IMO SHORTLISTED PROBLEMS

International Mathematical Olympiads 1990 2003

Hojoo Lee, Version 1.1 (2005/05/30)

Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Algebra
Combinatorics
Geometry
Number Theory
IMO Problems (1990 2000)
Answers, Hints, and Comments
Algebra
Combinatorics
Geometry
Number Theory
IMO (1990 2000)
7. References

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5
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13
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INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

1. Algebra

03A1 Let aij , i = 1, 2, 3; j = 1, 2, 3 be real numbers such that aij is positive

for i = j and negative for i 6= j. Prove that there exist positive
real numbers c1 , c2 , c3 such that the numbers a11 c1 + a12 c2 + a13 c3 ,
a21 c1 +a22 c2 +a23 c3 , a31 c1 +a32 c2 +a33 c3 are all negative, all positive,
or all zero.
03A2 Find all nondecreasing functions f : R R such that
(1) f (0) = 0, f (1) = 1;
(2) f (a) + f (b) = f (a)f (b) + f (a + b ab) for all a < 1 < b.
03A3 Consider pairs of sequences of positive real numbers
a1 a2 a3 ,

b1 b2 b3

and the sums An = a1 + +an , Bn = b1 + +bn (n = 1, 2, ). For

any pair define ci = min{ai , bi } and Cn = c1 + + cn , n = 1, 2, .
(1) Does there exist a pair (ai )i1 , (bi )i1 such that the sequences
(An )n1 and (Bn )n1 are unbounded while the sequence (Cn )n1
is bounded?
(2) Does the answer to question (1) change by assuming additionally that bi = 1/i, i = 1, 2, ?
03A4 Let n be a positive integer and let x1 x2 xn be real
numbers.
(1) Prove that

2
n
n
X
2(n2 1) X

= |xi xj |
(xi xj )2 .
3
i,j=1

i,j=1

(2) Show that the equality holds if and only if x1 , , xn is an

arithmetic sequence.
03A5 Let R+ be the set of all positive real numbers. Find all functions
f : R+ R+ that satisfy the following conditions:

(1) f (xyz) + f (x) + f (y) + f (z) = f ( xy)f ( yz)f ( zx) for all
x, y, z R+ ;
(2) f (x) < f (y) for all 1 x < y.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

03A6 Let n be a positive integer and let (x1 , , xn ), (y1 , , yn ) be two

sequences of positive real numbers. Suppose (z2 , , z2n ) is a sequence of positive real numbers such that
zi+j 2 xi yj

for all 1 i, j n.

Let M = max{z2 , , z2n }. Prove that

M + z2 + + z2n 2
x1 + + xn
y1 + + yn

.
2n
n
n

02A1 Find all functions f from the reals to the reals such that
f (f (x) + y) = 2x + f (f (y) x)
for all real x, y.
02A2 Let a1 , a2 , be an infinite sequence of real numbers, for which there
exists a real number c with 0 ai c for all i, such that
1
for all i, j with i 6= j.
|ai aj |
i+j
Prove that c 1.
02A3 Let P be a cubic polynomial given by P (x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d,
where a, b, c, d are integers and a 6= 0. Suppose that
xP (x) = yP (y)
for infinitely many pairs x, y of integers with x 6= y. Prove that the
equation P (x) = 0 has an integer root.
02A4 Find all functions f from the reals to the reals such that
(f (x) + f (z)) (f (y) + f (t)) = f (xy zt) + f (xt + yz)
for all real numbers x, y, z, t.
02A5 Let n be a positive integer that is not a perfect cube. Define real
numbers a, b, c by

1
1
a = 3 n,
b=
,
c=
,
a [a]
b [b]
where [x] denotes the integer part of x. Prove that there are infinitely
many such integers n with the property that there exist integers
r, s, t, not all zero, such that ra + sb + tc = 0.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

02A6 Let A be a non-empty set of positive integers. Suppose that there

are positive integers b1 , bn and c1 , , cn such that
(i) for each i the set bi A + ci = {bi a + ci : a A} is a subset of A;
(ii) the sets bi A + ci and bj A + cj are disjoint whenever i 6= j.
Prove that
1
1
+ +
1.
b1
bn
01A1 Let T denote the set of all ordered triples (p, q, r) of nonnegative
integers. Find all functions f : T R such that

0
if pqr = 0,

1
f (p, q, r) = 1 + 6 {f (p + 1, q 1, r) + f (p 1, q + 1, r)

+f (p 1, q, r + 1) + f (p + 1, q, r 1)

+f (p, q + 1, r 1) + f (p, q 1, r + 1)}

otherwise.
01A2 Let a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . be an arbitrary infinite sequence
of positive num
bers. Show that the inequality 1 + an > an1 n 2 holds for infinitely
many positive integers n.
01A3 Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be arbitrary real numbers. Prove the inequality

x1
x2
xn
+
+ +
< n.
2
2
2
2
2
1 + x1 1 + x1 + x2
1 + x1 + + xn
01A4 Find all functions f : R R, satisfying
f (xy)(f (x) f (y)) = (x y)f (x)f (y)
for all x, y R.
01A5 Find all positive integers a1 , a2 , . . . , an such that
a0 a1
an1
99
=
+
+ +
,
100
a1 a2
an
where a0 = 1 and (ak+1 1)ak1 a2k (ak 1) for k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
01A6 Prove that for all positive real numbers a, b, c,
b
c
a

+
+
1.
2
2
2
a + 8bc
b + 8ca
c + 8ab

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

2. Combinatorics

03C1 Let A be a 101-element subset of the set S = {1, 2, , 1000000}.

Prove that there exist numbers t1 , t2 , , t100 in S such that the
sets
Aj = {x + tj | x A},

j = 1, 2, , 100

are pairwise disjoint.

