Unit-1

ROCKET SYSTEMS
1.1. Ignition System in Rockets
1.2. Types of Igniter

Gaseous igniter

Liquid igniter

Solid igniter

1.3. Gaseous igniter

It is not used now (e.g. shock tube type). Reactive gaseous mixture held in a very
thin tube with high pressure. It is hazardous in nature and reliable. It is used only for
space application. For directional control of high pressure and high temperature gas, there
is some burst dampers.
1.4. Liquid igniter
Liquid Liquid

purely hypergolic

Liquid Solid

hybrid

Characteristics of hypergolic liquids:

Hypergolic liquids would have very high bulk density
Ignition delay should be less than 50 milliseconds
They must be chemically stable.
They must be compatible with selected polymer and metal.
They should develop no compression debris.
Their viscosity should be less than 10 centistokes.
They should remain liquid upto the temperature of 200C.
They should have low vapour pressure.
They should have good heat transfer characteristics.
Some of the combination of hypergolic ignition:
Fuel

Oxidizer

Kerosene

RFNA

UDMH

N2O4

Hydrazine

ClF3

MMH

F2

Ammonia

O2

H2

ClO3F

Purity of the materials affects the ignition delay. Initial temperature and pressure
also affect the ignition delay.
t = A e E/RT
t --- Time
A---Minimum possible ignition delay
E--- Temperature coefficient
R---Universal gas constant
T---Temperature
1.5.

Solid Rocket igniter

Solid Rocket Igniter

Totally confined igniter

Powder Can igniter
Bag igniter
Jelly Roll

Unconfined
igniters
Film igniter
Conducting
film igniter
Pyrocore

Nozzle igniter
Basket igniter
Alco jet
Pyrogen

1.5.1. Totally Confined Igniters

1.5.1.1.

Bag Igniter:
In this old primitive igniter, we dont have enough control over ignition. After the

ignition of fully charged bag igniter, the heat release and the pressure generation occur.
Its rate of increase is very high. So burst occurs.

Advantage
Easy to fabricate & cost of production is very low.
Disadvantage
The particular system is very far from meeting the requirements of modern high
performance rocket motors.

1.5.1.2.

Powder Can Igniter

Pallets are made up of black powder or metal oxidants or aluminium powder.

Here the directional control of ignition can be done. But it is not sufficient. It is rapturous,
not suitable for large rocket motor. Powder can igniter is suitable for small rocket motor
and not suitable for large rocket motors because of erratic transient ignition
characteristics.

1.5.1.3.

Jelly Roll
Take a film coated pyrotechnic & binder. Roll this film over a rod. After rolling,

take out the rod. Give squib supports at the front and back. Then give the rubber support
externally. Ignition is started at the squib. Here the ignition transfers layer by layer.
Productive cover is used to tight the main charge.
Advantage
These igniters are nozzle insertable.
They make efficient use of motor fuel volume
They have little or no debris.
The hardware weight is low.
Disadvantage
They are very fragile and not suitable for large rocket motor.
They are difficult to manufacture & the principle of operation is complex.
They produce high shock. (The shock will produce cracks on the fuel grain).

1.5.2.

Unconfined Igniters
Actually they are confined. They are unconfined only relative to others.

1.5.2.1.

Film Igniter:
The film igniter is produced by painting an ignitable fuel-oxidizer binder mixture

directly onto the propellant surface. The film can be activated by the conventional
pyrotechnic igniter. It permits the use of low output conventional ignition system and has
4

often be used an aid to ignite the systems which handle materials difficult to ignite. The
film components normally contains
Fine metal powder- aluminium powder
Perchlorate oxidizer ammonium perchlorate
Polymeric binder

1.5.2.2.

Conducting Film Igniter:

It contains thin strips of pyrotechnic material applied directly to the propellant,

which can overlay of circuit leads. It consists of the application of thin strips with in the
perpendicular overlay of actuation circuitry. A typical pyrotechnic mixture consists of
metal powder, perchlorate oxidizer, silver conductor and the polymeric binder.
Aluminium foils are used as protective layer of CFI.
Advantage
These igniters produce low pressure peaks
They make efficient use of space
They are insensitive to EM radiation.
Disadvantage
They cant be removed from the motor
They are sensitive to friction and resistance
They are difficult to apply
Quality control is difficult
1.5.3.
1.5.3.1.

