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and experience into the printed word. The following agencies, people, and
affiliates cooperated and worked together to produce the interagency document,
"Stream Corridor Restoration: Principles, Processes, and Practices." Numerous
other people also worked in support or consultative roles within and outside of
the agencies, and their contribution is acknowledged and very much appreciated.
Federal Agencies
The following federal agencies collaborated to produce this document:
Acknowledgements xix
Production Team
The Production Team developed much of the material for this document.
Some individuals on this team led the development of individual chapters and
wrote specific parts of the document. Contributing authors include recognized
experts from universities and consulting firms.
Name Affiliation Location
xx Stream Corridor
Communications Team
The Communications Team developed the plan for promoting the creation of
this document, both in process and product. Members designed and produced
a variety of information materials for people interested in the document.
Name Affiliation Location
Acknowledgements xxi
Steering Team
The Steering Team organized, led, and coordinated the production of this docu-
ment. Steering Team members not only represented the interests of their agen-
cies but also served as contact pivots for information to and from their agencies
and also wrote parts of the document. The Steering Team also secured
nonfederal peer review of this document and facilitated the signing of the
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Name Affiliation Location
*Editor
**Layout, Design, and Printing
Nongovernmental Organizations
The World Wildlife Fund coordinated input and reviews from other
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Name Affiliation Location
Acknowledgements xxiii
Peer Review
In addition to internal agency reviews, an independent peer review panel coor-
dinated external reviews.
Name Affiliation Location
Acknowledgements xxv
Stream
Corridor
Introduction
There is a phenomenal resiliency
in the mechanisms of the earth.
Restoration: A river or lake is almost never
dead. If you give it the slightest
Principles, chance...then nature usually
comes back.
Processes, — Rene Dubos 1981
and Practices
Why Is Stream Corridor Restoration diversity, species densities, and rates of biologi-
Important? cal productivity than most other landscape
elements.
The United States has more than 3.5 million
miles of rivers and streams that, along with Streams and stream corridors evolve in concert
closely associated floodplain and upland areas, with and in response to surrounding ecosystems.
comprise corridors of great economic, social, Changes within a surrounding ecosystem (e.g.,
cultural, and environmental value. These corri- watershed) will impact the physical, chemical,
dors are complex ecosystems that include the and biological processes occurring within a
land, plants, animals, and network of streams stream corridor. Stream systems normally func-
within them. They perform a number of eco- tion within natural ranges of flow, sediment
logical functions such as modulating stream- movement, temperature, and other variables, in
flow, storing water, removing harmful materials what is termed “dynamic equilibrium.” When
from water, and providing habitat for aquatic changes in these variables go beyond their nat-
and terrestrial plants and animals. Stream corri- ural ranges, dynamic equilibrium may be lost,
dors also have vegetation and soil characteris- often resulting in adjustments in the ecosystem
tics distinctly different from surrounding that might conflict with societal needs. In some
uplands and support higher levels of species circumstances, a new dynamic equilibrium may
I–2 Introduction
Restoration, Rehabilitation, and Reclamation
I–4 Introduction
based on experiences and basic scien-
tific knowledge.
It is axiomatic that no restora- As a general goal, this document pro-
tion can ever be perfect; it is motes the use of ecological processes
impossible to replicate the bio- (physical, chemical, and biological) and
geochemical and climatological minimally intrusive solutions to restore
self-sustaining stream corridor func-
sequence of events over geolog-
ical time that led to the creation
and placement of even one par-
ticle of soil, much less to exactly
reproduce an entire ecosystem.
Therefore, all restorations are
exercises in approximation and
in the reconstruction of natural-
istic rather than natural assem-
blages of plants and animals
with their physical environ-
ments.
— Berger 1990
(a)
I–6 Introduction
The document has been divided into
three principal parts. Part I provides
background on the fundamental con-
cepts of stream corridor structure, Agencies Contributing to This
processes, functions, and the effects of Document
disturbance. Part II focuses on a gen-
eral restoration plan development ■ United States Department of Agriculture:
process comprised of several fundamen-
– Agricultural Research Service
tal steps. Part III examines the informa-
tion presented in Parts I and II to – Cooperative State Research, Education, and
consider how it can be applied in a Extension Service
restoration initiative. – Forest Service
Because of the size and complexity of – Natural Resources Conservation Service
the document, two features are used to
assist the reader to maintain a clear ori- ■ United States Department of Commerce:
entation within the document. These – National Oceanic and Atmospheric
features will allow the reader to more Administration
easily apply the information to specific
– National Marine Fisheries Service
aspects of a stream corridor restoration
initiative. These features are: ■ United States Department of Defense:
– Army Corps of Engineers
■ Chapter dividers that include major
chapter sections and reader preview ■ United States Department of Housing and Urban
and review questions for each chap-
ter. Table I.1 presents a summary of Development
these questions by chapter.