03C2 Let D1 , , Dn be closed discs in the plane. (A closed disc is the
region limited by a circle, taken jointly with this circle.) Suppose
that every point in the plane is contained in at most 2003 discs Di .
Prove that there exists a disc Dk which intersects at most 7 2003 1
other discs Di .
03C3 Let n 5 be a given integer. Determine the greatest integer k for
which there exists a polygon with n vertices (convex or not, with
non-selfintersecting boundary) having k internal right angles.
03C4 Let x1 , , xn and y1 , , yn be real numbers. Let A = (aij )1i,jn
be the matrix with entries
(
1, if xi + yj 0;
aij =
0, if xi + yj < 0.
Suppose that B is an n n matrix with entries 0, 1 such that the
sum of the elements in each row and each column of B is equal to
the corresponding sum for the matrix A. Prove that A = B.
03C5 Every point with integer coordinates in the plane is the centre of a
disc with radius 1/1000.
(1) Prove that there exists an equilateral triangle whose vertices lie
in different discs.
(2) Prove that every equilateral triangle with vertices in different
discs has side-length greater than 96.
03C6 Let f (k) be the number of integers n that satisfy the following conditions:
(1) 0 n < 10k , so n has exactly k digits (in decimal notation),
with leading zeroes allowed;
(2) the digits of n can be permuted in such a way that they yield
an integer divisible by 11.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

Prove that f (2m) = 10f (2m 1) for every positive integer m.

02C1 Let n be a positive integer. Each point (x, y) in the plane, where
x and y are non-negative integers with x + y < n, is coloured red
or blue, subject to the following condition: if a point (x, y) is red,
then so are all points (x0 , y 0 ) with x0 x and y 0 y. Let A be the
number of ways to choose n blue points with distinct x-coordinates,
and let B be the number of ways to choose n blue points with distinct
y-coordinates. Prove that A = B.
02C2 For n an odd positive integer, the unit squares of an n n chessboard are coloured alternately black and white, with the four corners
coloured black. A tromino is an L-shape formed by three connected
unit squares. For which values of n is it possible to cover all the
black squares with non-overlapping trominos? When it is possible,
what is the minimum number of trominos needed?
02C3 Let n be a positive integer. A sequence of n positive integers (not
necessarily distinct) is called full if it satisfies the following condition:
for each positive integer k 2, if the number k appears in the
sequence then so does the number k 1, and moreover the first
occurrence of k 1 comes before the last occurrence of k. For each
n, how many full sequences are there?
02C4 Let T be the set of ordered triples (x, y, z), where x, y, z are integers
with 0 x, y, z 9. Players A and B play the following guessing
game. Player A chooses a triple (x, y, z) in T , and Player B has to
discover A's triple in as few moves as possible. A move consists
of the following: B gives A a triple (a, b, c) in T , and A replies by
giving B the number |x + y a b|+|y + z b c|+|z + x c a|.
Find the minimum number of moves that B needs to be sure of
determining A's triple.
02C5 Let r 2 be a fixed positive integer, and let F be an infinite family
of sets, each of size r, no two of which are disjoint. Prove that there
exists a set of size r 1 that meets each set in F .
02C6 Let n be an even positive integer. Show that there is a permutation
x1 , x2 , , xn of 1, 2, , n such that for every 1 i n the number xi+1 is one of 2xi , 2xi 1, 2xi n, 2xi n 1, where we take
xn+1 = x1 .

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

02C7 Among a group of 120 people, some pairs are friends. A weak quartet
is a set of four people containing exactly one pair of friends. What
is the maximum possible number of weak quartets?

01C1 Let A = (a1 , a2 , . . . , a2001 ) be a sequence of positive integers. Let m

be the number of 3-element subsequences (ai , aj , ak ) with 1 i <
j < k 2001, such that aj = ai + 1 and ak = aj + 1. Considering
all such sequences A, find the greatest value of m.

01C2 Let n be an odd integer greater than 1 and let c1 , c2 , . . . , cn be integers. For each
P permutation a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) of {1, 2, . . . , n},
define S(a) = ni=1 ci ai . Prove that there exist permutations a 6= b
of {1, 2, . . . , n} such that n! is a divisor of S(a) S(b).

01C3 Define a k-clique to be a set of k people such that every pair of them
are acquainted with each other. At a certain party, every pair of
3-cliques has at least one person in common, and there are no 5cliques. Prove that there are two or fewer people at the party whose
departure leaves no 3-clique remaining.

01C4 A set of three nonnegative integers {x, y, z} with x < y < z is called
historic if {z y, y x} = {1776, 2001}. Show that the set of all
nonnegative integers can be written as the union of pairwise disjoint
historic sets.

01C5 Find all finite sequences (x0 , x1 , . . . , xn ) such that for every j, 0
j n, xj equals the number of times j appears in the sequence.
01C6 For a positive integer n define a sequence of zeros and ones to be
balanced if it contains n zeros and n ones. Two balanced sequences
a and b are neighbors if you can move one of the 2n symbols of a to
another position to form b. For instance, when n = 4, the balanced
sequences 01101001 and 00110101 are neighbors because the third
(or fourth) zero in the first sequence can be moved to the first or
second position toform
the second sequence. Prove that there is a set
2n
1
S of at most n+1 n balanced sequences such that every balanced
sequence is equal to or is a neighbor of at least one sequence in S.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