Nozzle Igniters or Ballistically Controlled Igniters

Basket Igniter
It uses palette charges. They are fabricated from the heavy wire mesh, perforated

sheet metal or perforated glass fibre reinforced resins. The perforated container acts arty
to retain the high surface area palette charge as it burns. The exhaust products ejected in a
pattern determined by the geometry of the design contains reactive products as well as
5

reactive materials. This system makes

available in wide choice of configuration
allowing for some flame pattern control.
Advantage
They can be made sufficiently
strong to withstand environmental
conditions.
They can be designed to retain the
pallet charge within the igniter until the burning is very near complete.
Proper control of length & port area can furnish a controlled flame pattern & give
medium to fast ignition with low ignition charge.
Disadvantage
The hardware weight is high
Forward attachment is often difficult.
The burning area of the pallets cant be readily determined.
Internal igniter pressure & the mass delivery rate are difficult to determine.
1.5.3.2.

Pyrogen
A Pyrogen igniter consists of small nozzle pressure chamber containing high-

energy fast burning rocket propellant usually having a complex geometry. Essentially it is
a rocket motor with in a rocket motor. The design is especially used in very large motor.

Advantages
These igniters have little or no shocks.
They are adaptable to either head end or launcher mount head application.

 They eliminate the handling of large amounts of relatively hazardous metal oxide
charges.
Disadvantages
The Pyrogen must itself have an igniter and its therefore depends upon the
principle used to ignite.
1.5.3.3.

Alco Jet:
There are two tubes. In the annular space between the two tubes, we have main

charge. Booster charge present inside the tube. The booster charge is first ignited. The
ignition passes through the perforations in the inner wall to the main charge. There are
perforations in the outer tube through which flame comes out. Since there is a control, it
is a ballistically controlled igniter.

1.6. Live Igniter components

i. Firing console
ii. Squib
iii. Transfer charge
iv. Booster charge
v. Main charge
vi. Motor grain
Squib:
The squib is the primary element of the ignition train that affects the conversion of
electrical impulse from the control console to chemical reaction in the rocket motor. The squib
consists of the following parts.
1. Inert components:

a.

Circuit element,

b.

Base or Body,

c.

Insulation,

d.

Metal case.

2. Active components:
a.

Prime charge,

b.

Squib booster charge,

c.

Squib main charge.

Characteristics of Squib includes the following

1. A functioning time curve
2. A flame pattern that shows a unit comparison of the flame pattern obtained from two
different charges in the same squib.
3. Pressure output characteristics
4. Thermal output characteristics
5. Auto ignition characteristics or differential thermal analysis
6. Static sensitivity characteristics
7. Shock and mechanical sensitivity characteristics
8. Reliability has required to meet the design requirements.
Transfer charge:
Transfer charge is a reactive component that consists of a fuel oxidizer system of high
surface area to weight ratio.

1.

Fuel metal powder (aluminium, zinc or magnesium)

2.

Oxidizer

3.

Binder.

Oxidizer:
Perchlorate or nitrates of metals or inorganic compounds.
Binders:
For handling the dispersion problem used some organic polymer as binders for mixing
the oxidizer and fuel. The transfer charge reaction rate is controlled through chemical purity,
particle size, percent binders and binding procedure. The granules of the transfer charge are
usually produced by milling or blending. The fuel and oxidizer in sluvery form containing the
binder. The solvent in the binder is adjusted so that the mixture becomes a viscous sluvery.
The sluvery is passed and pressed through wet screens mesher onto flat pans or a moving belt
and air-dried or oven dried. The transfer charge is best characterized by determining its rate of
pressurizing in a closed system and its loading density Vs pressure curve and its heat output per
unit weight.
Booster Charge:
Booster charge consists of pallets or combination of granules and pallets, which are
used to initiate the main charge. The granules are prepared in the same manner as the transfer
charge granules as before the reaction rate is controlled through purity, particle size, bending
procedure and compacting pressure.
Main Charge:
The main charge is made up of pallets or grains, which may be, fabricated either
through pressing, casting or extruding and machining. It most often appears in the form of
pressed pallets or grains but it can also take the form of a propellant grain. It is formed by
compacting as in the case of booster pallets or in some cases it may be casted or extruded as a
viscous medium that is formed prior to curing.
1.7.

