Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Appendix
Credits
Title Page
Introduction
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Chapter
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2
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The American Foundrymens Society as a body Is not responsible for the statements and opinions
advanced in this publication. Nothing contained in any publication of the American Foundrymens
Society is to be construed as granting any right, by implication or otherwise, for manufacture, sale or
use in connection with any method, apparatus or product covered by Letters Patent, nor as insuring
anyone against liability for Infringement of Letters Patent.
Copyright 1972, 1984, 1997
Credits
This manual was prepared by the Molding Methods and Materials Group, Special Publications
Committee 80-G, Section 2, Casting Defects:
George W. Anselman,
Chairman
Consultant, Anselman Foundry
Services
Albert M. Prewitt,
Secretary
Campbell, Wyant & Cannon
Foundry Co.
Joseph Cunningham
Cunningham Patterns
Edwin H. Phelps
Research Supervisor
American Cast Iron Pipe Co.
LeRoy E. Taylor
Sales Representative
Manley Brothers
Richard A. Green
Foundry Sales Mgr.
International Minerals &
Chemical Corp.
Charles W. Ward
Foundry Consultant
Benjamin Harris Co.
James C. Lee
Superintendent
Frank Foundries Corp.
AFS Staff
Ezra Kotzin
Technical Director
Peter M. Wendt
President
Datalab, Inc.
Software & Imaging
3
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Introduction
Quality control implies both prevention and cure of casting defects. This text deals with the diagnosis and
correction phases of quality control in the area of rejected castings or castings that require costly repair,
grinding or cleaning.
Every business prefers a minimum of rejects. Intelligent effort in this direction will yield excellent returns on
the investment of time and energy needed to make every producing individual zero-reject conscious.
There are correct and incorrect methods of approaching any problem. The steps in corrective procedure are
expressed in the following outline:
1) Identify the defect
2) Obtain the facts. The record should answer such pertinent questions as where? when? how? how
often?
3) Research for missing facts
4) Verify the defect
5) Try corrective action-one change at a time
6) Follow up.
4
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Description
This refers to castings, which have been broken or cracked by mechanical action, rough handling, or thermal
shock.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1)
2)
3)
II.
Pattern Equipment
1)
2)
III.
Early rough shakeout of this gray iron casting broke the gates into the castings while they were hot and weak.
V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
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VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Poor design of the cracking strip increased the breakage of this malleable casting in the hard iron condition
VIII.
Metal Composition
1)
2)
IX.
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
6
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The protruding section of bar on the casting shown tended to break off during cleaning, milling or shake out.
X.
Pouring Practice
1)
XI.
Miscellaneous
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
7
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Careless handling of the mold during assembly caused this crush on the cope section.
Description
Crushes, pushups and clamp-offs are indentations in the casting surface. These defects are caused by
disruption of the mold surface due to external or internal force or weight. The major cause of these defects is
carelessness particularly related to flask equipment, rigging, and molding practice.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
None
II.
Pattern Equipment
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
Worn patterns and core boxes. A worn pattern can result in the core print
being too small for the normal core. Conversely, a worn core box results it the
core being too large for a normal print
Insufficient draft
Pattern not correctly mounted
Misalign cope and drag patterns, or plates
Worn pins and bushings
Core prints not properly marked
Lack of crushing strips
Core print too small to support the core
Warped or untrue pattern plate (cope and drag)
Excessive flexibility of matchplate
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11)
III.
Flask landing strips too high above parting line. This creates a condition of
excessive loading at the sand-to-sand contact
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
VI.
Weak sand
Low green tensile strength may permit the cope to sag
Low green deformation causes the sand to crush rather than give during closing of flask
Low dry strength in a dry sand mold may fail to support the normal load
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
4)
5)
VII.
A core too large for the core print will fail to seat properly and cause a crush
A misaligned assembly will cause incorrect contact when the flask is closed
Core sagged out of shape may be the result of:
Rough handling while green
Soft ram
Low green strength
Excessive water in the core mix
Warped driers
Low warm strength such as from excessive solvent
Improper cure
Reinforcement i.e.: rods, wires, or arbors
Warped cores (including shell)
Excessive core wash can result in an oversized core
Molding Practice
1)
2)
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3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
VIII.
Metal Composition
None
IX.
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
1)
XI.
Miscellaneous
1)
2)
Rough handling during any part of the molding process can break or crush a mold
Resting heavy objects on the mold
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Uneven clamping of the small mold crushed one side of the mold face.
11
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Description
Cuts or washes are rough spots and areas of excess metal caused by erosion of the mold or core surface by
metal flow. This definition differentiates between a cut and an erosion scab, in spite of the fact that the two
defects are often similar or identical in general appearance. It is necessary to make such a distinction
because the cure for the two defects may be diametrically opposed.
Causes
I.
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Pattern layouts which prevent correct gating. Equalized flow is essential if excessive localized
heating of sand in mold or core is to be avoided.
III.
IV.
