initial point at the origin and
terminal
point at the point A(a1,a2) we denote the vector by
r uuu
r
a OA a1 , a2 ( see the figure)

Magnitude of position vector

r

r
a

is : a a12 a22

If a 0 then a 0 this is called a zero vector. Any vector

r
with magnitude of 1 i.e. u 1 is called a unit vector. We

will occasionally find it convenient to write vectors in

terms of some standard vectors, we define the standard

r
r
basis vectors i and j by i 1, 0 , and , j 0,1 and this
can be extended to three dimensional case. Notice that

r
r
i j 1 ( see the figure)

Difference of two vectors

By the difference ( u-v) of two vectors we mean
u v = u + (-v) , so we can construct (u-v) by first drawing
the negative of v,-v , and then adding it to u by the
parallelogram law in the following figure:

Alternatively, since v + ( u v ) = u, the vector u v,

when added to v gives u so we could construct u-v as in
figure below by means of triangle law

10

Example
If a and b are the vectors shown in the figure below
,draw a-2b

Solution
We first draw the vector ( - 2 b) pointing in the direction
opposite to b and twice as long. We place it with its tail
at the tip of a and then use the triangle law to draw a+(2b) as in the figure below:

11

Vectors in the space]

Several ideas can be extended from 2D(IR 2) to 3D space
(IR3). Point in IR3 is defined by (a,b,c), while x,y,z is the
right-handed coordinate system. (see the figure )

r
r
2
2
2
Magnitude of a a1 , a2 , a3 is a a1 a2 a3

Vector addition:

r r
a b a1 a2 a3 b1 b2 b3
a1 b1 , a2 b2 , a3 b3

Standard
basis
r
r vectors : r
i 1, 0, 0 , j 0,1, 0 , and k 0, 0,1

r
r
r
r
Any vector a a1 , a2 , a3 a1 i a2 j a3 k
Finding the equation of a sphere of radius r centred at
(a,b,c) : the sphere consists of all points (x,y,z) whose
distance from (a,b,c) is r :
12

( x a ) 2 ( y b) 2 ( z c) 2 r
( x a ) 2 ( y b) 2 ( z c) 2 r 2
The Dot Product
So far we have added two vectors and multiplied a vector
by a scalar. The question arises ; Is it possible to multiply
two vectors so that their product is a useful quantity? One
such product is the dot product, whose definition follows
(1)Definition
If a a1 , a2 , a3 and b b1 , b2 , b , then the dot product of a and b
is the number a .b given by:
a . b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3
3

Thus to find the dot product of a and b we multiply

corresponding components and add. The result is not a
vector. It is a real number, that is , a scalar, for this reason ,
the dot product is sometimes called the scalar product ( or
inner product). Although definition (1) is given for threedimensional vectors , the dot product of two-dimensional
vectors is defined in a similar fashion:
a1 , a 2 . b1 , b2 a1b1 a 2 b2

Example

13

2,4 . 3,1 2(3) ( 4)(1) 2

1,7,4 . 6,2,

1
2

( 1)(6) 7( 2) 4(

1
)6
2

i 2 j 3k . 2 j k 1(0) 2( 2) ( 3)(1) 7

The dot product obeys many of the laws that hold for
ordinary products of real numbers. These are stated in
the following theorem.
(2) Properties of the Dot Product
If a, b, and c are vectors in V3 and c is a scalar, then:
2

a.a a

2
3
4
5

a.b b.a
a.(b c ) a.b a.c
(ca ).b a.(cb)
0.a 0

These properties are easily proved using definition 1.

For instance , here are proofs of properties 1 and 3:
2

a.a a12 a22 a32 a

a.(b c) a1 , a2 , a3 . b1 c1 , b2 c2 , b3 c3
a1 (b1 c1 ) a2 (b2 c2 ) a3 (b3 c3 )
a1b1 a1c1 a2b2 a2c2 a3b3 a3c3
(a1b1 a2b2 a3b3 ) (a1c1 a2c2 a3c3 )
a.b a.c

The dot product a .b can be given a geometric

interpretation in terms of the angle between a and b,
which is defined to be the angle between the representation
of a and b that start at the origin, where 0 in other
words is the angle between the line segment OA and
OB
in the figure below :

14

(3) Theorem
If is the angle between the vectors a and b, then
a.b a b cos

Proof
If we apply the law of cosines to triangle OAB in the
figure , we get
(4) AB OA OB 2 OA OB cos
Note that the law of cosine still applies in the limiting cases
when =0 or or ( a=0 or b=0) . but |OA|=|a|, |OB|=|b|
=, and |AB|= |a-b| , so equation (4) becomes
2

(5)
|a-b|2= |a|2 + |b|2 -2|a||b|cos
Using properties of dot product we can rewrite the left side
of this equation as follows:
a b

