Man and Environment

Ecology
the study of the interactions of living things
with each other and their physical
environment

Abiotic factors
physical and chemical factors that affect
the ability of organisms to survive and
reproduce
intensity of light
range of temperatures
amount of moisture
type of substratum (soil or rock type)
availability of inorganic substances
supply of gases such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen
pH
Each of this factor varies in the
environment and may act as a limiting
factor, determining the types of organisms
that exist in that environment.
2

Biotic factors

All the living things that directly or indirectly affect

the environment
- the presence, parts, interaction of living
organisms, and wastes are all biotic factors.

Niche the organism's

functional role in the

community
Habitat - a place where the
organism get their food,
water, shelter and space to
live in
3

Ecological Organization

Population: all the members of a species inhabiting a given location

Community: all the interacting populations in a given area
Ecosystem: the living community and the physical environment
functioning together as an independent and relatively stable system
Biosphere: a global ecosystem where organisms interact among them
and with environment , includes part of atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere
4

Population Interaction
Niche- The sum of a species use of the
biotic and abiotic resources in its
environment
Eugene Odums analogy: If an organisms
habitat is its address, the niche is the habitat
plus the organisms occupation.
Eventhough niches tend to be specific to
given organisms, some closely related
species have niches that overlap to some
degree in a community.
6

Symbiotic Interactions/Relationships
Symbiosis: living together with another
organism in close association
Types of symbiosis

Mutualism: both organisms

benefit from the association
ex. nitrogen-fixing bacteria on
legume nodules, protozoa
within termites and ruminants
Parasitism: the
parasite benefits at
the expense of the
host, ex. athlete's
foot fungus on
humans,
tapeworm and
heartworm in dogs

Commensalism:
one organism is
benefited and the
other is unharmed
ex. barnacles on
whales, orchids on
trees

Competition occurs
when two different
species or organisms
living in the same
environment (habitat)
utilize the same limited
resources, such as
food, water, space,
light, oxygen, and
minerals.

If two different
species compete
for the same
resources, one
species may be
eliminated.
This establishes
one species per
niche in a
community

Nutritional Relationship (Predation)

A. Autotrophs can
synthesize their
own food from
inorganic
compounds and
a usable energy
source
(photosynthetic/
chemosynthetic)
B. Heterotrophs can NOT synthesize

their own food and rely on other

organisms for their food

10

Nutritional Relationship (Predation)

Type of Heterotrophs
Saprophytes: decomposers, live on
dead matter (heterotrophic plants,
fungi, and bacteria)
Herbivores: plant-eating animals
Carnivores: meat-eating animals
Omnivores: consume both plants
and meat

11

Succession

Communities may change drastically after a

major disturbance such as flood and fire.
A variety of species may colonize the area
and may later be replaced by other species.
This
community
change
is
called
succession.
Rejuvenation of severely disturbed areas
provides us with insights on the importance
of living things and their products that
survive major ecological disturbance on the
future habitat.

Ecosystem Functions
The ecosystem is the fundamental unit of Ecology.
All communities need a source of energy, supply of
water, nutrients and gases.
The process by which living things gain energy, for
instance from the sun, is through transformation
into heat.
However, water and nutrients are being cycled,
from the Earth to the organism and then back into
the Earth.
Considering this, ecological systems or functional
units that link biotic and abiotic factors to form a
whole can be perceived.

Ecosystem Functions

Food energy available to the human population at different trophic levels.

Biomass- amount of organic material

The rate at which producers build biomass is
called primary productivity, which sets the
spending limit for energy budget of the entire
ecosystem because consumers acquire their
organic fuels from producers.
Energy flows as organic matter in trophic
levels.
The sun generally supplies ecosystems with
energy but ecosystems depend on recycling as
a means of acquiring essential chemical
elements.

Types of Ecosystem
Biomes are large land areas with similar environmental
conditions & characteristic plant communities
Rainfall and temperature influences biomes distribution
which determine the available soil moisture needed for
plant growth and compensation for water losses through
evapotranspiration

15

Biomes
Biomes are terrestrial climax
communities
with
wide
geographic distribution.
Two primary abiotic factors
have major impacts on the
kind of climax community
that develops in any part of
the world: precipitation
(total amount and seasonal
distribution)
and
temperature.
The temperature is warmest
near
the
equator
and
becomes cooler toward the
poles.

Influence of Precipitation and

Temperature on Vegetation

Biomes
As the height above sea level
increases,
the
average
temperature decreases and the
higher the elevation, the cooler
the climate.
This means that even at the
equator, in the tropics, it is
possible
to
have
cold
temperatures on the peaks of
tall mountains.
As one proceeds from sea level
to the tops of mountains, it is
possible to pass through a
series of biomes that are similar
to what would be encountered
as one traveled from the
equator to the North Pole.