01C7 A pile of n pebbles is placed in a vertical column. This configuration is modified according to the following rules. A pebble can be
moved if it is at the top of a column which contains at least two
more pebbles than the column immediately to its right. (If there are
no pebbles to the right, think of this as a column with 0 pebbles.)
At each stage, choose a pebble from among those that can be moved
(if there are any) and place it at the top of the column to its right.
If no pebbles can be moved, the configuration is called a final configuration. For each n, show that, no matter what choices are made
at each stage, the final configuration obtained is unique. Describe
that configuration in terms of n.
Alternative Version. A pile of 2001 pebbles is placed in a vertical
column. This configuration is modified according to the following
rules. A pebble can be moved if it is at the top of a column which
contains at least two more pebbles than the column immediately to
its right. (If there are no pebbles to the right, think of this as a
column with 0 pebbles.) At each stage, choose a pebble from among
those that can be moved (if there are any) and place it at the top of
the column to its right. If no pebbles can be moved, the configuration
is called a final configuration. Show that, no matter what choices
are made at each stage, the final configuration obtained is unique.
Describe that configuration as follows: Determine the number, c,
of nonempty columns, and for each i = 1, 2, , c, determine the
number of pebbles pi in column i, where column 1 is the leftmost
column, column 2 the next to the right, and so on.
01C8 Twenty-one girls and twenty-one boys took part in a mathematical
competition. It turned out that
(a) each contestant solved at most six problems, and
(b) for each pair of a girl and a boy, there was at least one problem
that was solved by both the girl and the boy.
Show that there is a problem that was solved by at least three
girls and at least three boys.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

3. Geometry

03G1 Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral. Let P , Q, R be the feet of the

perpendiculars from D to the lines BC, CA, AB, respectively. Show
that P Q = QR if and only if the bisectors of ABC and ADC are
concurrent with AC.

03G2 Three distinct points A, B, C are fixed on a line in this order. Let
be a circle passing through A and C whose centre does not lie
on the line AC. Denote by P the intersection of the tangents to
at A and C. Suppose meets the segment P B at Q. Prove that
the intersection of the bisector of AQC and the line AC does not
depend on the choice of .

03G3 Let ABC be a triangle and let P be a point in its interior. Denote
by D, E, F the feet of the perpendiculars from P to the lines BC,
CA, AB, respectively. Suppose that
AP 2 + P D2 = BP 2 + P E 2 = CP 2 + P F 2 .
Denote by IA , IB , IC the excentres of the triangle ABC. Prove that
P is the circumcentre of the triangle IA IB IC .

03G4 Let 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 be distinct circles such that 1 , 3 are externally

tangent at P , and 2 , 4 are externally tangent at the same point
P . Suppose that 1 and 2 ; 2 and 3 ; 3 and 4 ; 4 and 1 meet
at A, B, C, D, respectively, and that all these points are different
from P . Prove that
AB BC
P B2
=
.
AD DC
P D2

03G5 Let ABC be an isosceles triangle with AC = BC, whose incentre is

I. Let P be a point on the circumcircle of the triangle AIB lying
inside the triangle ABC. The lines through P parallel to CA and
CB meet AB at D and E, respectively. The line through P parallel
to AB meets CA and CB at F and G, respectively. Prove that the
lines DF and EG intersect on the circumcircle of the triangle ABC.

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INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

03G6 Each pair of opposite sides of a convex hexagon has the following

property: the distance between their midpoints is equal to 3/2

times the sum of their lengths. Prove that all the angles of the
hexagon are equal.

03G7 Let ABC be a triangle with semiperimeter s and inradius r. The

semicircles with diameters BC, CA, AB are drawn on the outside
of the triangle ABC. The circle tangent to all three semicircles has
radius t. Prove that

s
3
s
r.
<t + 1
2
2
2

02G1 Let B be a point on a circle S1 , and let A be a point distinct from

B on the tangent at B to S1 . Let C be a point not on S1 such
that the line segment AC meets S1 at two distinct points. Let S2
be the circle touching AC at C and touching S1 at a point D on
the opposite side of AC from B. Prove that the circumcentre of
triangle BCD lies on the circumcircle of triangle ABC.

02G2 Let ABC be a triangle for which there exists an interior point F
such that AF B = BF C = CF A. Let the lines BF and CF
meet the sides AC and AB at D and E respectively. Prove that
AB + AC 4DE.

02G3 The circle S has centre O, and BC is a diameter of S. Let A be

a point of S such that AOB < 120 . Let D be the midpoint of
the arc AB which does not contain C. The line through O parallel
to DA meets the line AC at I. The perpendicular bisector of OA
meets S at E and at F . Prove that I is the incentre of the triangle
CEF .

02G4 Circles S1 and S2 intersect at points P and Q. Distinct points A1

and B1 (not at P or Q) are selected on S1 . The lines A1 P and B1 P
meet S2 again at A2 and B2 respectively, and the lines A1 B1 and
A2 B2 meet at C. Prove that, as A1 and B1 vary, the circumcentres
of triangles A1 A2 C all lie on one fixed circle.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

11

02G5 For any set S of five points in the plane, no three of which are
collinear, let M (S) and m(S)denote the greatest and smallest areas,
respectively, of triangles determined by three points from S. What
(S)
is the minimum possible value of M
m(S) ?
02G6 Let n 3 be a positive integer. Let C1 , C2 , C3 , , Cn be unit
circles in the plane, with centres O1 , O2 , O3 , , On respectively. If
no line meets more than two of the circles, prove that
X
1
(n 1)

.
Oi Oj
4
1i<jn

02G7 The incircle of the acute-angled triangle ABC is tangent to BC

at K. Let AD be an altitude of triangle ABC and let M be the
midpoint of AD. If N is the other common point of and KM ,
prove that and the circumcircle of triangle BCN are tangent at
N.
02G8 Let S1 and S2 be circles meeting at the points A and B. A line
through A meets S1 at C and S2 at D. Points M, N, K lie on the
line segments CD, BC, BD respectively, with M N parallel to BD
and M K parallel to BC. Let E and F be points on those arcs BC
of S1 and BD of S2 respectively that do not contain A. Given that
EN is perpendicular to BC and F K is perpendicular to BD prove
that EM F = 90 .
01G1 Let A1 be the center of the square inscribed in acute triangle ABC
with two vertices of the square on side BC. Thus one of the two
remaining vertices of the square is on side AB and the other is on
AC. Points B1 , C1 are defined in a similar way for inscribed squares
with two vertices on sides AC and AB, respectively. Prove that lines
AA1 , BB1 , CC1 are concurrent.
01G2 In acute triangle ABC with circumcenter O and altitude AP , C
B + 30 . Prove that A + COP < 90 .
01G3 Let ABC be a triangle with centroid G. Determine, with proof, the
position of the point P in the plane of ABC such that AP AG +
BP BG + CP CG is a minimum, and express this minimum value
in terms of the side lengths of ABC.