( a b).(a b)
a.a a.b b.a b.b
a

2a.b b

Therefore, equation (5) gives

15

2a.b b

or

2 a b cos

2a.b 2 a b cos
a.b a b cos

Example
If the vectors a and b have the length 4 and 6, and the
angle between them is /3, find a . b.
Solution
Using theorem (3) , we have

1
a.b a b cos( ) 4.6. 12
3
2

The formula in theorem 3 also enables us to find the

angle between two vectors.
Corollary : If is an angle between the nonzero
vectors a and b , then
Cos

a.b
ab

Example
Find the angle between vectors
b 5,3,2 .

a 2, 2,1

and

Solution
a
b

and

2 2 2 2 (1) 2 3
5 (3) 2
2

38

16

and since a . b= 2(5)+2(-3)+(-1)2=2

We have from the definition of the dot product:
cos

a.b
2

a b (3)( 38)

, so the angle between a and b is

0
1.46, or 84
(3)( 38)

cos 1

Example
r
(i)Determine the angle between a and
r
r
that a 3, 4, 1 , and b 0,5, 2
(ii)

r
b if it is known

Check the orthogonality of

r
u 2i j

and

r
1 1
v i j
2 4

Solution
(i)
rr

a.b 3, 4, 1 0,5, 2 3(0) (5)(4) (1)(2) 22

r
a 9 16 1 26
r
b 0 25 4 29

the angle is then :

rr
a.b
22
cos r r
0.8011927
26 29
a b

that means =2.5

radians = 143.240

17

(ii)

rr
1 1
1
5
u.v 2, 1, 0 , , 0 1
( not orthogonal)
2 4
4
4

r
r
5
u 5, v
4

r 1 r
notice that v u they
4

are parallel.
rr
r r
5
5
Also : u.v 5. u v cos 1 1800
4
4

Example
A force is given by the vector F=3i+4j+5k and moves a
particle from the point P(2,1,0) to the point Q(4,6,2).
Find the work done.
Solution
The displacement vector is
uuur
D PQ (2,5, 2) , so that work done is

W F .D 3, 4,5 . 2,5, 2
6 20 10 36

18

Components and Projections

For any two nonzero position vectors a and b, let the
angle between the vectors be . If we drop a
perpendicular line segment from the terminal point of a
to the line containing the vector b, then from elementary
trigonometry, the base of the triangle ( in case where
(0<</2) has the length given by a cos ( see the
figure)

On the other hand, notice that if ( 2 ) , the length of

the base is given by a cos ( see the figure)
In either case, we refer to a cos as the component of a
along b, denoted Compb a . we can write this expression
as :
Comp b a a cos

Comp b a

a b
b

cos

1
1
a b cos
a.b
b
b

or

a.b
b

19

Notice that Compb a is a scalar and that we divide the

dot product by b and not by a . one way to keep this
straight is to recognize that the components in figures
above depend on how long a is but not on how long b is.
We can view the last formula as the dot product of the
vector a and a unit vector in the direction of b, given by
b
b .
Once again, consider the case where the vector a
represents a force. Rather than the component of a along
b, we are often interested in finding a force vector
parallel to b having the same component along b as a.
we call this vector the projection of a onto b, denoted by
Projb a , as indicated in the figures below. Since the
projection has magnitude comp a and points in the
direction of b, for 0<</2 and opposite b , for
/2<<, we have that
b

a.b
b

b
b
a.b
proj b a
b
2
b

proj b a (compb a )

Where

b
b

b
b

represents a unit vector in the direction of b.

20

Example
For a 2,3 , and b 1,5 , find the component of a along
b and the projection of a onto b.
Solution
a.b

We have comp a b
Similarly we have
b

a.b b

b
b

proj b a

2,3 . 1,5
1,5

13

1,5

26

26

2 15
13

1 25
26

13
1
1 5
1,5
1,5 ,
26
2
2 2

The cross product

In this section , we define a second type of product of
vectors, the cross product or vector product. While the dot
product of two vectors is a scalar, the cross product of two
vectors is another vector. The cross product has many
applications, from physics and engineering mechanics to
space travel.
Some important definitions
Definition
The determinant of a 2 x 2 matrix of real numbers is
defined by
a1 a2
a1b2 a2b1
b1 b2
14 2 43
2 x 2 matrix

Example ; evaluate the determinant

1 2
3 4

From the above definition we have:

21

(1)( 4) ( 2)(3) 2

Definition
The determinant of a 3 x 3 matrix of real numbers is
defined as a combination of three 2 x 2 determinants, as
follows:
a1

a2

a3

b
b1 b2 b3 a1 2
c2
c1 c2 c3
1 42 43

b3
b b
b b
a2 1 3 a3 1 2
c3
c1 c3
c1 c2

3 x 3 matrix

this equation is referred to as an expansion of the

determinant along the first row. Notice that the multipliers
of each of the 2 x 2 determinants are the entries of the first
row of the 3 x 3 matrix. Each 2 x 2 determinant is the
determinant we get by eliminating the row and column in
which the corresponding multiplier lies.
Example
1