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2) A downsprue which does not provide a pool or well of metal ahead of the gating system
3) Too much metal across any mold surface will eventually redissolve the metal skin which is formed
during early stages of pouring
4) Excessive metal velocity across a given mold surface
5) Unequal distribution of metal through the gating system
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V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
VI.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
VII.
Core Practice
Soft core surface
Overcuring or undercuring
Insufficient binder or water
Improper mixing
Improper application and control of core wash
Vents or reinforcements too close to the surface
Poorly patched cores or filled hook holes
Nonuniformly made cores
Low density
Damage in handling
Soft cores (rising self-curing binders)
a.
Overmixing
b.
Improper sand temperature
c.
Use beyond bench life
d.
Stripping too early
e.
Excessive variation of acid demand of sand
Molding Practice
1) Soft or nonuniformly rammed molds. Hot strength varies greatly depending on the mold
Hardness or moisture
2) Mold edges burned by excessive drying temperatures
3) Gaggers, bars or soldiers set too close to mold surface
VIII.
Metal Composition
None
14
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IX.
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
1)
2)
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Excessive parting or solvent such as kerosene can materially change the hot and dry strength
2) Hard pouring
15
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Description
Inclusions are surface or subsurface particles of sand, slag, dross, oxides or other materials imbedded in the
metal. They may originate from the molds, cores, metal, ladles or careless practices.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1) Those design factors which contribute to scabs, cuts, washes and erosion will intensify the tendency
toward inclusions in a casting
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Improper coating for materials involved. Some pattern coatings produce a tendency towards sticking
of the sand
2) Insufficient clearance for setting cores and closing
3) Lack of fillets
4) Insufficient draft
5) Loosely mounted pattern or gating system
6) Worn flask landing areas can create a crush or disrupt sand gains
7) Inaccurate partings
16
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Use of excessive liquid parting material on the pattern left these kish tracks (classified as inclusions).
III.
IV.
Ineffective slag trap permitted ladle slag to locate at top of the boss.
17
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V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
VI.
Sands with low physical properties, such as low green, dry and hot compressive strength
Mold gas-metal reaction
Low fusion point materials
Coatings too heavy, not dried, or wrong for the purpose
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Any molding factor which contributes to displaced or loose sand in the mold cavity
Sloppy or careless molding
Excessive use of liquid parting
Loose sand from cores or molds
Loose sand from molds left open too long
18
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Loose sand left in the mold caused these sand inclusions on the drag face.
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VIII.
Metal Composition
1) In many metals, it is possible for off-analysis to create a separation of slag or slag-like materials
2) In cast irons, high sulfur may lead to sulfide slag, which could separate during cooling
3) Oxides and intermetallic compounds in steel, copperbase or light alloys
IX.
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
X.
Pouring Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
XI.
A wet or boiling lip on a ladle can promote, or interfere with proper separation of slag
Careless skimming of the ladle can result in excess slag being carried into the mold
Low pouring temperature
Intermittent or slow pouring
Dirty ladles
Ladle linings must be adequate, to avoid mechanical or chemical loss
Miscellaneous
1) Careless maintenance. handling, and general housekeeping
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\
Metallic oxides from ladle entered the mold to cause this (can be corrected by proper gating).
Poorly designed pouring basin prevented proper choke and permitted slag to enter mold.
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Section of a centrifugal casting showing slag inclusions originating from refractory lining material.
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Poorly designed pouring basin prevented proper choke and permitted slag to enter mold.
24
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Drops - Chapter 5
Description
A drop is a casting defect due to the loss of a portion of sand from the cope or other overhanging section. In
appearance, the defect resembles a sticker.
Causes
I.
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Insufficient draft or backdraft
2) Improperly designed parting creating narrow pockets
III.
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Backdraft on the cracking strip weakened sand pocket and permitted a drop.
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
VI.
Core Practice
1) A weak or inadequately secured core or core assembly
2) Core failure in centrifugal casting appears as a drop
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
26
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A nonuniform ram was the major cause of drop in this large mold section.
VIII.
Metal Composition
None
IX.
Melting Practice
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None
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Bumping molds with ladle
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Foreign material in sand
2) Mold explosions which occur when the gas ignites
28
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Sand broke off the core during setting and dropped into the drag.
During pouring the sand section floated to the cope.
29
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Description
An erosion scab is a defect usually occurring in the drag, in which the loosened sand has been eroded away
by the motion of the metal, and has left a solid junction between the casting and the defect. The defect can
be removed usually leaving a solid surface. The erosion scab may result in sand holes or sand inclusions in
some other part of the casting.
Causes
I. Casting and Pattern Design
1) A design which necessitates gating through thin sections
V. Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
Nonuniform ramming
Gaggers too close to pattern
Excessive clay on gaggers
Excessive slicking
31
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VIII.
Metal Composition
None
IX.