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INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

01G4 Let M be a point in the interior of triangle ABC. Let A0 lie on BC

with M A0 perpendicular to BC. Define B 0 on CA and C 0 on AB
similarly. Define
M A0 M B 0 M C 0
p(M ) =
.
MA MB MC
Determine, with proof, the location of M such that p(M ) is maximal.
Let (ABC) denote this maximum value. For which triangles ABC
is the value of (ABC) maximal?
01G5 Let ABC be an acute triangle. Let DAC, EAB, and F BC be isosceles triangles exterior to ABC, with DA = DC, EA = EB, and
F B = F C, such that
ADC = 2BAC,

BEA = 2ABC,

CF B = 2ACB.

D0

Let
be the intersection of lines DB and EF , let E 0 be the intersection of EC and DF , and let F 0 be the intersection of F A and
DE. Find, with proof, the value of the sum
DB
EC
FA
+
+
.
0
0
DD
EE
FF0
01G6 Let ABC be a triangle and P an exterior point in the plane of
the triangle. Suppose AP, BP, CP meet the sides BC, CA, AB (or
extensions thereof) in D, E, F , respectively. Suppose further that
the areas of triangles P BD, P CE, P AF are all equal. Prove that
each of these areas is equal to the area of triangle ABC itself.
01G7 Let O be an interior point of acute triangle ABC. Let A1 lie on BC
with OA1 perpendicular to BC. Define B1 on CA and C1 on AB
similarly. Prove that O is the circumcenter of ABC if and only if
the perimeter of A1 B1 C1 is not less than any one of the perimeters
of AB1 C1 , BC1 A1 , and CA1 B1 .
01G8 Let ABC be a triangle with BAC = 60 . Let AP bisect BAC and
let BQ bisect ABC, with P on BC and Q on AC. If AB + BP =
AQ + QB, what are the angles of the triangle?

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

13

4. Number Theory

03N1 Let m be a fixed integer greater than 1. The sequence x0 , x1 , x2 ,

is defined as follows:
(
2i ,
if 0 i m 1;
xi = Pm
j=1 xij , if i m.
Find the greatest k for which the sequence contains k consecutive
terms divisible by m.
03N2 Each positive integer a undergoes the following procedure in order
to obtain the number d = d(a):
(1) move the last digit of a to the first position to obtain the number
b;
(2) square b to obtain the number c;
(3) move the first digit of c to the end to obtain the number d.
(All the numbers in the problem are considered to be represented in
base 10.) For example, for a = 2003, we get b = 3200, c = 10240000,
and d = 02400001 = 2400001 = d(2003). Find all numbers a for
which d(a) = a2 .
03N3 Determine all pairs of positive integers (a, b) such that
a2
2ab2 b3 + 1
is a positive integer.
03N4 Let b be an integer greater than 5. For each positive integer n,
consider the number
xn = 11
1} 22
2} 5,
| {z
| {z
n1

written in base b. Prove that the following condition holds if and

only if b = 10:
there exists a positive integer M such that for any integer
n greater than M , the number xn is a perfect square.
03N5 An integer n is said to be good if |n| is not the square of an integer.
Determine all integers m with the following property:
m can be represented, in infinitely many ways, as a sum of
three distinct good integers whose product is the square of
an odd integer.

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INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

03N6 Let p be a prime number. Prove that there exists a prime number q
such that for every integer n, the number np p is not divisible by
q.
03N7 The sequence a0 , a1 , a2 , is defined as follows:
a0 = 2,

ak+1 = 2a2k 1 for k 0.

Prove that if an odd prime p divides an , then 2n+3 divides p2 1.

03N8 Let p be a prime number and let A be a set of positive integers that
satisfies the following conditions:
(1) the set of prime divisors of the elements in A consists of p 1
elements;
(2) for any nonempty subset of A, the product of its elements is not
a perfect p-th power.
What is the largest possible number of elements in A?
02N1 What is the smallest positive integer t such that there exist integers
x1 , x2 , , xt with x31 + x32 + + x3t = 20022002 ?
02N2 Let n 2 be a positive integer, with divisors
1 = d1 < d2 < < dk = n.
Prove that d1 d2 + d2 d3 + + dk1 dk is always less than n2 , and
determine when it is a divisor of n2 .
02N3 Let p1 , p2 , , pn be distinct primes greater than 3.
2p1 p2 pn + 1 has at least 4n divisors.

Show that

02N4 Is there a positive integer m such that the equation

1 1 1
1
m
+ + +
=
a b
c abc
a+b+c
has infinitely many solutions in positive integers a, b, c?
02N5 Let m, n 2 be positive integers, and let a1 , a2 , , an be integers,
none of which is a multiple of mn1 . Show that there exist integers
e1 , e2 , , en , not all zero, with | ei | < m for all i, such that e1 a1 +
e2 a2 + + en an is a multiple of mn .