Evaluate the determinant

3 3 1
3 2 5

Solution
Expanding along the first row, we have
1 2 4
3 1
3 1
3 3
3 3 1 (1)
(2)
(4)
2 5
3 5
3 2
3 2 5
(1) (3)(5) (1)( 2) (2) ( 3)(5) (1)(3)
(4) ( 3)( 2) (3)(3) 41

22

we use the determinant notation as a convenient device for

defining the cross product, as follows:
Definition
For two vectors a a1 , a2 , a3 and b b1 , b2 , b3 in V3 ,
we define the cross product ( or vector product) of a and b
to be :
i
j
axb a1 a2
b1 b2

k
a
a3 2
b2
b3

a3
a
i 1
b3
b2

a3
a a
j 1 2 k
b3
b1 b2

notice that a x b is also a vector in V3. To compute a x b ,

you must write the component of a in the second row and
the component of b in the third row; the order is important.
Example
Compute

1, 2,3 x 4,5, 6
i

j k

1, 2,3 x 4,5, 6 1 2 3
4 5 6

2 3
5 6

1 3
4 6

1 2
4 5

3i 6 j 3k 3, 6, 3

note that the cross product is defined only for vectors in

V3 , there is no corresponding operation for vector in V2.
Theorem
For any vector a V3 , axa 0, and
We prove the first one :

ax 0 0

23

i
j
axa a1 a2
a1 a2

k
a2
a3
a2
a3

a3
a1 a3
a1
i
j
a3
a1 a3
a1

a2
a2

(a2 a3 a3a2 )i (a2 a2 a3a2 ) j (a1a2 a2 a1 )k 0

Theorem
For any vectors a and b in V3 , a x b is orthogonal to both a
and b.
Proof
Recall that two vectors are orthogonal if and only if their
dot product is zero.
a2
b2

a.(axb) a1 , a2 , a3 .
a1

a2
b2

a3
a
a2 1
b3
b1

a3
a
i 1
b3
b1

a3
a
j 1
b3
b1

a3
a
a3 1
b3
b1

a2
b2

a2
b2

a1 a2b3 a3b2 a2 a1b3 a3b1 a3 a1b2 a2b1

a1a2b3 a1a3b2 a1a2b3 a2 a3b1 a1a3b2 a2 a3b1
0

So that a and (a x b ) are orthogonal.

Notice that since a x b is orthogonal to both a and b, it is
also orthogonal to every vector lying in the plane
containing a and b. But, given a plane, out of which side of
the plane does a x b point? We can get an idea by
computing some simple cross products.
Notice that

24

i j k
0 0
1 0
1 0
ixj 1 0 0
i
j
k k
1 0
0 0
0 1
0 1 0

likewise

jxk=i

Right-hand rule
There are illustrations of the right-hand rule: If you align
the fingers of your right hand along the vector a and bend
your fingers around in the direction of rotation from a
toward b ( through an angle of less than 1800 ), your thumb
will point in the direction of
a x b ( see the figure )

Now , following the right-hand rule , b x a will point in the

direction opposite a x b ( see the figure )

25

in particular, notice that

j k

jxi 0 1 0 k
1 0 0

Definition : Two nonzero vectors a, b V3 parallel if and

only if a x b=0
Recall that a and b are parallel if and only if the angle
between them is either 0 or . in either case , sin =0 and
so from one of the previous theorems we have that :
axb a b sin a b (0) 0
The result then follows from the fact that only vector with
zero magnitude is the zero vector.
The same theorem provides us with the following
interesting geometric interpretation of the cross product.
For any two nonzero vectors a and b, as long as a and b
are not parallel, they form two adjacent sides of the
parallelogram , as seen in the figure below

26

notice that the area of the parallelogram is given by the

product of the base and the altitude, we have
Area = ( base ) ( altitude )
= a b sin axb
That is, the magnitude of the cross product of two vectors
gives the area of the parallelogram with two adjacent sides
formed by the vectors.
Example
Find the area of the parallelogram with two adjacent sides
formed by vectors a 1, 2,3 , and b 4,5, 6
Solution
First notice that:
i j k
2 3
1 3
1 2
axb 1 2 3
i
j
k 3, 6, 3
5 6
4 6
4 5
4 5 6
from the formula for the area of the parallelogram we have
that: Area axb 3, 6, 3 54 7.348
From the same theorem we can also find the distance from
a point to a line in R3 , as follows. Let d represent the

27

distance from the point Q to the line through the point P

and R. From elementary trigonometry , we have that :
uuur
d PQ sin , where is the angle between
uuur
uuu
r
PQ and PR ( see the figure )

uuur uuu
r
uuur uuu
r
uuu
r
we have that PQxPR PQ PR sin PR (d )
uuur uuu
r
PQxPR
solving this for d, we get d uuur
PR