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Excessive pouring temperatures
2) Interrupted, or slow pouring
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Any foreign body close to the mold surface
32
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Description
Stage one in this family of defects is RATTAILS which are irregular lines caused by low temperature
expansion of the mold surface resulting in a fault in the mold surface.
Stage two is BUCKLES which are V-shaped indentations which may occur by themselves or under an
expansion scab.
Stage three is EXPANSION SCABS, which are rough layers of metal connected to the main body of the
casting by a vein of metal.
Stage four is COPE SPALLS or pull downs which are indentations in the cope surface of the casting.
Depending on the time of formation they may have the appearance of a buckle, rattail, shrink, or blow.
Blackening scabs are a special form of a scab in which the defect is related to the coating rather than to the
sand.
Since sand surfaces go through the process of expansion and contraction during the pouring and solidification
of the casting, it is a common practice to assume that the sand is the principal cause. This is a mistake, as
these defects are all closely related to all practices.
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Causes
I. Casting and Pattern Design
1) Large uninterrupted flat surfaces
2) Inadequate radii
3) Large, smooth uninterrupted concave or convex surfaces
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Buckle (which had a scab before cleaning) caused by inadequate carbonaceous or cushioning material.
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VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Expansion scab in dry sand mold after removal from casting. Defect caused by
excessive clay wash of a gagger close to the costing surface.
36
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VIII.
Metal Composition
1) Metals vary in their tendency toward expansion defects as they vary in temperature and pouring
rate
IX.
Melting Practice
1) Factors which control fluidity
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too slow
2) Pouring too hot
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Foreign material between centrifugal mold and sand, which appears similar to and
expansion type defect
37
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Description
Blows or gas holes in castings are cavities, either spherical, flattened or elongated. They are related to
localized gas (including entrapped air) pressure that exceeds metal pressure in any locality during
solidification of the metal. One of the greatest problems with core blows is the ease with which they may be
confused with mold blows. Since gas travels upwards in the mold it is quite possible for a gas bubble to form
from a core and then travel toward the cope surface.
Pinholes, blisters, and body scars as well as certain types of porosity are variations of gas holes. In gas
defect problems, there are several possible sources, among which are cores, molding sand and metal. The
volume of gas may be kept unchanged but offset by providing easier escape or by providing more metal
pressure, forcing gas through existing vents.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1) Insufficient print or outlet provided for venting
2) Design that prevents adequate metal pressure
3) lnsufficient vents at the parting line
II.
Pattern Equipment
None
38
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Pinholes from excessive permeability and moisture remedied by lowering permeability from 140 to 90-110 and reducing
moisture from 4.2% to 2.8-3.3%.
III.
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
39
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VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
Broken surface of core wash permitted gas to back up into heavy metal sections.
40
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Vents plugged with iron during pouring caused a major defect on the cope surface.
Vents plugged with iron during pouring caused a major defect on the cope surface.
Vents plugged with iron during pouring caused a major defect on the cope surface.
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VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
42
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Blow in the cope side of a pump impeller caused by wet sand and hard ramming.
VIII.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Metal Composition
Gas dissolved in molten metal
Metallic impurities e.g. aluminum, bismuth, lead, tin, antimony and boron
Greasy or rusty scrap
Enameled scrap containing boron
Incorrect balance of aluminum and silicon in steel
43
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IX.
Melting Practice
1) Steel
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a.
b.
c.
2) Iron
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
3) Non-ferrous
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
X.
Pouring Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Chills, chaplets, wires which are rusty, improperly coated, oxidized or damp
45
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Description
Segregation is the metallurgical or mechanical separation of one or more elements during solidification.
Normally this is a function of metal composition and cooling rates. Kish is free graphite separated from
molten iron.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1) Too great a difference in metal sections causes segregation due to slow cooling in the larger sections
if the composition is planned for the more rapid cooling sections
2) A section of mold or core that promotes heat retention and could promote localized segregation
II.
Pattern Equipment
None
Ill.
IV.
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V.
Molding Sand
1) Abnormally slow heat transfer due to the use of insulating materials or molding aggregates can
change the cooling rate of a given section
VI.
Core Practice
1) Underbaked oil-bonded cores which create an exothermic reaction causing excessive heating of the
core could change the cooling rate of an adjacent metal section
2) Insulating gas films such as in shell cores may act to change the rate of heat transfer from the metal
section into the sand
VII.
Molding Practice
1) Introduction of any insulating material such as asbestos or perlite can produce localized slow cooling
2) Incorrect use of exothermic molding materials changes the cooling rate of metal sections adjacent to
these materials
VII
Metal Composition
1) Gray iron and malleable. The carbon equivalent may be too high for the cooling rate involved. The
eutectic point in these systems is seldom found exactly at 4.3 percent carbon equivalent
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
IX.
Phosphorus too high for the application has an influence on the eutectic formation.