■ United States Department of the Interior:
■ Short chapter summaries included at – Bureau of Land Management
the beginning and end of each chap-
– Bureau of Reclamation
ter that explain where the readers have
been, where they are in the document, – Fish and Wildlife Service
and where they are going. – United States Geological Survey
A special emphasis has been placed on – National Park Service
document orientation due to the special ■ United States Environmental Protection Agency
mission that the document has to ful-
■ Federal Emergency Management Agency
fill. The document audience will in-
clude readers from many different ■ Tennessee Valley Authority
technical backgrounds and with various
levels of training. The orientation fea-
tures have been included to reinforce
the comprehensive and interdiscipli- suggested prior to more thorough read-
nary perspective of stream corridor ing. A reader seeking only a general un-
restoration. derstanding of the principles of stream
restoration may skip over some of the
How Is the Document Intended to
technical details in the body of the doc-
Be Used?
ument. Use of document sections,
Use of the document mostly depends chapters, and headings allows each
on the goals of the reader. To begin reader to readily identify whether fur-
with, a quick overview of the material is
Feedback
Readers are encouraged to share their restoration experi-
ences and provide feedback. They can do so by access-
ing the Stream Corridor Restoration home page on the
Internet address printed in the Preface. Other sources
of information may also be found by exploring the coop-
erating agencies’ home pages on the Internet.
I–8 Introduction
Table I.1
Chapter 1: Overview of Stream Corridors
1.A Physical Structure and Time at Multiple Scales
• What are the structural components of a stream corridor?
• Why are stream corridors of special significance, and why should they be
the focus of restoration efforts?
• What is the relationship between stream corridors and other landscape
units at broader and more local scales?
• What scales should be considered for a stream corridor restoration?
1.B A Lateral View Across the Stream Corridor
• How is a stream corridor structured from side to side?
• How do these elements contribute to stream corridor functions?
• What role do these elements play in the life of the stream?
• What do we need to know about the lateral elements of a stream corridor
to adequately characterize a stream corridor for restoration?
• How are the lateral elements of a stream corridor used to define flow pat-
terns of a stream?
1.C A Longitudinal View Along the Stream Corridor
• What are the longitudinal structural elements of a stream corridor?
• How are these elements used to characterize a stream corridor?
• What are some of the basic ecological concepts that can be applied to
streams to understand their function and characteristics on a longitudinal
scale?
• What do we need to know about the longitudinal elements that are
important to stream corridor restoration?
I–10 Introduction
Table I.1 (continued)
4.B Problem and Opportunity Identification
• Why is it important to spend resources on the problem (“When everyone
already knows what the problem is”)?
• How can the anthropogenic changes that caused the need for the restora-
tion initiative be altered or removed?
• How are data collection and analysis procedures organized?
• How are problems affecting the stream corridor identified?
• How are reference conditions for the stream corridor determined?
• Why are reference conditions needed?
• How are existing management activities influencing the stream corridor?
• How are problems affecting the stream corridor described?
I–12 Introduction
Table I.1 (continued)
Chapter 8: Restoration Design
8.A Valley Form, Connectivity, and Dimension
• How do you incorporate all the spatial dimensions of the landscape into
stream corridor restoration design?
• What criteria can be applied to facilitate good design decisions for stream
corridor restoration?
8.B Soil Properties
• How do soil properties impact the design of restoration activities?
• What are the major functions of soils in the stream corridor?
• How are important soil characteristics, such as soil microfauna and soil
salinity, accounted for in the design process?
8.C Plant Communities
• What is the role of vegetative communities in stream corridor restoration?
• What functions do vegetative communities fulfill in a stream corridor?
• What are some considerations in designing plant community restoration
to ensure that all landscape functions are addressed?
• What is soil bioengineering and what is its role in stream corridor restora-
tion?
8.D Habitat Measures
• What are some specific tools and techniques that can be used to ensure
recovery of riparian and terrestrial habitat recovery?
8.E Stream Channel Restoration
• When is stream channel reconstruction an appropriate restoration option?
• How do you delineate the stream reach to be reconstructed?