Example
Find the distance from the point Q(1,2,1) to the line
through the points P(2,1,-3) and R(2,-1,3)
Solution
First, the position vectors corresponding to
PQ 1,1,4 and
PR 0, 2,6 , and
i
1,1,4 x 0,2,6 1
0

j
1
2

PQ, and PR

are

k
4 14,6,2
6

We have :
d

PQx PR
PR

14,6,2
0,2,6

236
40

2.429

28

For any three noncoplanar vectors a,b, and c ( three

vectors that do not lie in a single plane), consider the
parallelepiped formed using vectors as three adjacent
edges ( see figure )

Recall that the volume of such solid is given by:

Volume = ( Area of base)(altitude)
Further , since two adjacent sides of the base are formed
by the vectors a and b, we know that the area of the base is
given by axb . Referring to the figure above , notice that
the altitude is given by:
c.(axb)
compaxb c
, the volume of the parallelepiped is
axb
then:
Volume axb

c.(axb)
axb

c.(axb)

the scalar c.(a x b) is called the scalar triple product of the

vectors a ,b , and c. it is possible to evaluate the scalar
triple product by computing a single determinant. Note that
for a a1 , a2 , a3 , b b1 , b2 , b3 , and c c1 , c2 , c3
,
we have :
29

c.(axb) c. a1
b1

a2
b2

a3
b3
a2

a3

b2

b3

c1 , c2 , c3
c1

a2

a3

b2

b3

c2

c1

c2

c3

a1
b1

a2
b2

a3
b3

a1

a3

b1

b3

a1

a3

b1

b3

c3

a1

a2

b1

b2

a1
b1

a2
k
b2

Example
Find the volume of the parallelepiped with three adjacent
edges formed by three vectors
a 1, 2,3 , b 4,5, 6 , and c 7,8, 0

Solution
First , note that
Volume c.(axb) , we have that
7 8 0
2 3
1 3
1 2
c.(axb) 1 2 3
7
8
0
5 6
4 6
4 5
4 5 6
(3)(7) (6)(8) 21 48 27

so, the volume of the parallelepiped

is 27

Properties of cross product:

If a, b and c are vectors and e is a scalar, then:

30

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

r r
r r
a xb bxa
(anticommutavity )
r r
r r r r
(ea) xb e( axb) ax(eb)
r r r r r r r
a x(b c) axb axc
(distributive law)
r r r r r r r
(a b) xc axc bxc
(distributive law)
r r r
r r r
a .(bxc) ( axb).c
( scalar triple product )
r r r
rr r rr r
a x(bxc) (a.c)b (a.b)c
(vector triple product )

Proof (1)
We have a a1 , a2 , a3 , and b b1 , b2 , b3
written in form
i

axb a1 a2
b1 b2

b2
a2

a
a3 2
b2
b3

b3
b
i 1
a3
a1

a3
a a
a
i 1 3 j 1
b3
b1 b3
b1

b3
b
j 1
a3
a1

b2
a2

this can be

a2
k
b2

k (bxa )

since swapping two rows in a 2x2 matrix ( or in a 3x3

matrix, for this matter) changes the sign of its determinant.
Proof(3)
For c c1 , c2 , c3 , we have

31

b c b1 c1 , b2 c2 , b3 c3 , and so

ax(b c)

i
a1

j
a2

b1 c1 b2 c2

k
a3
b3 c3

looking only at the i component of this, we have

a2
b2 c2

a3
a2 (b3 c3 ) a3 (b2 c2 )
b3 c3
(a2b3 a3b2 ) (a2c3 a3c2 )
a2

b2

a3 a2

b3 c2

a3
c3

which is also the i component of a x b + a x c. similarly it

is possible to show that the j and k components also match.
Lines and planes in space
Normally , we specify a line in the xy-plane by selecting
any two points on the line or a single point on the line and
its direction, as indicated by the slope of the line. In three
dimensions, specifying two points on a line will still
determine the line. An alternative is to specify a single
point on the line and its direction. In three dimensions,
direction should make you think about vectors right away.
Lets look for the line that passes through the point
P1(x1,y1,z1) and that is parallel to the position vector
a a1 , a2 , a3 ( see figure).