Insufficient carbide stabilizers permit free carbon to segregate in high carbon equivalent irons
Excessive use of graphitizers may have a direct effect on kish formation in addition to their
obvious influence on carbon equivalent
Spheroidal graphite iron
(ductile iron) . There is an added influence from the use of either
excessive magnesium treatment or excessive secondary inoculation
High sulfur can contribute to segregation of magnesium sulfide and other segregations which are
thrown out of solution by the nodularizing treatment
Aluminum plus titanium in excess of .10 percent produces a segregation of ternary carbide
eutectics in iron
Steel does not usually exhibit gross segregation except in high or special alloys. High sulfur or
leaded steels can show segregation. Special high copper steels may also show segregation if the
copper is in excess of approximately .6 percent
In aluminum, copper or other alloy additions exceeding the solubility limit may show as gross
segregation
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
Cupola melted gray iron and ductile iron may develop segregation as a result of faulty melting
practice which produces an unintended change in composition. Improper balance of air to coke
promoting carbon pickup will produce an undesirable level of carbon equivalent
Melting too hot causing excessive carbon pickup at the beginning of a heat can produce an offanalysis and kish.
Nonuniform chemical composition, due to variation in size of materials charged, produces
variations in carbon and possible segregation
Careless charging or careless weighing of ingredients of the charge result in nonuniform
chemistry
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5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
X.
Malleable: Melting too hot, too fast, or with a carbonizing flame can result in excessive carbon
equivalent, or may result in a direct seeding effect which then starts kish accumulations
Steel: Improper melting or deoxidation
Aluminum: Excessive superheat starts a grain growth phenomenon which may induce or show as
segregation
Magnesium: Careless makeup of the charge introduces undesirable and segregating type
impurities
Brass and Bronze: Leaded bronzes not adequately stirred will show segregation of the lead
Dirty or skulled ladles causing contamination introduce segregation either because of a
composition change or because the impurities are only partially absorbed by the melt
Carelessness in segregating returned scrap permits the alloy to be melted with an incorrect
analysis
Pouring Practice
1)
2)
3)
XI.
Pouring below the temperature of solubility is most apt to occur when alloying elements differ
widely in their solubility temperature
Cooling before pouring permits some components to come out of solution even though the
original melt was adequately blended and alloyed
Pouring too hot in the case of leaded bronze permits the lead to segregate during the
solidification process. These alloys must be poured as close to the solidification temperature as
possible and be stirred immediately before pouring
Miscellaneous
1)
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Description
Hard spots, hard areas and chilled spots in a casting
are localized zones of excessive hardness.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1) Thick and thin sections
2) Metal chemistry, as related to casting section thickness
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Worn or warped patterns and core boxes cause thin sections
2) Mismatched pattern equipment causing thin sections
III.
IV.
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V.
Molding Sand
1) Wet spots
2) Tramp materials
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
VIII.
Metal Composition
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Nonuniform section, which required dense hub, promoted chilled edges on the outer sections of the vanes.
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IX.
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Cold metal because of cold or wet ladles
2) Skull left in ladles
XI.
Miscellaneous
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
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Description
A hot tear is a crack in the casting which occurs
while it is still hot, or either solid or semisolid.
Causes
I. Casting and Pattern Design
1) Lack of adequate fillets
2) Abrupt change in section thickness
3) Any design which causes the mold to resist metal contraction
V.
Molding Sand
1) Poor collapsibility
2) Low sintering-point materials which form a ceramic bond
3) Sand that gives a rough surface which prevents normal contraction
55
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VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
VII.
Poor collapsibility
Low hot deformation with poor collapsibility (high hot strength)
Reinforcement rods too close to core surface
Failure to shake out reinforced core soon enough
Molding Practice
1) Hard ramming
2) Rods, gaggers, etc., too close to mold surface
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3)
4)
5)
6)
VIII.
Metal Composition
1)
IX.
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
X.
Pouring Practice
1)
XI.
Miscellaneous
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
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Inverse chill on test bar caused by cold metal and wet sand.
Description
Inverse chill, also known as reverse chill. This condition is common in gray iron, ductile iron and malleable
castings. Casting sections where the interior is chilled or white, while the outer sections are mottled or gray.
Causes
I. Casting and Pattern Design
1) Thin sections adjacent to heavy sections in malleable iron
V. Molding Sand
1) Wet sand and cold metal
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VII.
Molding Practice
1) Any practice involving excess or free water
VIIl.
1)
2)
3)
4)
IX.
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Any condition which would allow or lend itself to the solution of free Hydrogen gas in the metal
Hydrogen atmosphere from low coke bed in the cupola
Wet linings in cupola, electric, or air furnace
Use of contaminated metals in charge, such as die cast non-ferrous metals
Boiling metal caused by wet runners or spouts
Wet bottom sand in the cupola
Moisture in the blast, particularly in hypereutectic iron, such as piston rings
Inadequate inoculations for the conditions of the melting previously described
1)
2)
X.
XI.
Metal Composition
Pouring Practice
Miscellaneous
None
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Description
Mass Hardness is a condition in which the entire
casting is too hard for the application.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
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None
II.