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

15

02N6 Find all pairs of positive integers m, n 3 for which there exist
infinitely many positive integers a such that
am + a 1
an + a2 1
is itself an integer.
01N1 Prove that there is no positive integer n such that, for k = 1, 2, . . . , 9,
the leftmost digit (in decimal notation) of (n + k)! equals k.
01N2 Consider the system
x+y =z+u
2xy = zu.
Find the greatest value of the real constant m such that m x/y for
any positive integer solution (x, y, z, u) of the system, with x y.
01N3 Let a1 = 1111 , a2 = 1212 , a3 = 1313 , and
an = |an1 an2 | + |an2 an3 |,

n 4.

Determine a1414 .
01N4 Let p 5 be a prime number. Prove that there exists an integer a
with 1 a p 2 such that neither ap1 1 nor (a + 1)p1 1 is
divisible by p2 .
01N5 Let a > b > c > d be positive integers and suppose
ac + bd = (b + d + a c)(b + d a + c).
Prove that ab + cd is not prime.
01N6 Is it possible to find 100 positive integers not exceeding 25,000, such
that all pairwise sums of them are different?

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INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

5. IMO Problems (1990 2000)

001 Two circles 1 and 2 intersect at M and N . Line ` is tangent to

the circles at A and B, respectively, so that M lies closer to ` than
N . Line CD, with C on 1 and D on 2 , is parallel to ` and passes
through M . Let lines AC and BD meet at E; let lines AN and
CD meet at P ; and let lines BN and CD meet at Q. Prove that
EP = EQ.

002 Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that abc = 1. Prove that

1
1
1
a1+
b1+
c1+
1.
b
c
a

003 Let n 2 be a positive integer. Initially, there are n fleas on a

horizontal line, not all at the same point. For a positive real number
, define a move as follows:
choose any two fleas, at points A and B, with A to the
left of B; let the flea at A jump to the point C on the
line to the right of B with BC/AB = .
Determine all values of such that, for any point M on the line and
any initial positions of the n fleas, there is a finite sequence of moves
that will take all the fleas to positions to the right of M .

004 A magician has one hundred cards numbered 1 to 100. He puts them
into three boxes, a red one, a white one and a blue one, so that each
box contains at least one card. A member of the audience selects
two of the three boxes, chooses one card from each and announces
the sum of the numbers of the chosen cards. Given this sum, the
magician identifies the box from which no card has been chosen.
How many ways are there to put all the cards into the boxes so that
this trick always works? (Two ways are considered different if at
least one card is put into a different box.)

005 Determine if there exists a positive integer n such that n has exactly
2000 prime divisors and 2n + 1 is divisible by n.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

17

006 Let AH1 , BH2 , and CH3 be the altitudes of an acute triangle ABC.
The incircle of triangle ABC touches the sides BC, CA and AB
at T1 , T2 and T3 , respectively. Consider the symmetric images of the
lines H1 H2 , H2 H3 , and H3 H1 with respect to the lines T1 T2 , T2 T3 ,
and T3 T1 . Prove that these images form a triangle whose vertices lie
on .
991 Determine all finite sets S of at least three points in the plane which
satisfy the following condition:
for any two distinct points A and B in S, the perpendicular
bisector of the line segment AB is an axis of symmetry for
S.
992 Let n be a fixed integer, with n 2.
(a) Determine the least constant C such that the inequality

xi xj (x2i + x2j ) C

1i<jn

4
xi

1in

holds for all real numbers x1 , , xn 0.

(b) For this constant C, determine when equality holds.
993 Consider an n n square board, where n is a fixed even positive
integer. The board is divided into n2 unit squares. We say that two
different squares on the board are adjacent if they have a common
side. N unit squares on the board are marked in such a way that
every square (marked or unmarked) on the board is adjacent to at
least one marked square. Determine the smallest possible value of
N.
994 Determine all pairs (n, p) of positive integers such that
p is a prime,
n not exceeded 2p, and
(p 1)n + 1 is divisible by np1 .
995 Two circles G1 and G2 are contained inside the circle G, and are
tangent to G at the distinct points M and N , respectively. G1
passes through the center of G2 . The line passing through the two
points of intersection of G1 and G2 meets G at A and B. The lines
M A and M B meet G1 at C and D, respectively. Prove that CD is
tangent to G2 .

18

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

996 Determine all functions f : R R such that

f (x f (y)) = f (f (y)) + xf (y) + f (x) 1
for all real numbers x, y.
981 In the convex quadrilateral ABCD, the diagonals AC and BD are
perpendicular and the opposite sides AB and DC are not parallel. Suppose that the point P , where the perpendicular bisectors of
AB and DC meet, is inside ABCD. Prove that ABCD is a cyclic
quadrilateral if and only if the triangles ABP and CDP have equal
areas.
982 In a competition, there are a contestants and b judges, where b 3
is an odd integer. Each judge rates each contestant as either pass
or fail. Suppose k is a number such that, for any two judges, their
ratings coincide for at most k contestants. Prove that
k
b1

.
a
2b

983 For any positive integer n, let d(n) denote the number of positive divisors of n (including 1 and n itself). Determine all positive integers
k such that
d(n2 )
=k
d(n)
for some positive integer n.
984 Determine all pairs (a, b) of positive integers such that ab2 + b + 7
divides a2 b + a + b.
985 Let I be the incenter of triangle ABC. Let the incircle of ABC touch
the sides BC, CA, and AB at K, L, and M , respectively. The line
through B parallel to M K meets the lines LM and LK at R and S,
respectively. Prove that angle RIS is acute.
986 Consider all functions f from the set N of all positive integers into
itself satisfying f (t2 f (s)) = s(f (t))2 for all s and t in N . Determine
the least possible value of f (1998).