32

For anyuuother
ur point P(x,y,z) on the line, observe that the
vector P1 P will be parallel to a. Further , two vectors are
parallel ifuand
uur only if one is a scalar multiple of the other,
so that: P1 P ta for some scalar t. The line then
uuur
coincides of all points P(x,y,z) for which ( P1 P ta ) holds.
uuur
Since P1 P x x1 , y y1 , z z1 , we have that:

x x1 , y y1 , z z1 ta t a1 , a2 , a3 , finally , since two

vectors are equal if and only if all of their components are
equal, we have:
x x1 ta1 , y y2 ta2 , and z z1 ta3
the last equation is called parametric equation for the line ,
where t is the parameter. As in two dimensional case , a
line in space can be represented by many different sets of
parametric equations. Provided none of a1,a2, and a3 are
zero., we can solve for the parameter in each of the three
equations, to obtain:

33

x x1 y y1 z z1

a1
a2
a3

we refer to the last equality as symmetric equations of the

line.
Example
Find an equation of the line through the point ( 1,5,2) and
parallel to the vector 4,3, 7 . Also, determine where the
line intersects the yz-plane.
Solution
From the previous equations we know that the parametric
equations for the line are
x 1 4t , y 5 3t , and z 2 7t
The symmetric equations of the line are :
x 1 y 5 z 2

4
3
7
The following figure representing the case:

34

the line intersects the yz-plane where x=0. setting x=0

yields that

17
1
, and z
4
4

alternatively, we could solve x-1=4t for t ( again where

x=0) and substitute this into the parametric equations for y
and z , so the line intersects the yz-plane at the point
( 0 , 17/4, 1/4 ).
Example
Find an equation of the line passing through the points
P(1,2,-1) and Q(5,-3,4).
Solution
First, a vector that is parallel to the line is
PQ (5 1,3 2,4 ( 1))

4, 5,5

picking either point will give us equations for the line. Here
we use P, so that parametric equations for the line are:
x 1 4t , y 2 5t , and z 1 5t ,similarly , symmetric equations
of the line are

35

x 1 y 2 z 1

4
5
5

the following figure shows the graph of the line

Since we have specified a line by choosing a point on the

line and a vector with the same direction , we can state the
following definition:
Definition
Let L1 and L2 be two lines in R3 , with parallel vectors a
and b, respectively, and let be the angle between a and b.
1-The lines L1 and L2 are parallel whenever a and b are
parallel.
2-If L1 and L2 intersect, then
(i)The angle between L1 and L2 is and
(ii)The lines L1 and L2 are orthogonal whenever a and b
are orthogonal.
In two dimensions, two lines are either parallel or they are
intersect. This is not true in three dimensions.
36

Example : Show that the lines :

l : x 2 t , y 1 2t , and z 5 2t and
l : x 1 s, y 2 s, and z 1 3s are not parallel, yet do not
intersect.
1

Solution
We used different letters ( t and s )for the two lines as the
parameters . solving the first parametric equation of each
line for the parameter in terms of x , we get
t 2 x , and s x 1 ,
respectively , this means that the parameter represents
something different in each line; so we must use different
letters. Notice from the graph below ,

that the lines are most certainly not parallel, but it is

unclear whether or not they intersect. You can read from
the parametric equations that a vector parallel to L1 is
a 1,2,2
while the vector parallel to L2 is a 1,1,3 .
Since a1 is not a scalar multiple of a2 , the vectors are not
parallel and so, the lines L1 and L2 are not parallel;. The
lines intersect if there is a choice of the parameters s and t
1

37

that produces the same point, that is, that produces the
same value for all x, y, and z. setting the x-values equal, we
get
2 t 1 s , so that s 1 t . setting that y-values equal and
setting s 1 t , we get
1 2t 2 s

2 (1 t ) 1 t

Solving this for t yields t 0 , which further implies that s 1

. setting the z-components equal gives
5 2t 3s 1 , but this equation is not satisfied when t 0 and
s 1 , so, L1 and L2 are not parallel, yet do not intersect.
Definition
Nonparallel, nonintersecting lines are called skew lines.
Note that its easy to visualize skew lines. Draw two planes
that are parallel and draw a line in each plane ( so that it
lies completely in the plane). As long as two lines are not
parallel, these are skew lines ( see the figure below).

38

Planes in R3
Observe the following figure :

Note that the yz-plane is a set of points in space such that

every vector connecting two points in the set is orthogonal
to i. However, every plane parallel to the yz-plane satisfies
this criterion . In order to select the one that corresponds
to the yz-plane, you need to specify a point through which it
passes ( any one will do).
In general, a plane in space is determined by specifying a
vector a a1 , a2 , a3 that is normal to the plane ( i.e.,
orthogonal to every vector lying in the plane) and a point
P1(x1,y1,z1) lying in the plane ( see the figure)

39

In order to find an equation of the plane, let P(x,y,z)

represent any point in the plane. Then, since P and P1 are
both
uuur points in the plane , the vector
PP1 x x1 , y y1 , z z1 lies in the plane and so, must be
orthogonal to a. By theorem that we used earlier we have
uuur
0 a.PP1 a1 , a2 , a3 . x x1 , y y1 , z z1
or
0 a1 ( x x1 ) a2 ( y y1 ) a3 ( z z1 )
the last equation is equation for the plane passing through

the point ( x1,y1,z1) with normal vector a1 , a2 , a3 .