Pattern Equipment
None
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1) Wet sand in combination with off analysis
2) Use of other material, such as zircon sand or chromite sand that has a more rapid transfer of heat
VI.
Core Practice
1) Excessive use of chill coat
2) Too thin a layer of sand over arbors
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
VIII.
Metal Composition
1) Incorrect metallurgy
2) Steel-excessive carbide stabilizing alloys
3) Gray and ductile iron-too low carbon equivalent
a. Tramp element
4) Lack of inoculation in thin sections
5) Malleable-tramp elements that prevent nodulizing or malleablizing
6) Aluminum-alloys that increase mass hardness, e.g. iron, magnesium or other trace alloys
7) Magnesium-excessive silicon or aluminum
8) Brass and Bronze-incorrect composition, excessive impurities
a. Wrong combination
b. Contamination
c. Careless control of various alloy returns
IX.
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
X.
Off analysis
Oxidizing melting conditions
Super heating of most metals
Careless charging
Low coke bed in cupola
Pouring Practice
1) Oxidized metal
2) Wet, dirty and contaminated ladle spouts and runners
3) Pouring too cold in thin sections
XI.
Miscellaneous
1)
2)
3)
4)
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Description
Metal penetration is a condition in which the metal or metallic oxides have filled the voids between the sand
grains without displacing them or by chemically changing the silica or binder. In conventional molds or cores
this can take place because of an open grain or surface porosity. In high density molds iron oxide readily
combines with the silica to form a fayalite which is fluid at several hundred degrees lower temperature than
that of the original metal. Generally, the higher the free moisture content at the metal sand interface the
greater will be this phenomena.
Fusion is a related surface defect having a rough glossy appearance resulting from metallic oxides acting as a
flux on the sand or low fusion binders which melt leaving voids on the surface. Controlled fusion may result in
a hard cake or fused layer which peels away from the casting leaving a smooth finish. As the fusion
progresses it results in penetration.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1) Sharp corners
2) Overhanging or protruding sections
3) Thin core or sand section surrounded by heavy metal
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Pattern equipment constructed so as to promote uneven or soft ramming
2) Improper location of parting line which induces soft ramming
3) Improper location of the pattern on the plate causing narrow pockets
4) Multiple patterns mounted too close together
5) Improper location of sprues, risers, and runners
6) Inadequate draft
7) Pattern equipment constructed to promote excessive metal pressure such as a vertical rather
than horizontal mounting.
8) Inadequate provision for mold and core venting in high density molding
1)
2)
3)
4)
IV.
Design and construction of flask equipment which promotes uneven or soft ramming
Excessive cope height
Lack of venting of flask and bottom boards in high density molding
Metal inserts or chills which act as condensers for moisture
V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
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A typical hard mold penetration caused by using a green sand mold rammed to 85-90 hardness.
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
14)
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Complete fusion of iron into the core because the core was underbaked.
16)
17)
18)
19)
20)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
VIII.
Metal Composition
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
1)
2)
3)
4)
Oxidized metal
The excessive use of any fluxing-type material such as
limestone, soda ash, and fluorspar
Melting too hot.
1)
2)
3)
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
IX.
Melting Practice
X.
Pouring Practice
XI.
Miscellaneous
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Laps or cold shuts caused by pourer missing pouring cup for a matter of seconds.
Description
A misrun casting is one which lacks completeness due to failure of the metal to fill the mold cavity. There may
be a smooth rounded-edge hole through the casting wall. One or more extremities may be only partially filled
out.
A cold shut casting is one in which a definite discontinuity exists due to imperfect fusion where two streams of
metal have converged. This defect may have the appearance of a crack or seam with smooth, rounded
edges.
Both defects may be related to insufficient fluidity of the metal or excessive gas pressure in the mold. It is
well to check the chapter on Gas Defects before assuming that cold metal is the only cause.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1) Non-uniform casting sections resulting in interrupted metal flow
2) Metal sections too thin for area involved
3) Isolated thin sections
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Worn patterns or core boxes causing thin metal sections
2) Patterns not made according to blueprint
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III.
IV.
Improper sizing of gates, runner and sprue-ingates too small or too few
Gates not properly located
Improper distribution or balance of gates
Too low head pressure
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V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Excess moisture
Sand too high in volatile matter
Sand too weak allowing mold distortion
Permeability too low
Too rapid heat transfer of molding material
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VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
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VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
VIII.
Metal Composition
Cold metal poured during first part of heat caused poor definition of both the edges and cored holes.
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1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
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IX.
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
X.
Pouring Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Chills and chaplets too large for metal section
2) Reduced metal section from any cause, e.g. excessive mold weights, careless weight shifting, etc.
3) Condensation from warm sand on cold cores, chills, inserts, or chaplets
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Result of failure to clean core assembly prior to setting the mold (boss was intended to be solid).
Description
An off dimension defect is an incorrect dimension occurring as a result of the wrong core being used, correct
cores improperly set, cores omitted, cores incorrectly assembled, or thermal instability of cores.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
None
II.