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

19

971 In the plane the points with integer coordinates are the vertices of
unit squares. The squares are colored alternately black and white (as
on a chessboard). For any pair of positive integers m and n, consider
a right-angled triangle whose vertices have integer coordinates and
whose legs, of lengths m and n, lie along edges of the squares. Let
S1 be the total area of the black part of the triangle and S2 be the
total area of the white part. Let
f (m, n) = |S1 S2 |.
(a) Calculate f (m, n) for all positive integers m and n
which are either both even or both odd.
(b) Prove that f (m, n) 21 max{m, n} for all m and n.
(c) Show that there is no constant C such that f (m, n) < C
for all m and n.
972 The angle at A is the smallest angle of triangle ABC. The points
B and C divide the circumcircle of the triangle into two arcs. Let
U be an interior point of the arc between B and C which does not
contain A. The perpendicular bisectors of AB and AC meet the line
AU at V and W , respectively. The lines BV and CW meet at T .
Show that
AU = T B + T C.

973 Let x1 , x2 , . . . , xn be real numbers satisfying the conditions

|x1 + x2 + + xn | = 1
and

n+1
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.
2
Show that there exists a permutation y1 , y2 , . . . , yn of x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
such that
n+1
|y1 + 2y2 + + nyn |
.
2
|xi |

974 An n n matrix whose entries come from the set S = {1, 2, . . . , 2n

1} is called a silver matrix if, for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n, the ith row
and the ith column together contain all elements of S. Show that
(a) there is no silver matrix for n = 1997;
(b) silver matrices exist for infinitely many values of n.

20

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

975 Find all pairs (a, b) of integers a, b 1 that satisfy the equation
2

ab = ba .

976 For each positive integer n , let f (n) denote the number of ways
of representing n as a sum of powers of 2 with nonnegative integer
exponents. Representations which differ only in the ordering of their
summands are considered to be the same. For instance, f (4) = 4,
because the number 4 can be represented in the following four ways:
4; 2 + 2; 2 + 1 + 1; 1 + 1 + 1 + 1.
Prove that, for any integer n 3,
2 /4

2n

2 /2

< f (2n ) < 2n

961 We are given a positive integer r and a rectangular board ABCD

with dimensions AB = 20, BC = 12. The rectangle is divided into
a grid of 20 12 unit squares. The following moves are permitted
on the board: one can move from one square to another
only if the

distance between the centers of the two squares is r. The task is to

find a sequence of moves leading from the square with A as a vertex
to the square with B as a vertex.
(a) Show that the task cannot be done if r is divisible by
2 or 3.
(b) Prove that the task is possible when r = 73.
(c) Can the task be done when r = 97?

962 Let P be a point inside triangle ABC such that

AP B ACB = AP C ABC.
Let D, E be the incenters of triangles AP B, AP C, respectively.
Show that AP , BD, CE meet at a point.

963 Let S denote the set of nonnegative integers. Find all functions f
from S to itself such that
f (m + f (n)) = f (f (m)) + f (n)

for all m, n S.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

21

964 The positive integers a and b are such that the numbers 15a + 16b
and 16a 15b are both squares of positive integers. What is the
least possible value that can be taken on by the smaller of these two
squares?

965 Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon such that AB is parallel to DE,

BC is parallel to EF , and CD is parallel to F A. Let RA , RC , RE
denote the circumradii of triangles F AB, BCD, DEF , respectively,
and let P denote the perimeter of the hexagon. Prove that
RA + RC + RE

P
.
2

966 Let p, q, n be three positive integers with p+q < n. Let (x0 , x1 , , xn )
be an (n + 1)-tuple of integers satisfying the following conditions :
(a) x0 = xn = 0, and
(b) For each i with 1 i n, either xi xi1 = p or
xi xi1 = q.
Show that there exist indices i < j with (i, j) 6= (0, n), such that
xi = xj .
951 Let A, B, C, D be four distinct points on a line, in that order. The
circles with diameters AC and BD intersect at X and Y . The line
XY meets BC at Z. Let P be a point on the line XY other than
Z. The line CP intersects the circle with diameter AC at C and M ,
and the line BP intersects the circle with diameter BD at B and
N . Prove that the lines AM, DN, XY are concurrent.

952 Let a, b, c be positive real numbers such that abc = 1. Prove that
1
1
1
3
+ 3
+ 3
.
+ c) b (c + a) c (a + b)
2

a3 (b

953 Determine all integers n > 3 for which there exist n points A1 , , An
in the plane, no three collinear, and real numbers r1 , , rn such that
for 1 i < j < k n, the area of 4Ai Aj Ak is ri + rj + rk .

22

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

954 Find the maximum value of x0 for which there exists a sequence
x0 , x1 , x1995 of positive reals with x0 = x1995 , such that
1
2
= 2xi + ,
xi1 +
xi1
xi
for all i = 1, , 1995.
955 Let ABCDEF be a convex hexagon with AB = BC = CD and
DE = EF = F A, such that BCD = EF A = 3 . Suppose G
and H are points in the interior of the hexagon such that AGB =
DHE = 2/3. Prove that AG + GB + GH + DH + HE CF .
956 Let p be an odd prime number. How many p-element subsets A of
{1, 2, 2p} are there, the sum of whose elements is divisible by p
941 Let m and n be positive integers. Let a1 , a2 , . . . , am be distinct
elements of {1, 2, . . . , n} such that whenever ai + aj n for some
i, j, 1 i j m, there exists k, 1 k m, with ai + aj = ak .
Prove that
a1 + a2 + + am
n+1