Example
Find an equation of the plane containing the point (1,2,3)
with normal vector (4,5,6) and sketch the plane.
Solution
From the equation of the plane we have
0=4(x-1)+5(y-2)+6(z-3) , which is the equation of the
plane. To draw the plane, we locate three points lying in
40

the plane, In this case , the simplest way to do this is to

look at the intersections of the plane with each of the
coordinate axes. . when y=z=0, we get that :
0=4(x-1)+5(0-2)+6(0-3)=4x-4-10-18, so that 4x=32 and
x=8 . the intersection of the plane with the x-axis is the
point ( 8,0,0) , similarly we can find the intersections of the
plane with y- and z-axes: (0,32/5 , 0) and ( 0,0,16/3)
respectively. Using these three points , we can draw the
plane seen in figure below:

we start by drawing the triangle with vertices at the three

points; the plane we want is the one containing this
triangle. Notice that since the plane intersects all three of
the coordinate axes, the portion of the plane in the first
octant is the indicated triangle.

41

Finding the equation of a plane given three points

Not that we can expand the equation of the plane
0 a1 ( x x1 ) a2 ( y y1 ) a3 ( z z1 ) to the following form:

0 a1 x a2 y a3 z ( a1 x1 a2 x2 a3 x3 )
1 4 44 2 4 4 43
cons tan t

we refer to the last equation as a linear equation in the

three variables x, y,and z. In particular, this says that every
linear equation of the form
0=ax+by+cz+d is the equation of a plane with normal
vector a, b, c , where a,b,c,and d are constants.
We noticed earlier that three points determine a plane, but
how can we find an equation of a plane given only three
points? We need first to find a normal vector then proceed
easily as in the example

Example
Find the plane containing three points P(1,2,2), Q(2,-1,4)
and R(3,5,-2).
Solution
First, we will need to find a vector normal to the plane.
Notice
that two vectors
lying in the plane are
uuur
uuu
r
PQ 1, 3, 2 , and QR 1, 6, 6
, consequently, a
uuur
uuu
r
vector orthogonal to both of PQ, and QR

is the cross

product

42

i j k
uuur uuu
r
PQxQR 1 3 2 6,8,9
1 6 6
uuur uuu
r
uuur
uuur
since PQ, and QR are not parallel, PQxQR

must be
orthogonal to the plane, as well an equation for the plane
is then 0 6( x 1) 8( y 2) 9( z 2) , in the following
figure we can see the triangle with vertices at the three
points. The plane in question is the one containing the
indicated triangle.

The equation of a plane given a point and a parallel

plane
In three dimensions, two planes are either parallel or they
intersect in a straight line.. suppose that two planes having
43

normal vectors a and b , respectively, intersect. Then the

angle between the planes is the same as the angle between
a and b ( see the figure)

With this in mind, we say that the two planes are parallel
whenever their normal vectors are parallel and the planes
are orthogonal whenever their normal vectors are
orthogonal.
Example
Find an equation for the plane through the point (1,4,-5)
and parallel to the plane defined by 2x-5y+7z=12
Solution
First, notice that a normal vector to the given plane is
2, 5, 7 . Since the two planes are to be parallel, this
vector is also normal to new plane, then we can write down
the equation of the plane as follows:
0=2(x-1)-5(y-4)+7(z+5)
Finding intersection of two planes
The intersection of two nonparallel planes should be a line
Example
44

Find the intersection of the planes

x 4 y 3z 5 .

x 2y z 3

and

Solution : solving both equations for x , we get

x 3 2 y z and x 5 4 y 3 z
setting these expressions for x equal gives us
3 2 y z 5 4 y 3z

solving for z gives us

2z 6 y 2
z 3y 1
or
returning to either plane equations , we can solve for x
( also in terms of y) , we have
x 3 2 y 2 z 3 2 y 2(3 y 1) 8 y 1

Taking y as the parameter ( i.e., letting y t ) , we obtain

parametric equations for the line of intersection:
x 8t 1, y t , and z 3t 1

See the figure below

Distance between parallel planes

The distance from the plane ax+by+cz=0 to a point P0
( x0,y0,z0 ) not on the plane is measures along a line
segment connecting the point to the plane that is
orthogonal to the plane ( see the figure)
45

To compute this distance, pick any point P1( x1y1z1) lying

in the plane and let a a, b, c denote a vector normal to
the plane. From the figure notice that the distance from P0
uuuu
r
to the plane is simply compa PP
1 0 , where:
uuuu
r
P1 P0 x0 x1 , y0 y1 , z0 z1
from the rule of distance we have that the distance is
uuuu
r uuuu
r a
compa P1 P0 P1P0 .
a
x x, y y , z z .

a , b, c
a , b, c

a ( x0 x1 ) b( y0 y1 ) c( z0 z1 )
a 2 b2 c2
ax0 by0 cz0 (ax1 by1 cz1 )
a 2 b2 c 2
ax0 by0 cz0 d
a 2 b2 c 2