Pattern Equipment
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
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The large core print permitted metal flow around entire core.
III.
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
None
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
VII.
Molding Practice
1) Setting defective cores
2) Improper filing or rubbing of cores
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VIII.
Metal Composition
1) Mottled structure in nodular iron will distort and grow when heat treated
IX.
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot
2) Pouring too hard
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Carelessness in core making and core assembly
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Description
Open grain structure is a condition wherein a casting, when machined or fractured is too coarse grained. It
may be throughout the casting or it may be localized.
The most important areas of control are design, gating, composition and melting. This is primarily a
metallurgical -type defect. It is often difficult to differentiate between open grain, porosity and micro
shrinkage.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1)
2)
3)
4)
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Improper cored heavy sections (See 1)
III.
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IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1) High deformation in sand, permitting mold wall movement
2) Improper selection of molding additives
3) Molding materials that retard heat transfer
VI.
Core Practice
1) Underbaked oil sand cores and/or oil bonded air set cores
2) Exothermic materials or insulating materials
VII.
Molding Practice
1) Lack of chills or chill promoting materials
VIII.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
IX.
1)
Metal Composition
Improper analysis for section size
Gray iron and malleable-carbon equivalent or phosphorus too high
Insufficient carbide stabilizers
Excessive use of graphitizers
Aluminum alloys-impurities such as iron or lack of grain refiners
Magnesium alloys-incorrect composition
Brass and bronze-incorrect composition
Melting Practice
Cupola melted gray iron
a. Improper balance of air and coke creating an excessive carbon pickup
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2)
3)
Aluminum
a.
b.
c.
d.
X.
Overheated
Reducing atmosphere
Carelessness in charge makeup or contamination
Omitting grain refiners
Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Improper heat treatment
2) Improper machining
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Description
A casting which lacks completeness due to the mold
not being filled.
Causes
1) Insufficient metal
2) Back pressure
a. Low permeability
b. Lack of vents
c. Excessive amount of core or mold gas
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Description
A ramoff or ramaway is an incorrect casting dimension resulting from the sand moving away from the pattern
during molding.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1)
2)
3)
4)
II.
Pattern Equipment
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
III.
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Result of peening in only one direction, causing the round boss to become elliptical.
3)
4)
5)
6)
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1) Sand characteristics that contribute to nonuniform ramming will aggravate any of the design or
mechanical conditions
a. Excess moisture
b. Improper mulling
c. Excess cereal
d. Low green compressive strength, for the application
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
VIII.
Metal Composition
None
IX.
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
None
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Rollover machines worn or out of adjustment
2) Pattern draw equipment worn or out of adjustment
3) Improper flow or direction of sand into flask
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DESCRIPTION
A casting that lacks the required degree of smoothness for a specific application.
Causes
I. Casting and Pattern Design
1) Design is a contributing factor only when sharp corners, deep pockets and the like are involved
Inaccessible areas
Fillets too small
Rough pattern surface
Excessive moisture in molding sand created a low moldability and an open mold surface.
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4) Weak patterns
5) Materials and coatings which induce sticking of sand
6) Non-uniform heating in shell or hot box
III.
1)
2)
3)
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
13)
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
VII.
Molding Practice
I)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
VIII.
1)
Soft ramming
Dirty patterns
Improperly riddled or screened sand
Improper application of mold coatings
Poorly finished molds
Excessive use of parting compounds
Metal Composition
Composition requiring high pouring temperature
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A sand high in limestone created this rough effect (pocket) in the areas of maximum temperature.
IX.
Melting Practice
1) Poor slag practice
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Too high pouring temperature
2) Improperly skimmed ladles
3) Ladle too high
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Improper cleaning
2) Cleaning abrasive too coarse
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Description
Runouts and bleeders are defects which result in an incomplete casting. Runouts occur during pouring and
usually the mold cavity has not been completely filled. Bleeders occur after pouring has stopped and the
mold cavity has been filled.
Causes
I.
II.
Pattern Equipment
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
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A weak core permitted metal to run into core cavity (it was impossible to remove core section).
Shell cores improperly sealed permitted metal to run into core cavity.
A poorly bedded bottom board permitted this casting to bleed during pouring.
7) With a cope and drag arrangement the pattern plate may be mounted higher than the flask landing
strip
8) Weak, burned or uneven bottom boards
9) Improperly fitting jackets
10) Insufficient or improperly placed weights
11) Bumping molds on a conveyor
12) Insufficient drag depth
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V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
Weak sand
Sand too low in green deformation
Excessive expansion and contraction in shell molds
Late gas explosion in mold
Shifting the jackets before solidification while the mold was on a moving
conveyor caused this bleeding. Note that the mold had been full.