Igniter Design Considerations

1.

The pyrotechnic material data (p-t curve, Functioning time curve, heat output curve).

2.

Propellant ignitability data (Arc Image furnace method, Ignitability Bomb)

3.

Rocket motor data (Grain size, shape, motor free volume)

4.

Back up data (previous test firing data)

In the arc image furnace method, samples of propellants are subjected to the high

gradient output of a focused carbon arc that is timed to give controlled exposure per unit area
by a standard calorimeter. Results of energy inputs required for ignition of various propellants
are compared at several pressures.
The ignitability bomb is a device used to determine the relative ignitability of the
propellants at various pressures under the direct fire of ignition materials. In this method, the
experiments are carried out in a bomb similar to a strand-burning bomb. Both the charge size
and the distance of the propellant from the charge can be controlled. With the standard
propellant the bomb can also evaluate the relative efficiencies of the ignition materials.
1.8.

Injectors:

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The function of the injectors is similar to those of a carburetor of an internal

combustion engine. The injector has to introduce and meter he flow of the liquid
propellant to the combustion chamber, cause the liquids to be broken up into small
droplets (a process called atomization),and distribute and mix the propellant in such a
manner that the correctly proportionate mixture of fuel and oxidizer will result , with
uniform propellant mass flow and composition over the chamber cross section. This has
been accomplished with different types of injector design and elements; several common
types are shown in figure and complete injector is shown ion the figure.
The injection hole pattern on the face of the injector is closely related to the
internal manifolds or feed passages with the injectors. These provides for the distribution
of propellant from the injector inlet to all the injection holes. a large complex manifold
volume allows low passage velocities and good distribution of flow over the cross section
of the chamber. A small manifold volume allows for a lighter weight injector and reduces
the amount of dribble, flow after the main walls are shut.
The higher passage velocity cause a uneven flow through the different identical
injection holes and thus a poorer distribution and wider local gas composition variation.
Dribbling results in after burning, which is an insufficient irregular combustion that gives
a little cut off thrust after wall closing. For application with very accurate terminal
vehicle velocity requirements, a cut off impulse has to be very small and reproducible and
often walls are built into the injector to minimize passage wall.
The impinging steam type, multihole injectors are commonly used with oxygenhydrocarbon and storable propellants. For unlike doublet patterns the propellants are
injected through a number of separate small holes in impingement forms thin liquid fans
and aids atomization of the liquids into droplets, also eighteen distributions.
Characteristics of specific injection orifice are given in the table. Impinging hole injector
are also used for like on like or cells impinging patterns (fuel on fuel and oxidizer on
oxidizer).
The two liquid steams then form a fan, which breaks up into droplets. Unlike
doublets work best when the hole size of the fuel is about equal to that of the oxidizer and
the ignition delay is long enough to allow the formation of fans. For uneven volume flow
the triplet pattern seems to be more effective.