• How is a stream channel designed and reconstructed?
• What are important factors to consider in the design of channel recon-
struction (e.g., alignment and average slope, channel dimensions)?
• Are there computer models that can assist with the design of channel
reconstruction?
8.F Streambank Restoration
• When should streambank stabilization be included in a restoration?
• How do you determine the performance criteria for streambank treat-
ment, including the methods and materials to be used?
• What are some streambank stabilization techniques that can be consid-
ered for use?
8.G Instream Habitat Recovery
• What are the principal factors controlling the quality of instream habitat?
• How do you determine if an instream habitat structure is needed, and
what type of structure is most appropriate?
• What procedures can be used to restore instream habitat?
• What are some examples of instream habitat structures?
• What are some important questions to address before designing, select-
ing, or installing an instream habitat structure?
I–14 Introduction
Overview of Stream Co
!I 4 ; Stream Corridor Processes,
Characteristics, and Functions
Disturbance Affecting Stream
1.C
Multiple Scales
1.B A Lateral View Across the Stream
Corridor
A Longitudinal View Along the
Stream Corridor
stream corridor is an ecosystem that (Figure 1.1). Water and other materials,
usually consists of three major ele- energy, and organisms meet and interact
ments: within the stream corridor over space and
time. This movement provides critical func-
Stream channel
tions essential for maintaining life such as
Floodplain cycling nutrients, filtering contaminants
Transitional upland fringe from runoff, absorbing and gradually re-
leasing floodwaters, maintaining fish and
Together they function as dynamic and
wildlife habitats, recharging ground water,
valued crossroads in the landscape.
and maintaining stream flows.
The purpose of this chapter is to define
the components of the
stream corridor and intro-
duce the concepts of scale
and structure. The chapter is
divided into three subsections.
Landscape Scale
Patuxent River Watershed
mixed landscape
• suburban
• agricultural
Valley and Ridge • forest cover
Region Washington, DC
Damascus
Brighton
Montgomery Co.
Stream Scale
DC
Pa tu nt River
xe
rea
ch
tat e
S
P a rk
Reach Scale
N environment, through
the ecosystem, and
into an external out-
put environment.
At the other extreme, the coarsest of the Structure at Scales Broader Than
imaging satellites that monitor the earth’s the Stream Corridor Scale
surface might detect only patches or cor-
ridors of tens of square miles in area, The landscape scale encompasses the
and matrices that seem to dominate a stream corridor scale. In turn, the land-
whole region. At all levels, the matrix- scape scale is encompassed by the larger
patch-corridor-mosaic model provides a regional scale. Each scale within the hier-
useful common denominator for de- archy has its own characteristic structure.
Landscape
scribing structure in the environment. The “watershed scale” is another form of
ecologists use
Figure 1.5 displays examples of the ma- spatial scale that can also encompass the four basic
trices, patches, and corridors at broad stream corridor. Although watersheds terms to define
and local scales. Practitioners should occur at all scales, the term “watershed spatial struc-
always consider multiple scales when scale” is commonly used by many practi- ture at a par-
planning and designing restoration. tioners because many functions of the ticular scale—
stream corridor are closely tied to drain- matrix, patch,
age patterns. For this reason, the “water- corridor, and
shed scale” is included in this discussion. mosaic.
mosaic
matrix
patch
matrix
corridor
RIX
AT
M
N
BA
POOL
UR
CHESAPEAKE
BAY RIFFLE
WASHINGTON, DC
POOL
(a) (b)
Figure 1.5: Spatial structure at (a) broad and (b) local scales. Patches, corridors, and matrices are
visible at the broad regional scale and the local reach scale.
New
England
Region
n
ea
New
Oc
York
ti
c
Region an
A tl
spruce–fir
northern hardwood
agricultural
oak forest
pitch pine–oak
urban
suburban
salt marsh
rivers and lakes
barrens
industrial
The previous section described how the ■ Stream channel, a channel with flow-
matrix-patch-corridor-mosaic model ing water at least part of the year.
can be applied at multiple scales to ex- ■ Floodplain, a highly variable area on
amine the relationships between the one or both sides of the stream chan-
stream corridor and its external envi- nel that is inundated by floodwaters
ronments. This section takes a closer at some interval, from frequent to
look at physical structure in the stream rare.
corridor itself. In particular, this section
focuses on the lateral dimension. In ■ Transitional upland fringe, a portion of
cross section, most stream corridors the upland on one or both sides of
have three major components the floodplain that serves as a transi-
(Figure 1.10): tional zone or edge between the
floodplain and the surrounding land-
scape.