.
m
2
942 ABC is an isosceles triangle with AB = AC. Suppose that
(a) M is the midpoint of BC and O is the point on the line
AM such that OB is perpendicular to AB,
(b) Q is an arbitrary point on the segment BC different
from B and C,
(c) E lies on the line AB and F lies on the line AC such
that E, Q, F are distinct and collinear.
Prove that OQ is perpendicular to EF if and only if QE = QF .
943 For any positive integer k, let f (k) be the number of elements in the
set {k + 1, k + 2, . . . , 2k} whose base 2 representation has precisely
three 1s.
(a) Prove that, for each positive integer m, there exists at
least one positive integer k such that f (k) = m.
(b) Determine all positive integers m for which there exists
exactly one k with f (k) = m.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

23

944 Determine all ordered pairs (m, n) of positive integers such that
n3 + 1
mn 1
is an integer.

945 Let S be the set of real numbers strictly greater than 1. Find all
functions f : S S satisfying the two conditions :
(a) f (x + f (y) + xf (y)) = y + f (x) + yf (x) for all x, y S;
(b) f (x)
x is strictly increasing on each of the intervals 1 <
x < 0 and 0 < x.

946 Show that there exists a set A of positive integers with the following
property: For any infinite set S of primes there exist two positive
integers m A and n
/ A each of which is a product of k distinct
elements of S for some k 2.

931 Let f (x) = xn +5xn1 +3, where n > 1 is an integer. Prove that f (x)
cannot be expressed as the product of two nonconstant polynomials
with integer coefficients.

932 Let D be a point inside acute triangle ABC such that ADB =
ACB + /2 and AC BD = AD BC.
(a) Calculate the ratio (AB CD)/(AC BD).
(b) Prove that the tangents at C to the circumcircles of
4ACD and 4BCD are perpendicular.

933 On an infinite chessboard, a game is played as follows. At the start,

n2 pieces are arranged on the chessboard in an n by n block of
adjoining squares, one piece in each square. A move in the game is a
jump in a horizontal or vertical direction over an adjacent occupied
square to an unoccupied square immediately beyond. The piece
which has been jumped over is removed. Find those values of n for
which the game can end with only one piece remaining on the board.

24

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

934 For three points P, Q, R in the plane, we define m(P QR) as the
minimum length of the three altitudes of 4P QR. (If the points are
collinear, we set m(P QR) = 0.) Prove that for points A, B, C, X in
the plane,
m(ABC) m(ABX) + m(AXC) + m(XBC).
935 Does there exist a function f : N N such that f (1) = 2, f (f (n)) =
f (n) + n for all n N, and f (n) < f (n + 1) for all n N?
936 There are n lamps L0 , , Ln1 in a circle (n > 1), where we denote
Ln+k = Lk . (A lamp at all times is either on or off.) Perform steps
s0 , s1 , as follows: at step si , if Li1 is lit, switch Li from on to off
or vice versa, otherwise do nothing. Initially all lamps are on. Show
that
(a) There is a positive integer M (n) such that after M (n)
steps all the lamps are on again, (b) If n = 2k , we can take
M (n) = n2 1,
(c) If n = 2k + 1, we can take M (n) = n2 n + 1.
921 Find all integers a, b, c with 1 < a < b < c such that
(a 1)(b 1)(c 1)

is a divisor of abc 1.

922 Let R denote the set of all real numbers. Find all functions f :
R R such that

f x2 + f (y) = y + (f (x))2
for all x, y R.
923 Consider nine points in space, no four of which are coplanar. Each
pair of points is joined by an edge (that is, a line segment) and each
edge is either colored blue or red or left uncolored. Find the smallest
value of n such that whenever exactly n edges are colored, the set
of colored edges necessarily contains a triangle all of whose edges
have the same color.
924 In the plane let C be a circle, L a line tangent to the circle C, and
M a point on L. Find the locus of all points P with the following
property: there exists two points Q, R on L such that M is the
midpoint of QR and C is the inscribed circle of triangle P QR.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

25

925 Let S be a finite set of points in three-dimensional space. Let

Sx , Sy , Sz be the sets consisting of the orthogonal projections of
the points of S onto the yz-plane, zx-plane, xy-plane, respectively.
Prove that
|S|2 |Sx | |Sy | |Sz |,
where |A| denotes the number of elements in the finite set A. (Note
: The orthogonal projection of a point onto a plane is the foot of the
perpendicular from that point to the plane.)
926 For each positive integer n, S(n) is defined to be the greatest integer such that, for every positive integer k S(n), n2 can be written
as the sum of k positive squares.
(a) Prove that S(n) n2 14 for each n 4.
(b) Find an integer n such that S(n) = n2 14.
(c) Prove that there are infintely many integers n such
that S(n) = n2 14
911 Given a triangle ABC, let I be the center of its inscribed circle.
The internal bisectors of the angles A, B, C meet the opposite sides
in A0 , B 0 , C 0 respectively. Prove that
1
AI BI CI
8
<
.

0
0
0
4
AA BB CC
27
912 Let n > 6 be an integer and a1 , a2 , , ak be all the natural numbers less than n and relatively prime to n. If
a2 a1 = a3 a2 = = ak ak1 > 0,
prove that n must be either a prime number or a power of 2.
913 Let S = {1, 2, 3, , 280}. Find the smallest integer n such that
each n-element subset of S contains five numbers which are pairwise
relatively prime.
914 Suppose G is a connected graph with k edges. Prove that it is
possible to label the edges 1, 2, , k in such a way that at each
vertex which belongs to two or more edges, the greatest common
divisor of the integers labeling those edges is equal to 1.
[A graph consists of a set of points, called vertices, together with
a set of edges joining certain pairs of distinct vertices. Each pair of
vertices u, v belongs to at most one edge. The graph G is connected
if for each pair of distinct vertices x, y there is some sequence of