11

The non-impinging or showerhead injector employs non-impinging steams of

propellant usually emerge in normal to the face of the injector. It release on turbulence
and diffusion to achieve mixing. This type is not used, because it requires a large
chamber volume for good combustion. Sheet or spray type injectors give cylindrical,
conical, or other types of spray sheets; these sprays generally intersect and thereby
promote mixing and atomization. By varying the width of the sheet (through an axially
moveable sleeve) it is possible to throttle the propellant flow over a wide range without
excessive reduction in injector pressure drop. This type of variable area concentric tube
injector was used on the descent engine of the lunar excursion module and throttled over
a range of flow with only a very small in mixture ratio.
The coaxial hollow post injector has been used for liquid oxygen and gaseous
hydrogen injectors by most domestic and foreign rocket designers. It is shown in the
lower left of Fig. It works well when the liquid hydrogen has absorbed heat from cooling
jackets and has been gasified. This gasified hydrogen flows at high speed (typically 330
m/sec or 1000 ft/sec); the liquid oxygen flows far more slowly (usually at less than 33
m/sec or 100 ft/sec) and the differential velocity caused a shear action, which helps to
break up the oxygen stream into small droplets. The injector has a multiplicity of these
coaxial posts on its face.

This type of injector is not used with liquid storable

bipropellants, in part because the pressure drop to achieve high velocity would become
too high.
1.9.

Propellant Feed System:

Liquid propellants are required to be injected at a pressure slightly above the

combustor pressure. Two types of feed systems can be employed; they are (i) gas
pressure feed system and (ii) the pump feed system. The former is much simpler and
widely used for low thrust and short-range operations. The latter is used in large engines.
1.9.1. Gas pressure feed system:
Figure shows a schematic diagram of a liquid propellant rocket employing the gas
pressure feed system. An inert gas is separately carried at a pressure much higher than
the injection pressure; this is used to exert the required pressure in the propellant tanks.
The pressurizing gas is chosen on the basis of its chemical properties, density, pressure

12

and the total weight of the gas and the tank. A gas, which is ideal for one propellant, may
be quite unsuitable for another.

Nitrogen, Helium and air have been used for

pressurization. The propellants under high pressure are forced to flow into the thrust
chamber through values, feed lines and injectors. Several regulating and check valves are
used fro filling, draining, starting and checking the flow of propellants.
In this method no moving parts such as pumps and turbines are used. Therefore the
system is considerably simpler. However, the pressurization of the propellant tanks
requires them to be comparatively much heavier and introduces a weight penalty besides
other problems. Therefore, this system is unsuitable for large rocket engines and longrange missions.
Pressure for injection can also be generated within the propellant tank or tanks by
introducing a small quantity of a gas, which reacts exothermally with the propellant; this
produces the high-pressure gas required to force the propellant into the combustor.

13

1.9.2. Turbo pump feed system:

In the turbo pump feed system propellants from the tanks are pumped into the
combustor by gas turbine driven centrifugal pumps. The turbine or turbines work on high
pressure and temperature gas generated separately or tapped out from the main
combustor. Figure depicts a general arrangement of a turbo pump system. Here both the
fuel and oxidizer pumps re driven by a single turbine. In order to achieve flexibility in
choosing the design and operating parameters the fuel and oxidizer pumps can be driven
separately by their turbines.
Figure depicts a turbo pump feed system employing a single turbine driving the fuel
and oxidizer pumps through a reduction gear. The turbine operates on a separate gas
stream generated from the propellants in an independent gas generator as shown. A
pressurizing gas can be used to increase the pressure of the propellants at the pump
suctions to avoid cavitation and the resulting instability in pump operation.
Generally turbine speeds are high; therefore propellant pumps can be driven at
optimum speeds through reduction gears with an additional weight penalty. The working
gas for the turbine can also be generated at the optimum temperature and pressure. The
gas generator also has its own injection and ignition systems. The flow of propellants to
the gas generator occurs (in the system shown in figure) due to the action of the
pressurizing gases. If gas pressurization is not employed the propellants can be bled from
the delivery lines of the pumps. The propellant flow required for driving the turbine is of
the order of 1.5 to 5 per cent of the main flow. The turbine exhaust is also expanded
through an exhaust nozzle to provide an additional thrust as shown in the figure.
An auxiliary power unit is also needed in a rocket engine. An single turbine can
develop sufficient power to drive the propellant pumps as well as the electric generator.
Besides working on high energy gases bled from the main thrust chamber or combustor it
can also employ its won combustor with a gas pressure feed system. An alternate
method, which is comparatively simpler, is to generate the working gases by burning
solid propellants in a manner similar to the solid propellant rocket.
The turbines and pumps for rocket applications are designed to meet some special
requirements. There are enormous temperature differences within a turbo-pump unit.
The high-pressure gas at the turbine inlet is at a high temperature of the order of 1500K