Relationship Between Height above

Sea Level, Latitude, and Vegetation

Deserts-found
in
every
continent,
characterized by widely spaced vegetation and
large areas of bare ground
A lack of water is the primary
factor that determines that an area
will be a desert.
These are areas that generally
have an average of less than 25
centimeters
(10
inches)
of
precipitation per year and are
mostly hot and dry during the day
and cold at night.
Organisms that thrive here are
adapted to the arid and hot
environment with plants showing
very small leaves and stems that
can store water (cactus) and
animals with very thick skin or
cuticle to prevent water loss
(lizards).
18

Grasslands or prairie are concentrated in the center of continents, continuous cover

of grass and virtually no trees except along the rivers

Grasslands, also known as prairies or steppes,

are widely distributed over temperate parts of
the world that generally receive between 25
and 75 centimeters (10 to 30 inches) of
precipitation per year.
These areas are windy with hot summers and
cold-to mild winters.
Fire is an important force in preventing the
invasion of trees and releasing nutrients from
dead plants to the soil.
The primary consumers: large herds of
migratory, grazing mammals like bison,
wildebeests, wild horses, and various kinds of
sheep, cattle, and goats.
Most of the moist grasslands have been
converted to agriculture for growing cultivated
grasses like corn (maize) and wheat.
The drier grasslands have been converted to
the raising of domesticated grazers like cattle,
19
sheep, and goats.

Savanna along the edges of tropical

deciduous forest, the trees are gradually wide
spaced with grasses growing between them
Tropical parts of Africa, South America, and
Australia have extensive grasslands spotted
with occasional trees comprising the biome
often called as the savanna.
Rain is not distributed evenly throughout
the year, typically, with a period of heavy
rainfall is followed by a prolonged drought.
The predominant plants are grasses, but
many drought-resistant, flat-topped, thorny
trees are common which are also resistant
to fire damage.
Many of these trees are particularly
important because they are legumes that
are involved in nitrogen fixation and also
provide shade and nesting sites for animals.
Predominant mammals are the grazers.20

Chaparral biomes are coastal regions that border on deserts, consisting of

small trees or large bushes with thick waxy or fuzzy evergreen leaves that
conserve water which are able to withstand frequent summer fires
started by lighting
The Mediterranean shrublands are located near
an ocean and have wet, cool winters and hot,
dry summers with rainfall between 40 to 100
centimeters (15 to 40 inches) per year.
This biome is typical of the Mediterranean coast
and is also found in coastal southern California,
the southern tip of Africa, a portion of the west
coast of Chile, and southern Australia.
The vegetation is dominated by woody shrubs
that are dormant during summer as an
adaptation to withstand the hot, dry period.
Fire is also a common feature of this biome, and the shrubs are adapted to withstand
occasional fires.
Many kinds of insects, reptiles, birds, and mammals are found in these areas.
In the chaparral of California, rattlesnakes, spiders, coyotes, lizards, and rodents are
typical inhabitants.
21

 Tropical Dry Forest

Tropical dry forests have rainfall as low as
50 centimeters (20 inches) or as high as
200 centimeters (80 inches), but since
the rainfall is highly seasonal with
extensive dry periods up to eight months,
many of the plants have special
adaptations for enduring drought.
Many of the trees drop their leaves
during this dry period.
Tropical dry forests are found in parts of
Central and South America, Australia,
Africa, and Asia (particularly India and
Myranmar).
Many of the species of animals found
here are also found in more moist tropical
forests of the region. However, there are
fewer kinds in dry forests than in
rainforests.

 Tropical rain forests

dominated by huge
broadleaf evergreen
trees and have the
highest biodiversity
of any ecosystem
Tropical rainforests are located near the equator in Central and South
America, Africa, Southeast Asia, and some islands in the Caribbean Sea and
Pacific Ocean.
The temperature is normally warm and relatively constant.
It rains nearly every day with most areas receiving in excess of 200
centimeters (80 inches) of rain per year. Some even receive 500 centimeters
(200 inches) or more.
Because of the warm temperatures and abundant rainfall, most plants grow
very rapidly; however, soils are usually poor in nutrients because water tends
to carry away any nutrients not immediately taken up by plants.
Tropical rainforests have a greater diversity of species than any other biome.
The richest and threatened among the terrestrial ecosystems.
23

Temperate deciduous forestsgrasslands

merge
into
temperate deciduous forest,
has cold winters, usually
with at least several frosts
and often long periods of
below freezing weather

Forests in temperate areas of the

world that have a wintersummer
change of seasons typically have
trees that lose their leaves during
the winter and replace them the
following spring.
Typical to the eastern half of the
United States, parts of south
central and southeastern Canada,
southern Africa, and many areas
of Europe and Asia.
These areas generally receive 75
to 100 centimeters (30 to 60
inches) of relatively evenly
distributed precipitation per year.
Have many fewer species, and
many forests may consist of two
26
or three dominant tree species.