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
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3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Weak cores
Shell cores with thin spots
Shell cores not sealed at prints
Thermal cracking of shell cores
Excessive peel back (shell cores)
Too rapid heating or cooling
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Soft ramming
Insufficient or improperly weighted molds
Uneven clamping
Improperly bedded bottom boards
Non-uniform hardness or lumpy bedding sand
Careless closing of molds
Venting too close to the mold cavity or not sealed
VII.
Molding Practice
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8)
9)
10)
11)
VIII.
1)
2)
IX.
Metal Composition
High fluidity
Wide solidification range
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
XI.
1)
2)
Miscellaneous
Shaking out too hot
Knocking off gates and risers too soon
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Plate caused by wet sand and overly hard ramming. Molten metal forced out by gas
pressure later flowed over already solidified metal.
Description
Scar:
Seam:
Plate:
A minor or shallow shiny mark on a casting surface where the casting does not conform to
the pattern.
A visual indented line on the casting surface.
A layer of metal partially separated from the main body of the casting section.
These defects usually occur on flat surfaces.
Causes
I.
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II.
Pattern Equipment
1)
2)
3)
Cross section of plate defect caused by wet sand and hard ramming.
III.
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Low permeability
Excessive free water
Too high in gas forming material
Differences in strength or permeability of facing and backup sand
High expanding sand
Low hot deformation
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VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
VIII.
1)
2)
3)
4)
IX.
Metal Composition
Low fluidity
Too low carbon equivalent
Excessive carbide stabilizers
Excessive ladle additions
Melting Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
X.
Cold melting
Gassy metal
Improper flux treatment
Incorrect composition
Excessive ladle additions
Pouring Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
XI.
Interrupted pouring
Lack of synchronization in pouring multiple down sprues
Pouring too high
Reducing rate of pouring too soon
Thin flat sections poured level instead of tilted
Excessive mold weights
Rough handling
Bad jackets
Rough handling of molds
Miscellaneous
1) Rusty, dirty, oxidized or damp chills, chaplets or nails
2) Excessive coating on chills
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Shifts - Chapter 23
Description
A shift is a mismatch of the casting at the parting line. They may occur in cores or core assembly.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1) Inadequate provision for core print or core support
II.
Pattern Equipment
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
III.
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How worn pins and bushings permit a mismatch in one or more directions.
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IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1) Weak sand
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
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Examples of cope and drag shifts due to improper handling of mold jackets.
VIII.
Metal Composition
None
IX.
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Improper handling of weight and jackets
2) Bumping molds with pouring ladle
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Excessive vibration
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Description
Shot metal or cold shots are small globules of metal imbedded in, but not entirely fused with the casting. A
cold shot shows as an approximately round shot, while a cold shut is a form of misrun and appears as a crack
or seam.
Causes
I.
II.
Pattern Equipment
None
1) Excessive clearance on prints requiring excessive amount of sealing compound
2) Inadequate venting at parting line
3) Any gating which results in turbulence
Ill.
IV.
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V.
Molding Sand
1) High moisture or excessive gas which results in a severe blowing action causing metal to spatter
2) Foreign material such as clay balls, etc., which produces excessive gas in a localized area
VI.
Core Practice
1) Undercured core or excessive gas from core, core wash, or core paste
2) Exposed wires, arbors, and supports which are wet, dirty, oily, or rusty
VII.
Molding Practice
1) Poorly dried molds or core coatings
2) Plugged vents
3) Excessive sticking of mold
VIII.
Metal Composition
1) Certain metals which are more prone to rapid oxidation and thus, prevents the shot from redissolving
(Example: low carbon steel or aluminum)
2) Off analysis metal which results in an excessive rate of solidification
3) Phosphorus too high (centrifugal casting)
IX.
Melting Practice
1) Oxidized metal
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Careless skimming, spilling or splashing metal in a sprue or riser
2) Interrupted pouring
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Any foreign material which causes metal to splatter
2) Condensation in the mold
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Description
A shrinkage cavity is a jagged hole or spongy area lined with fern-like structure called dendrites. A
shrinkage depression on the surface of the casting is a recession from the true plane
of the mold surface.
There is apt to be confusion determining between a shrink and a blow. If a doubt exists, refer to the chapter
on Gas Defects. Many of the cures for both are the same, but in some cases the cure is just the opposite.
It is characteristic of a shrink to appear in heavier sections, at abrupt changes of section thickness or at hot
spots. These same locations are also prone to producing gas defects and hot tears.
Causes
I.
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Worn patterns and/or core boxes
2) Incorrect pattern dimensions resulting in thin or heavy sections
3) Poor pattern construction-improperly reinforced for high pressure molding
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IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
Any molding practice that will permit moldwall movement under pressure-refer to molding sand
Omission of exothermic or insulating materials if required
Lack of chills
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Feeding four of these castings from one small riser was not enough to prevent shrink in riser neck.
Gate area being equal to casting section created a shrink in the gate itself.
VIII.
Metal Composition
IX.
Melting Practice
1) Careless charging or weighing
2) Wrong composition
3) High temperature metal
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X.
Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot and/or too cold
2) Failure to touch up risers with hot metal
XI.
Miscellaneous
1)
2)
3)
4)
Cracked molds
Runouts
Run-in (shellcores)
Improperly clamped molds
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Stickers - Chapter 26
Typical lump on casting surface caused by sand sticking to pattern during molding.
Description
A sticker is excess metal on the surface of the casting caused by a portion of the mold
face remaining on the pattern.
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1) Insufficient draft
II.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Pattern Equipment
Poorly polished or improperly coated
Worn or rough
Fillets and depressions filled with wax
Insufficient draft or back draft
A pattern undercut or loose at parting line
Failure to vent critical pockets
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Excessive moisture used in an attempt to compensate for hot sand caused general sticking
of sand grains to pattern surface.
V.
Molding Sand
1) Hot sand
2) Inadequate sand properties
a. Low green tensile strength
b. Low green shear strength
c. Low permeability
d. Poorly mixed sand
e. Wet sand
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
VIII.
Metal Composition
None
IX.
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
None
XI.
Miscellaneous
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1) Foreign material
A typical swell
Description
A swell is an enlarged metal section related to moldwall movement. A strain is a swell with a fin on it. A sag
is an increase or decrease in a metal section due to sagging of the cope or core. A core fin is a depression in
the casting caused by a fin on the core which was not removed before the core was set.
Causes
I.
II.
Design requiring long or thin cores and not permitting the use of a support
Any design which contributes to soft ramming
Large flat surfaces
Large castings which require a high metal pressure
Pattern Equipment
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
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III.
A sag in the core created a thin section with a corresponding thick section.
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A typical defect resulting from fin which should have been removed from the core before setting.
Insufficient clearance between bars caused the molder to soft ram this section.
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A poorly cleaned bottom board strained the mold and caused this distortion.
IV.
V.
Molding Sand
1) Weak sand
2) Any condition that permits excessive moldwall movement
VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
Soft ram on the mold was aggravated by a hard pour, causing this swell at the parting line.
VII.
Molding Practice
1) A soft ram, not tucked or properly peened
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2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
VIII.
Metal Composition
1) The high density metals have a greater tendency to produce mold-wall movement
2) Pouring temperature
3) Expansion and contraction (ductile iron)
IX.
Melting Practice
1) Inoculation of graphitic metals increases mold-wall movement
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Ladle too high
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) Dirty pallets
2) Excessive spinning speeds in sand molds
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Description
Veining appears on the casting as irregular fin or fins of metal protruding from the surface of the casting. Two
conditions must exist. The core or mold surface develops a crack either from expansion-contraction forces or
mechanical handling and the metal must be fluid enough to enter the crack.
NOTE:
(T) Signifies thermal cracking
(M) Signifies mechanical cracking
Causes
I.
Casting and Pattern Design
1)
2)
3)
4)
II.
Pattern Equipment
1) Sharp corners that develop hot spots. (T)
2) Thin cores surrounded by heavy metal sections. (T-M)
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3)
4)
5)
6)
III.
Uneven metal sections causing uneven heat distribution in shell or hot box equipment. (T)
Inadequate support from core dryers causing cracked cores. (M)
Warped core dryers. (M)
Dryers not properly relieved. (M)
IV.
V.
Gate causing metal to impinge on core causing hot spot in critical area. (T)
Riser too close to core print (hot spot) . (T)
Insufficient number of gates causing local hot spots. (T)
Molding Sand
1)
2)
3)
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VI.
Core Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
VII.
Molding Practice
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
VIII.
Metal Composition
1) Metals with a tendency toward veining such as high leaded bronzes, high carbon-siliconphosphorus gray irons (T-M)
IX.
Melting Practice
None
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Pouring too hot for metal composition involved (T)
2) Pouring too hard causing metal to forcibly impinge against a core (ladle too high) (T)
XI.
Miscellaneous
1) In centrifugal casting, any condition that causes a lack of adherence of the sand to metal mold
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Description
Warpage is deformation that occurs during or after solidification, mostly in gray or white cast iron (nonductile) .
The problems are the same as those described in Chapter 11. Hot Tears, namely differential stresses setup
during cooling. The difference between the defects (aside from appearance) is either in the degree of stress
or difference in tearing tendency of various metals. For example, a stress situation which would hot tear a
steel or malleable casting might warp a gray iron or ductile casting.
Causes
I. Casting and Pattern Design
1) Large flat uninterrupted sections
2) Lack of ribs
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V. Molding Sand
1) Too low green strength
2) Too low flowability or moldability
3) Hot strength too low or too high
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VIII.
Metal Composition
1) High combined carbon
2) Excessive use of carbide stabilizers
3) Chills etc., which promote the stabilization of combined carbon.
IX.
Melting Practice
1) Careless charging
2) Metal too cold
3) Any metal practice which stabilizes carbides or changes metal composition
X.
Pouring Practice
1) Too hot or too cold for casting design
XI.
Miscellaneous
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
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