14

whereas the temperature of some of the propellants are highly reactive. Therefore, the
sealing arrangement in propellant pumps should be perfect and resistant to corrosion.
Both positive displacement and turbo pumps can be used for delivering propellants from
the tanks to the combustion chamber. However, centrifugal pumps are widely used. For
a given peripheral speed of the pump impeller it is preferable to employ higher rotational
speed in order to restrict the size of the pump.

15

1.10.

Liquid Rocket Combustion Chamber Design Considerations.

1. Heat transfer problems.

2. Structural problems.
3. Combustion problems. Combustion instability (Acoustic problems)
4. Starting problems.

Figure

Due to very high temperature was exposed to the material, the material lose its strain. So,
there is chance for structural failure.

Figure

Due to high heat flux in throat also leads to structural failure of the system.

Figure

1. Typical assembly of LPR thrust chamber.

2. Selection of chamber volume.
3. Cooling of Thrust chamber.

16

4. Hydraulic losses in cooling passage.

5. Chamber wall Loads and stresses.
6. Injector calculations &design considerations.
1.11.

Valves and Pipelines

Valves control the flows of liquids and gases and pipes conduct these fluids to the

intended components. There are no rocket engines without them. These are many different
types of valves. All have to be reliable, lightweight, leak proof, and must withstand intensive
vibrations and very loud noises. With many of these valves, any leakage or valve failure can
cause a failure of the rocket unit itself. All valves are tested for two qualities prior to
installation; they are tested for leaks-through the seat and also through the glands-for functional
soundness or performance.
The propellant valves in high thrust units handle relatively large flows at high service
pressures. Therefore the forces necessary to actuate the valves are large. Hydraulic or
pneumatic pressure, controlled by pilot valves, operates the larger valves; these pilot valves are
in turn actuated by a solenoid or a mechanical linkage. Essentially this is a mean of power
boost.
1.12.

Propellant Hammer

Propellant hammer is nothing but the pressure surging present in the liquid propellant feed line.
Basically the feed line walls are very thin. On sudden closure of valve, a pressure pulse is
generated at the neighbourhood of valve. It travels back to the tank at some velocity and keep
the liquid static pressure increasing.

kD
Et

a = velocity of propagation of pressure pulse.

E = modulus of elasticity of pipeline or feed line material
K = Bulk modulus of elasticity of propellant.
D diameter of propellant feed line
t wall thickness of feed line

17

Changes in the momentum of the fluid in the feed line caused

by the opening or closing of valves in the line result in pressure
peaks analogous to water hammer, such situation occur during
rocket engine start, during initial bleed of the rocket engine or
rocket engine set down. These situations fall into two
categories.
i.

Valve closure.

ii.

Valve opening.
In the case of valve closure, i.e, tc = valve closure time, a =
velocity of propagation of pressure pulse.
2L
a

tc ; fast valve closure

2L
a

tc ; slow valve closure

For fast valve closure,

p = a Vo
p the peak magnitude of the pressure
a is estimated by
a=

kD
Et
D diameter of propellant feed line
1

t wall thickness of feed line

E = modulus of elasticity of pipeline or feed line material
Vo= initial flow velocity
L = length of the line.
K = Bulk modulus of elasticity of propellant
For slow valve closure,
N
4
1 1
2
N

p static pressure in the pipeline near the valve before valve closure
p = po

18

1.13.

LVo
N

potc
Frictional Losses in the propellant feed line

The frictional losses in the propellant feed line can be estimated by the following
equation.
p = k

v2
2

p pressure loss
k

Loss factor (dimension less)

v average propellant velocity
Density of the propellant
k = 4 f L D

L length of the feed line

D diameter of the line
Roughness ratio =

4f Roughness factor
The loss factor k for various pipe configurations, end fittings and control valves have been
established by testing of the appropriate configurations.