46

since (x1 , y1 ,z1 ) lies in the plane and ax+by+cz=-d, for

every point (x,y,z) in the plane
Example
Find the distance between the parallel planes
P1 : 2 x 3 y z 6
P2 : 4 x 6 y 2 z 8
Solution
First, observe that the planes are parallel, since their
normal vectors 2, 3,1 , and 4, 6, 2
are parallel.
Further, since planes are parallel, the distance from the
plane P1 to every point in the plane P2 is the same , so ,
pick any point in P2 , say (0,0,4) . The distance d from the
point (0,0,4) to the plane P1 is then given by:
d

(2)(0) (3)(0) (1)(4) 6

22 32 12

2
14

Surface in space
In this section we take a first look at functions of two
variables and their graphs, which are surfaces in threedimensional space.
Quadric surface
The graph of a second-degree equation in three variables
x,y,and z is called quadric surface. The graph of the
equation :
ax 2 by 2 cz 2 dxy eyz fxz gx hy jz k 0

47

In three-dimensional space ( where a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,j,and k

are all constants and at least one of a,b,c,d,e or f is
nonzero) is referred to as a quadric surface.
The most familiar quadric surface is the sphere:
( x a ) ( y b) ( z c ) r , of radius r centred at the point
( a, b, c ) , to draw the sphere centred at (0,0,0) , first draw a
circle of radius r, centred at the origin in the yz plane .
Then, to give the surface its three-dimensional look, draw
circles of radius r centred at the origin, in both the xz plane
and xy plane , as in the figure
2

Note that due to the perspective, these circles will look like
ellipses and will be only partially visible ( the hidden parts
of the circles will be represented by dashed lines)
A generalization of the sphere is the ellipsoid:

( x a ) 2 ( y b) 2 ( z c ) 2

1
2
2
2
d
e
f
notice that when d=e=f, the surface is a sphere.

48

Example
Graph the ellipsoid

x2 y2 z2

1
1
4
9
Solution
first draw the traces in the three coordinate planes. In the
y2 z2
1
yz-plane, x= 0 , which gives us the ellipse:
4 9

shown in the figure below:

Next, add to the last figure the traces in the xy- and xzplanes, these are:

x2 y2

1, and
1
4

x2 z 2
1 , which are both ellipses
1 9

(see the figure)

49

To sketch the problem in the hand for instance we can solve

for z and plot the two functions:
y2
z 3 1 x , and
4
2

y2
, to obtain surface
z 3 1 x
4
2

Sketching a paraboloid
Draw a graph of the quadric surface

x2 y2 z
To get an idea of what the graph looks like, first draw its
traces in the three coordinate planes. In the yz plane , we
have x 0 and so y z ( a parabola). In the xz plane , we have
y 0 and so, x z ( a parabola) . In the xy plane , we have
z 0 and so, x y 0 ( a point- the origin). We sketch the
traces in the figure below
2

50

Finally since the trace in the xy-plane is just a point, we

consider the traces in the planes z k (k 0) . Notice that these
are the circles x y k , where for larger values of z ( i.e.,
larger values of k) , we get circles of larger radius.. we
sketch the surface as in the figure below
2

51

Such surface is called paraboloids and since the traces in

planes parallel to the xy-plane are circles, this is called a
circular paraboloid.
Graphing utilities with three-dimensional capabilities
generally produce a graph like the figure below:

For z x y . Notice that the parabolic traces are visible,

but not the circular across sections we draw in the second
figure. The four peaks visible in the last figure are due to
the rectangular domain used to plot ( in this case
5 x 5 and 5 y 5 ).
This can be improved by restricting z-values.
With 0 z 15 , we can clearly see the circular cross section
in the plane z 15 in the following figure
2

52

We can plot the parametric surface to the same problem ,

we have x cos t , and y sin t and z s , with 0 s 5 and
0 t 2 . The figure below shows the circular cross
sections in the plane z k for k 0 .
2

Sketching an elliptic cone

Draw a graph of quadric surface

y2
x
z2
4
2

53

while this equation may look a lot like that of an ellipsoid,

there is a significant difference ( look where the z2 is), we
start by looking at the traces in the coordinate planes. For
the yz plane , we have x 0 and so :

x2
z2
4

or

pair of lines :

y 2 4z 2
y 2z

, so that y 2 z . That is, the trace is a

and

y 2 z

( see the figure)

Likewise, the trace in the xz plane is a pair of lines: x 2 z .

