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PASCAL

Pascals Law
Pressure in an enclosed fluid can be considered uniform

throughout a practical system.


Small differences may arise from head pressures at
different heights, but negligible compared with the system
operating pressure.

Pascal's law AKA Principle of transmission of fluid-

pressure
is a principle in fluid mechanics that states that pressure
applied anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is
transmitted equally in all directions

If F at A is 50 lbf, how much the pressure at B,C,D & E?


A) PA = PB = PC = PD = PE
B) PA = PB+PC+PD+PE

Flow rate
Hydraulic and pneumatic systems are concerned with the flow

of fluid down a pipe.


Velocity flow of a system measures linear speed past a point of
measurement.

Types of fluid flow


Laminar flow:

1)
2)
3)
4)

Low flow velocity


Flow pattern is smooth
Low velocities at the pipe walls
Highest flow at the center of pipe

Laminar flow

Re < 2000
'low' velocity
Dye does not mix with water
Fluid particles move in straight lines

Rare in practice in water systems.

Types of fluid flow


Turbulence:

1)
2)
3)

Particle do not move parallel


Become turbulent when velocity increased
Sudden change in direction of cross section

Turbulent flow
Re > 4000
'high' velocity
Dye mixes rapidly and completely
Particle paths completely irregular
Average motion is in the direction of the flow
Cannot be seen by the naked eye
Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to detect. Must use laser.

Mathematical analysis very difficult - so experimental measures

are used
Most common type of flow

Types of fluid flow


The nature of flow is determined by Reynolds number

(Rc),

Rc = (vd)/
where
v : flow velocity (m/s)
d : pipe diameter (m)
: fluid density (kg/m3)
: dynamic viscosity of fluid (kg/(m.s))
If Rc < 2300, flow is laminar. If Rc > 4000, flow is

turbulent

Reynolds number
Kinematic viscosity, k = /
Replacing k into Rc

Rc = (vd)/k
where
v : flow velocity (m/s)
d : pipe diameter (m)
k : kinematic viscosity of fluid (m2/s)
If Rc < 2300, flow is laminar. If Rc > 4000, flow is

turbulent

k : fluid kinematic viscosity


The SI unit of kinematic viscosity : m2/s.

The cgs physical unit for kinematic viscosity is the stokes

(St), named after George Gabriel Stokes. It is sometimes


expressed in terms of centistokes (cSt).
1 St = 1 cm2s1 = 104 m2s1.
1 cSt = 1 mm2s1 = 106m2s1.

So which one is preferred in hydraulics system??

Laminar or turbulence?
Consideration?
Velocity,

smoothness of movement
Accuracy of cylinder
system efficiency (minimum friction loss)

Bernoullis Principle
If the flow rate in a system is constant, then the total energy in

the system will also be constant irrespective of the variation in


the cross section of the fluid passage.
TOTAL ENERGY = POTENTIAL ENERGY + KINETIC ENERGY

Bernoullis Equation
Point 1
Point 2

P2

P1

P1

v1
P2 v2

g z1
g z2
2
2

where,
P1, v1 and z1 are pressure, velocity and datum height of the
center line of pipe at point 1 respectively.
P2, v2 and z2 are pressure, velocity and datum height of the
center line of pipe at point 2 respectively.

Bernoullis Equation
In practice, we need to add friction head (hf), i.e. pressure lost

due to friction.
2

P1
v1
P2
v2

g 2 g z1 g 2 g z2 h f
Most manufacturers specify maximum flow rate allowed

through a valve.
Valve should offer least amount of pressure drop.
Bernoullis principle can guide designer of valve and pipe to use
optimum size.

Pressure measurement
Bourdon pressure gauge
consists of a flattened C shaped tube which is fixed at one end.
When pressure is applied to the tube it tends to straighten, with the
free end moving up and to the right.
For low pressure ranges a spiral tube is used to increase the
sensitivity.
If an electrical output signal is
required, the pointer is replaced by a
potentiometer

Flow measurement
Venturi meter

Flow measurement
Orifice plate meter

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