19

1.14.

Geysering effect:
The term Geysering is applied to that
phenomenon which occurs in a liquid
system where a column of liquid in long
vertical lines is expelled by the release of
vapour at a rate in excess of that rate
which may occur as a normal function of
bubble release.
The result is an expulsion of liquid
from the vertical line (Feed line) refilling
the line by gravity action from the storage
tank above line results in a pressure surges
analogous to water hammer. The pressure
surges so produced can be very large and
damage the fluid lines, wall supports and
the

line

Geysering.

supports

as

the

result

of

Geysering results from the

action of the release of super heat and reduced pressure boiling in a saturated or superheated
liquid column.
If the bubbles will swarm, causing the creation of the slow moving mass or a single large
bubbles other bubbles below the large moving mass travel at faster velocity and join the large
bubble, causing it to grow faster and to decrease the column static pressure rapidly.
1.15.

Tank outlet design consideration

Outlet diameter is db is given by

8Q 2

db =

8Q 2
2
d 4 ah
a

20

da feed line diameter

a missile

acceleration

Tank outlet design consists of solving three main problems.

1.

Cavitations

2.

Dropout

3.

Vortexing

1.15.1. Cavitations
Cavitations occurs static pressure drops below the vapour pressure of the propellant. This may
be due to the increased flow velocity in the outlet. Cavitations is undesirable because there will
be increased loses in the outlet. Cavitations occurs when the static pressure below the vapour
pressure of the liquid propellant this can occur in a converging duct such as tank outlet where
the fluid velocity increases and there is corresponding decrease in static pressure. The high
vapour pressure of some propellant requires that the outlet and the tank contoured or
configured that static pressure does not become vapour pressure. The problem can be avoided
by contouring the outlet so that the static pressure is constant throughout the length of the
outlet.
1.15.2. Liquid Drop Out
Liquid drop out is undesirable phenomenon in case of liquid rocket engines. Liquid drop ort is
basically depression in the liquid surface at center of out flow cines, which occurs it higher
vertical velocity along the centerline of the outlet than along the4 wall exist. Liquid drop out
will not occur the liquid surface remains and lot as it passes through the out let to approximate

21

the condition. The outlet can be contoured so that the axial component of velocity along a
stream line adjacent to the wall of outlet is equal to the average velocity obtained by dividing
the flow rate by the cross sectional area.
1.15.3. Outage
The amount of liquid oxidizer or propellant present in the tank at the fine of completing the
operation of vehicle is called as outage.

cos =

Vh dh

Vr dr

2
3
4
gc
d 2h 2
dh
ar
dh dh

dh

dr 2 r
c2
dr dr
dr
Q 2 dr

The solution of this differential equation will be a non-dropout contour. It is a non-linear

equation and direct solution cant be readily obtained. But the solution can be obtained by
numerical approximation.
gc = gravitational constant
r = radius
a = missile longitudinal acceleration
c = chezy loss coefficient
Which depends upon the roughness of the outlet substances.

22

1.15.4. Vortexing
Vortexing can also allow gas to enter the tank outlet pipe; this phenomenon is similar to
the Coriolis force effects in bath tubs being emptied and can be augmented if the vehicle spins
or rotates in flight. Typically, a series of internal baffles is often used to reduce the magnitude
of sloshing and Vortexing in tanks with modest side accelerations. A positive expulsion
mechanism can prevent gas from entering the propellant piping under multidirectional major
accelerations or spinning (centrifugal) acceleration. Both the Vortexing and sloshing can
greatly increase the unavailable or residual propellant, and thus cause a reduction in vehicle
performance.
1.16.

Propellant slosh:

Some times the liquid contains in the tank may oscillate back and forth and this liquid
motion is generally referred to as propellant slosh.