The trace in the xy plane is simply the origin(why)? Finally,
the traces in the planes z k (k 0) , parallel to the xy plane ,
are the ellipses :

y2
x
k 2 . Adding these to the drawing gives us the
4
2

double-cone seen in the figure below:

54

Since the traces in planes parallel to the xy-plane are

ellipses, we refer to this as an elliptic cone. One way to
plot this with a CAS is to graph the two functions:

y2
z x
4
2

and

y2
.
z x
4
2

in the following figure

55

We restrict the z-range to 10 z 10 to show the elliptical

cross sections. Notice that this plot shows a gap between
the two halves of the cone. Alternatively, the parametric
plot shown in the following figure

With x s 2 cos t , y 2 s 2 sin t and z s , with 5 s 5

and 0 t 2 , shows the full cone with its elliptical and
linear traces.
Sketching a hyperboloid of one sheet
Draw a graph of the quadric surface
x2
z2
2
y 1
4
2
Solution
The traces in the coordinate plane are as follows:
56

z2
yz plane( x 0) : y 1 (hyperbola )
2
x2
xy plane( z 0) : y 2 1 (ellipse)
4
x2 z 2
and xz plane( y 0) : 1 (hyperbola )
4 2
2

( see the figure )

Further notice that the trace of the surface in each plane

z k ( parallel to the xy plane ) is also an ellipse:

x2
k2
2
y
1
4
2
Finally, observe that the larger k is, the larger the axes of
the ellipses are. Adding this information to the last figure ,
we draw the surface seen in the following figure

57

We call this surface a hyperboloid of one sheet.

Using the CAS , we can graph the two functions :
x2

z 2
y 2 1
4

and

x2
z 2
y 2 1
4

as in the figure below:

(where we have restricted the z-range to

10 z 10 , to show the elliptical cross sections.)
Alternatively , the parametric plot seen in the figure
58

with x 2 cos s cosh t , y sin s cosh t , and z 2 sinh t ,

with 0 s 2 and 5 t 5 , shows the full
hyperboloid with its elliptical and hyperbolic trace
Sketching a hyperboloid of two sheets
Draw a graph of the quadric surface:
2
x2
z
y2 1
4
2

Solution
Notice that this is the same equation as in the last example,
except for the sign of the y term . As we have done before,
we first look at the traces in the three coordinate planes.
The trace in the yz plane ( x 0) is defined by:
z2
2
y 1 , since it is clearly impossible for two negative
2
numbers to add up to something positive, this is a
59

contradiction and there is no trace in the yz plane . That is ,

the surface does not intersect the yz plane . The traces in the
other two coordinate planes are as follows:
x2
xy plane( z 0) : y 2 1 (hyperbola )
4
x2 z 2
xz plane( y 0) : 1 (hyperbola )
4 2
we show these traces in the following figure ;

Finally, notice that for x k , we have that

z2 k 2
2
y 1
2
4
so that the traces in the plane x k are ellipses for k 4 . It
is important to notice here that if k 4 , the equation
z2 k 2
2
y
1 has no solution ( why?) so, for
2
4
2 k 2 , the surface has no trace at all in the plane x k ,
leaving a gap which separate the hyperbola into two
2

60

sheets. Putting this all together , we have the surface seen

in the figure below:

we call this surface a hyperboloid of two sheets.

We can plot this on CAS by graphing the two functions

x2

z 2
y 2 1
4

and

x2
z 2
y 2 1 , as in
4

the figure ;

61

where we have restricted the z-range to 10 z 10 , to show

the elliptical cross sections. This plot shows large gaps
between the two halves of the hyperboloid.
The parametric plot with

x 2 cosh s, y sinh s cos t

and

z 2 sinh s sin t ,

for 4 s 4 and 0 t 2 , produces the left half of

the hyperboloid with its elliptical and hyperbolic traces.
The right half of the hyperboloid has parametric equations
x 2 cosh s, y sinh cos t , and z 2 sinh s sin t ,
with 4 s 4
figure

and

0 t 2 . As shown in the

62

Sketching a hyperbolic paraboloid

Sketch the graph of the quadric surface defined by the
equation z 2 y 2 x 2
Solution
We consider first the traces in planes parallel to each of the
coordinate planes:
Parallel to xy plane ( z k ) : 2 y x k ( hyperbola , for (k 0) .
Parallel to xz plane ( y k ) : z x 2k (parabola opening
down).
and parallel to yz plane ( x k ) : z 2 y k ( parabola opening
up).
2

63

first we start by drawing the traces in the xz-planes as seen

in the figure

Since the trace in the xy-plane is the degenerate hyperbola

( 2 y x ) ( two lines : x m 2 y ), we instead draw the
trace in several of the planes z k . For (k 0) ), these are
hyperbolas opening toward the positive and negative ydirection and for (k 0) , these are hyperbolas opening
towards the positive and negative x-direction. We indicate
one of these negative and positive (ks) in the following
figure
2

64

We refer to this figure as a hyperbolic paraboloid

A wireframe graph of z 2 y x is shown in the figure below
with (5 x 5 and 5 y 5) where we limited the z-range to
8 z 12 .
2

Note that only the parabolic cross sections are drawn, but
the graph shows all the features of the figure. Plotting this
65

surface parametrically is fairly tedious because it requires

four different sets of equations) and does not improve the
graph noticeably .

66