Taiga -northern coniferous

forest,
populated
by
evergreen coniferous trees
with small waxy needles
which reduce water loss by
evaporation
during
the
colder months and the
leaves remains on the trees
year round

Taiga, Northern ConiferousForest, or Boreal

Forest
Throughout the southern half of Canada,
parts of northern Europe, and much of
Russia.
The climate is one of short, cool summers
and long winters with abundant snowfall.
The winters are extremely harsh and can
last as long as six months. Typically, the soil
freezes during the winter.
Precipitation ranges between 25 and 100
centimeters (10 to 40 inches) per year.
Climate is typically humid because there is a
great deal of snow melt in the spring and
generally
low
temperatures
reduce
evaporation.
The landscape is typically dotted with lakes,
ponds, and bogs (swamps).
Conifers such are the most common trees in
these areas.
27

Tundra -the polar ice cap, a vast tree-less region

bordering the Arctic Ocean, a freezing desert

North of the taiga is the tundra.

This frozen soil layer is known as permafrost.
Because of the permanently frozen soil and extremely
cold, windy climate (up to 10 months of winter), no
trees can live in the area.
Although the amount of precipitation is similar to that in
some desertsless than 25 centimeters (10 inches) per
yearthe short summer is generally wet because the
winter snows melt in the spring and summer
temperatures are usually less than 10oC (50oF), which
reduces the evaporation rate.
Many waterfowl like ducks and geese migrate to the
tundra in the spring; there, they mate and raise their
young during the summer before migrating south in the
fall.
When the top few centimeters (inches) of the soil warm
up, many plants (grasses, dwarf birch, dwarf willow)
and lichens, such as reindeer moss, grow.
The plants are short, usually less than 20 centimeters (8
inches) tall.
Many of the birds and large mammals migrate up to the
alpine tundra during the summer and return to lower
28
elevations as the weather turns cold.

Aquatic Biomes

Aquatic biomes, consisting of inland or

freshwater and marine ecosystems, occupy
the largest part of the biosphere.
The most productive region in these biomes
are the shallow-water area along its edge or
the littoral zone.
Then theres the photic zone which starts at
the surface and extends towards the point at
which sunlight can no longer penetrate or
where light is available for photosynthesis.
Phytoplankton-microscopic
photosynthesizing organisms that drift in the
upper layers of water, form the base of
aquatic food webs.
A deeper layer called the aphotic zone has
light levels that are too low to support
photosynthesis.
Furthermore, at the bottom of all aquatic
biomes, the substrate is called the benthic
zone, consisting of organic and inorganic
sediments, and occupied by communities of
organisms, including bacteria, collectively
called benthos.

30

Lakes and Ponds

Standing bodies of water range from small
ponds to large lakes, where communities
are distributed according to water depth
and its distance from the shore.
Lakes and ponds can be eutrophic, or
nutrient-rich, or otherwise, oligotrophic.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the mineral
nutrients that usually limit the amount of
phytoplankton growth where large inputs
of these nutrients are from sewage and
runoff from fertilized agricultural fields.
Overabundance of these nutrients can lead
to overabundance of algae, also known as
algal bloom.
When this happens, decomposing bacteria
flourish, depleting oxygen and causing
fishes and other oxygen-dependent
organisms to suffocate.
31

Rivers and Streams

Rivers and streams are bodies of water
flowing in one direction.
It changes greatly between the source and
the point where it empties into the lakes or
oceans.
Thus, supporting quite different communities
of organisms.
Factors such as current and channel affects
the growth and abundance of phytoplankton
and other aquatic organisms thriving in these
ecosystems.
Many rivers and streams have been affected
by pollution from human activities as these
are often used as depositories of waste,
thinking that these would be diluted as water
is carried downstream.
Channelization and construction of dams are
also examples of human interventions
affecting these ecosystems.

Wetlands: Estuaries

freshwater stream or river meets the ocean - estuary, bordered by

extensive coastal wetlands called mudflats and saltmarshes.
Nutrients and salinity, or concentration of salt, are the factors affecting
these ecosystems.
Much of these nutrients that enrich estuarine waters are carried from
rivers, making estuaries one of the most biologically productive ecosystems
on Earth, along with tropical rainforests and coral reefs.
A wide diversity of aquatic organisms use estuaries as breeding grounds
and organisms such as birds use them as feeding areas.
However, these areas are also prime locations for commercial and
residential developments and are unfortunately the receivers of pollutants
dumped upstream.