The resulting oscillatory forces and

moments on the tank walls are not negligible and must be considered in the dynamic analysis
of the missiles. When the tank is partly empty, sloshing can uncover the tank outlet and allow
gas bubbles to enter into the propellant discharge line. These bubbles can cause combustion
problem in the thrust chamber; the aspirating of bubbles or the uncovering of tank outlets by
liquids therefore needs to be avoided. Sloshing can also shifts in vehicles center of gravity and
makes flight control difficult.
The response if the missile to dynamic excitation during the powered flight is strongly
offered by the sloshing motion of the liquids in the tanks. The associated frequencies have to
be accurately determined for the design of autopilot because they may be within the autopilot
effective control frequency.
The effect propellant slosh in the structural dynamics of the missile is generally idealized
mathematically based on the knowledge that only fundamental mode of propellant motion play
a significant role.
The propellant is replaced for analytical purposes by a mass mounted with in the tank, a
frictional guide which is perpendicular to tank axis. The motion of the equivalent mass along
this guide is restrained by a mass less spring. The magnitude of this equivalent mass, its
natural frequency of oscillation and its height of above tank bottom vary in the depth of the
tank.

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Combustion System of Solid Rockets

Physical and Chemical Processes
The combustion in a solid propellant motor involves exceedingly complex
reactions taking place in the solid, liquid, and gas phases of a heterogeneous mixture.
Visual observations and measurements of flames in simple experiments, such as
strand burner tests, give an insight into the combustion processes. For double base
propellants, the combustion flame structure appears to be homogeneous and onedimensional along the burning direction. When the heat from the combustion melts,
decomposes, and vapourizes the propellant at the burning surface, the resulting gases
seem to be already premixed. One can see a brilliantly radiating bright flame zone where
most of the chemical reaction believed to occur and a dark zone between the bright flame
and the burning surface. The brightly radiating hot reaction zone seems to be detached
from the combustion surface. The dark zone thickness decreases with increasing chamber

24

pressure, and higher heat transfer to the burning surface causes the burning rate to
increase. The overall length of the visible flame becomes shorter as the chamber pressure
increases and the heat release per unit volume near the surface also increases.
Burn rate catalysts seem to affect the primary combustion zone rather than the
processes in the condensed phase. They catalyze the reaction at or near the surface,
increase or decrease the heat input into the surface, and change the amount of propellant
that is burned.
Ignition Process
Solid propellant ignition consists of a series of complex rapid events, which start
on receipt of a signal (usually electric) and include heat generation, transfer of the heat
from the igniter to the motor grain surface, spreading the flame over the entire burning
surface area, filling the chamber free volume (cavity) with gas, and elevating the chamber
pressure without serious abnormalities such as over overpressures, combustion
oscillations, damaging shock waves, hang fire (delayed ignition), extinguishments, and
chuffing. The igniter in a solid rocket motor generates the heat and gas required for motor
ignition. Motor ignition must usually be complete in a fraction of a second for all but the
very large motors. The motor pressure rises to an equilibrium state in a very short time.
Satisfactory attainment of equilibrium chamber pressure with full gas flow
dependent on
1. Characteristics of the igniter and the gas temperature, composition and flow
issuing from the igniter,
2. Motor propellant composition and grain surface ignitability,
3. Heat transfer characteristics by radiation and convection between the igniter gas
and grain surface,
4. Grain flame spreading rate,
5. The dynamics of filling the motor free volume with hot gas.
Ignitability of a propellant is affected by many factors, including
i.

The propellant formulation,

ii.

The initial temperature of the propellant grain surface,

iii.

The surrounding pressure,

iv.

The mode of heat transfer,

25

v.

Grain surface roughness

vi.

Age of the propellant

vii.

The composition and hot solid particle content of the igniter gases,

viii.

The igniter propellant and its initial temperature,

ix.

The velocity of the hot igniter gases relative to the grain surface,

x.

The cavity volume and configuration.

If a short ignition delay is required, then a more powerful igniter will be needed.
Thrust Termination
Sometimes it is necessary to stop or extinguish the burning of a solid rocket motor
before all the propellant has been consumed:

When a flight vehicle has reached the desired flight velocity (for a ballistic
missile to attain a predetermined velocity or for a satellite to achieve an accurate
orbit), or a precise total impulse cut off is needed.