26

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

vertices x = v0 , v1 , v2 , , vm = y such that each pair vi , vi+1 (0

i < m) is joined by an edge of G.]
915 Let ABC be a triangle and P an interior point of ABC . Show
that at least one of the angles P AB, P BC, P CA is less than
or equal to 30 .
916 An infinite sequence x0 , x1 , x2 , of real numbers is said to be
bounded if there is a constant C such that |xi | C for every i 0.
Given any real number a > 1, construct a bounded infinite sequence
x0 , x1 , x2 , such that
|xi xj ||i j|a 1
for every pair of distinct nonnegative integers i, j.
901 Chords AB and CD of a circle intersect at a point E inside the
circle. Let M be an interior point of the segment EB. The tangent
line at E to the circle through D, E, and M intersects the lines BC
and AC at F and G, respectively. If
AM
= t,
AB
find

EG
EF

in terms of t.
902 Let n 3 and consider a set E of 2n 1 distinct points on a circle.
Suppose that exactly k of these points are to be colored black. Such
a coloring is good if there is at least one pair of black points such
that the interior of one of the arcs between them contains exactly
n points from E. Find the smallest value of k so that every such
coloring of k points of E is good.
903 Determine all integers n > 1 such that
2n + 1
n2
is an integer.

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

27

904 Let Q+ be the set of positive rational numbers. Construct a function

f : Q+ Q+ such that
f (x)
f (xf (y)) =
y
for all x, y in Q+ .
905 Given an initial integer n0 > 1, two players, A and B, choose integers n1 , n2 , n3 , alternately according to the following rules :
(a) Knowing n2k , A chooses any integer n2k+1 such that
n2k n2k+1 n22k .
(b) Knowing n2k+1 , B chooses any integer n2k+2 such that
n2k+1
n2k+2
is a prime raised to a positive integer power.
Player A wins the game by choosing the number 1990; player B wins
by choosing the number 1. For which n0 does :
(a) A have a winning strategy?
(b) B have a winning strategy?
(c) Neither player have a winning strategy?

906 Prove that there exists a convex 1990-gon with the following two
properties :
(a) All angles are equal.
(b) The lengths of the 1990 sides are the numbers 12 , 22 ,
32 , , 19902 in some order.

28

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

6. Answers, Hints, and Comments

6.1. Algebra.
03A1
03A2 (1) Any nondecreasing function f satisfying f (x) = 1 (if x 1),
0 (if x = 0), and (2) f (x) = c(x 1)k + 1 (if x > 1), 1 (if
x = 1), (1 x)k + 1, (if x < 1), where c > 0 and k 0.
03A3 (1) Yes, (2) Yes.
03A4
03A5 f (x) = x + x , where is an arbitrary positive real number.
03A6
02A1
02A2
02A3
02A4 f (x) = 0, f (x) = 12 , f (x) = x2
02A5
02A6
3pqr
01A1 f (p, q, r) = 0 (if pqr = 0), f (p, q, r) = p+q+r
(otherwise)
01A2
01A3
01A4 f (x) = Cx if x G, f(x)=0 if x 6 G, where C is an
arbitrary fixed real number, and G is any subset of R that is
closed under multiplication and division.
01A5
01A6
6.2. Combinatorics.
03C1
03C2
03C3 The greatest integer k satisfying the given condition is equal to
3 for n = 5, and b 2n
3 c + 1 for n 6.
03C4
03C5
03C6
02C1
02C2
02C3 There are n! full sequences.
02C4
02C5
02C6

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

02C7
01C1 6673
01C2
01C3
01C4
01C5
01C6
01C7
01C8
6.3. Geometry.
03G1
03G2
03G3
03G4
03G5
03G6
03G7
02G1
02G2
02G3
02G4
02G5
02G6
02G7

1+ 5
2

02G8
01G1
01G2

2
2
2
01G3 13 AB
+
BC
+
CA



01G4 sin 12 A sin 21 B sin 12 C
01G5 4
01G6
01G7
01G8 A = 60 , B = 80 , C = 40
6.4. Number Theory.
03N1 m 1
03N2 a = 3 or a = 2

or a = 2| {z
2} 1
n

03N3 (a, b) = (2l, 1) or

03N4
03N5 m = 4k + 3 k Z
03N6

(l, 2l) or

(8l4 l, 2l), where l N+ .

29

30

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

03N7
03N8 (p 1)2
02N1
02N2
02N3
02N4
02N5
02N6

t=4
The given sum is a divisor of n2 if and only if n is prime.
Yes.
(m, n) = (5, 3)

01N1

01N2 3 + 2 2
01N3 a1414 = 1
01N4
01N5
01N6 Yes.
6.5. IMO (1990 2000).
001
002
003
004 12
005 Yes

1
n1

006
991
992 18
993
994 (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, p) (p is prime.)
995
2
996 f (x) = 1 x2
981
982
983 n 1 (mod 2)
984 (11, 1), (49, 1)
985
986 120
971 f (m, n) = 12 (m n 1 (mod 2)), f (m, n) = 0 (otherwise)
972
973
974
975 (1, 2), (27, 3), (16, 2)
976

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

961
962
963
964 4812
965
966
951
952
953 n = 4
954 2997
955

956 p1 2p

2
p
941
942
943
944 (2, 2), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 5), (3, 5), (2, 1), (3, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3)
x
945 f (x) = 1+x
946
931
932 2
933 3 6 |n
934
935 Yes
936
921 (2, 4, 8), (3, 5, 15)
922
923
924
925
926 (b) n = 13
911
912
913 217
914
915
916
t
901 1t
902 k = n 1 (3 | 2n 1), k = n (otherwise)
903 n = 3
904

31

32

INTERNATIONAL MATHEMATICAL OLYMPIADS

905
906

7. References
Ir Istvan Reiman, International Mathematical Olympiad 1959-1999,
Anthem Press