Oceans
Oceans cover about 75% of the Earths
surface and have always had an
enormous impact in the biosphere.
Their evaporation provides most of the
planets rainfall and photosynthesis by
marine algae supplies a substantial
portion of the biospheres oxygen.
The ocean can be divided up in terms of
the living things in it.
The
pelagic
zone,
supports
communities dominated by motile
animals some of which feed on smaller
zooplankton or phytoplankton.
The tropical oceans form coral reefs.
So rich is this habitat that it is a home
to 25% of the oceans species but only
covers 2% of the ocean floor.
However, about 27% of the worlds coral
reef is estimated to have now been lost
as functioning ecosystems due to
destructive practices and environmental
disturbance

Biodiversity and Species Preservation

Biodiversity encompasses all variation in living systems, including genetic,
species, and ecosystem diversity.
Scientists have discovered 1.8 million species and are still discovering new
species - not only microorganisms but also plants, animals, and fungi.
In general, biodiversity is highest near the equator, and decreases toward
the poles.
However, current rapid loss of species due to the destruction of many of
our ecosystems may cause us not to know how many species really are
there and how many we are losing.
Why should humans care if biodiversity declines?

35

Human Impacts on Environment

Humans, like all species, depend on certain natural resources for
survival. We rely on Earths biodiversity - the millions of organisms
and hundreds of processes operating to maintain a livable
environment - for food, water, clothing, medicines and for recycling
of nutrients and disposal of waste.
In our dependence on these services, we are like all other species.
Yet in many ways, we do not behave like other species.
We have both the capacity to destroy or preserve our natural
resources.
Man can harvest natural resources to exhaustion, and produce waste
beyond levels that the Earth can process or alter biodiversity, land,
water, air and fossil fuels beyond natures ability to repair. On the
other hand, we also have the ability towards conserving and
protecting our environment.

Habitat Loss
Habitat
loss,
degradation,
and
fragmentation a primary threat to
biodiversity.
Cause: Agriculture, forestry, mining, and
urbanization have disturbed over half of
Earths vegetated land.
Effects:
species disappear and biodiversity
declines.
Half of Earths mature tropical forests
are gone; one-fifth of tropical rain
forests disappeared between 1960
and 1990.
At current rates of deforestation, all
tropical forests will be gone by 2090.

Exotic Species

Introduction of exotic animals to different areas/ habitats

Many of these exotic (non-native) species, away from the predation or competition of
their native habitats, have unexpected and negative effects in new ecosystems. Freed
from natural controls, introduced species can disrupt food chains, carry disease, outcompete natives for limited resources, or prey on native species directly - and lead to
extinctions.

Overexploitation

Modern equivalent to over-kill

Practices such as clear-cutting old growth forests, strip mining, and driftnet fishing go
beyond harvesting of single species or resources to degrade entire ecosystems.
Forest plantations, fish hatcheries and farms, and intensive agriculture
Extinctions of very large animals could have had major effects on ecosystems,
including secondary extinctions.

Global Climate Change

Changing climates around Earth

increasing reliance on fossil fuels is altering the Earths atmosphere and climate.
Effects: acid rain, breaks in the ozone layer shielding us from ultraviolet radiation,
and greenhouse gases which raise the Earths air and ocean temperatures and sea
levels.
changing air and water temperatures, rainfall patterns, and salinity threaten species
adapted to pre-warming conditions, and biodiversity declines globally.

Overpopulation

As human populations grow, natural ecosystems are continuously explored and converted
displacing organisms from their homes.
The demand to cater human needs increases extraction activities such as deforestation,
mining, and fishing.

Pollution

Air Pollution: Knows no boundaries and is a growing concern. Acid rain, ozone
depletion, and global warming are all effects of air pollution
Water Pollution: Industrial and agricultural chemicals, waste, acid rain, and global
warming threaten waters which are essential for all ecosystems throughout the world.
Soil Contamination: Toxic industrial and municipal wastes, salts from irrigation, and
pesticides from agriculture all degrade soils - the foundations of terrestrial ecosystems
and their biodiversity.

Solid waste

The use of packaging material which does not

break down, burning of refuse, and the placing of
materials in landfills prevents the return of some
useful materials to the environment.
43

 Consume thoughtfully and

wisely: Reduce consumption
where possible,re-use, and
recycle.
Sustainability as a guide for
decision-making
balances
social,
economic,
and
environmental
values
to
structure human activities
such that they can continue
indefinitely.

44

 Through a greater awareness and

application of ecological principles, each
individual can help to assure that there
will be suitable environments for
succeeding generations on our planet.
Its up to you
45

Its up to you
Protect the wonderful world around you!
Remember each habitat is a unique place
where plants and animals make their home.
We share this Planet with them.it is not
only ours!
We hold the future of this beautiful Planet in
our hands. Our future and our childrens and
their childrens future depends on the
environmental choices we make
today..MAKE THE RIGHT ONES!!!!!!
46

Every individual is a product of

his/her GENES and ENVIRONMENT

47