As a safety measure, when it appears that a flight test vehicle will unexpectedly
fly out of the safe boundaries of a flight test range facility.

To avoid collisions of a stages during stage separation maneuver (requiring a

thrust reversal) for multistaging flight vehicle.

During research and development testing, when one wants to examine a partially
burned motor.

Combustion Instability
There seem to be two types of combustion instability: a set of acoustic resonances
or pressure oscillations. Which can occur with any rocket motor, and a vortex shedding
phenomenon. Which occurs only with particular types of grains.
Acoustic Instabilities
When a solid propellant rocket motor experiences unstable combustion, the pressure in
the interior gaseous cavities (made up by the volume of the port or perforations. Fins,
slots, conical or radial groves) oscillates by at least 5% and often by more than 30% of
the chamber pressure

When instability occurs, the heat transfer to the burning rate,

chamber pressure, and thrust usually increase; but the burning duration is thereby
decreased. The change in the thrust-time profile causes significant changes in the flight
path, and at times this can lead to failure of the mission. If prolonged and if the vibration

26

energy level is high. The instability can cause damage to the hardware, such as
overheating the case and causing a nozzle or case failure. Instability is a condition that
should be avoided and must be carefully investigated and remedied if it occurs during a
motor development program. Final designs of motors must be free of such instability.
There are fundamental differences with liquid propellant combustion behavior. In
liquid propellants there is a fixed chamber geometry with a rigid wall; liquids in feed
systems and in injectors that are not part of the oscillating gas in the combustion chamber
can interact strongly with the pressure fluctuations. In solid propellant motor the
geometry of the oscillating cavity increases in size as burning proceeds and there are
stronger damping factors, such as solid particles and energy-absorbing viscoelastic
materials. In general, combustion instability problems do not occur frequently or in every
motor develop0ment, and, when they do occur, it is rarely the cause for a drastic sudden
motor failure or disintegration. Nevertheless, drastic failures have occurred.
Undesirable oscillations in the combustion cavity propellant rocket motors are a
continuing problem in the design, development. Production, and even long-term (10yr)
retention of solid rocket missiles.
Combustion instability can occur spontaneously. Often at some particular time during
the motor burn period, and the phenomenon is usually repeatable in identical motors.
Both longitudinal and transverse waves (radial and tangential) can occur.
The pressure oscillations increase in magnitude, and the thrust and burning rate also
increase. The frequency seems to be a function of the cavity geometry, propellant
composition, and pressure.
Combustion Mechanism of Solid propellants
Some solid rocket propellants are mixed at the molecular level. An example
would be so called double base propellants made from nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin.
The thermal profile is shown in fig. The dominant difference is the break in temperature
slope at the solid-gas interface. The solid usually requires some heat input to gasify it and
this heat is the heat of pyrolysis, or the heat of gasification, or the latent heat of
sublimation. Consequently, the gas phase heat transfer at the interface goes toward
providing both the latent heat and continued heat transfer into the solid. An energy
balance at the ignition point, whereby all heat transfer from the reaction zone goes toward

27

providing a) the solid heat up to the solid gas interface, b) the latent heat and c) gas
phase heat up to the ignition point becomes

u uu c p ,s Ts Tu L c p , g Tig Ts

Tb Tig
r

All other considerations pertinent to the gas phase laminar flame hold here, but it
must be borne in mind that the upstream density is that of a solid. In solid propellant
flames, the flame speed is called the deflagration rate. And is usually given the symbol
r,

ub c pr ,b
R

u uu
Wb R

1
2

b Tb Tig Wb R

2
u p ,s

L c p , g

Tig Ts
Ts Tu

c p , s c p , s

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Because the solid phase density does scale with pressure, the pressure dependence of the
deflagration rate is different compared with that of a purely gas phase flame. Whereas the gas
flame speed was usually nearly independent of pressure, the solid propellant experiences a rate
proportional to Pn/2, which is a reasonably strong dependence.

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