Some common features found in the
river corridor are displayed in Figure
1.11. In this example the floodplain is
seasonally inundated and includes fea-
STREAM
CHANNEL TRANSITIONAL tures such as floodplain forest, emer-
UPLAND FRINGE gent marshes and wet meadows. The
FLOODPLAIN transitional upland fringe includes an
upland forest and a hill prairie. Land-
forms such as natural levees, are created
by processes of erosion and sedimenta-
tion, primarily during floods. The vari-
ous plant communities possess unique
moisture tolerances and requirements
(a)
and consequently occupy distinct land-
forms.
Each of the three main lateral compo-
nents is described in the following
TRANSITIONAL subsections.
UPLAND FRINGE
Stream Channel
Nearly all channels are formed, maintained, and
altered by the water and sediment they
FLOODPLAIN carry. Usually they are gently rounded
in shape and roughly parabolic, but
STREAM
CHANNEL form can vary greatly.
Figure 1.12 presents a cross section of a
(b)
typical stream channel. The sloped
Figure 1.10: The three major components of a bank is called a scarp. The deepest part
stream corridor in different settings (a) and of the channel is called the thalweg. The
(b). Even though specific features might differ dimensions of a channel cross section
by region, most stream corridors have a chan-
define the amount of water that can
nel, floodplain, and transitional upland fringe.
mesic prairie
wet meadow
shallow marsh
shrub carr
floodplain forest
deep marsh
wet meadow
upland forest
prairie
hill
high
river
stage
low river
stage
floodplain natural main
bluff lake levee slough island channel backwater lake bluff
floodplain floodplain
corridor
Figure 1.11: A cross section of a river corridor. The three main components of the river corridor
can be subdivided by structural features and plant communities. (Vertical scale and channel width
are greatly exaggerated.)
Source: Sparks, Bioscience, vol. 45, p. 170, March 1995. ©1995 American Institute of Biological Science.
pass through without spilling over the tipped and equilibrium lost. If one variable changes, one or
banks. Two attributes of the channel are more of the other variables must increase or decrease
of particular interest to practitioners, proportionally if equilibrium is to be maintained.
channel equilibrium and streamflow. For example, if slope is increased and streamflow remains
the same, either the sediment load or the size of the particles
Lane's Alluvial Channel Equilibrium must also increase. Likewise, if flow is increased (e.g., by
Channel equilibirum involves the an interbasin transfer) and the slope stays the same, sediment
interplay of four basic factors: load or sediment particle size has to increase to maintain
channel equilibrium. A stream seeking a new equilibrium
■ Sediment discharge (Qs) tends to erode more sediment and of larger particle size.
■ Sediment particle size (D50) Alluvial streams that are free to adjust to changes in
■ Streamflow (Qw) these four variables generally do so and reestablish new
equilibrium conditions. Non-alluvial streams such as
■ Stream slope (S)
bedrock or artificial, concrete channels are unable to
Lane (1955) showed this relationship follow Lane's relationship because of their inability to
qualitatively as:
Qs • D50 ∝ Qw • S
stream channel
This equation is shown here as a
balance with sediment load on one
weighing pan and streamflow on the
other (Figure 1.13). The hook holding
the sediment pan can slide along the scarp
horizontal arm according to sediment
size. The hook holding the streamflow
side slides according to stream slope. thalweg
Channel equilibrium occurs when all
Figure 1.12: Cross section of a stream channel.
four variables are in balance. If a change
The scarp is the sloped bank and the thalweg is
occurs, the balance will temporarily be the lowest part of the channel.
de
gra ion
d a ti dat
on aggra
Qs • D50 Qw • S
Figure 1.13: Factors affecting channel equilibrium. At equilibrium, slope and flow balance the
size and quantity of sediment particles the stream moves.
Source: Rosgen (1996), from Lane, Proceedings, 1955. Published with the permission of American Society of
Civil Engineers.
to
show how the discharge changes with
rm
fl o
time (Figure 1.14). The portion of the w recession
limb
hydrograph that lies to the left of the
peak is called the rising limb, which baseflo
w
shows how long it takes the stream to
peak following a precipitation event.
The portion of the curve to the right of
0 1 2 3 4
the peak is called the recession limb.
time Time (days)
Channel and Ground Water of rise
Relationships
Figure 1.14: A storm hydrograph. A hydro-
Interactions between ground water and graph shows how long a stream takes to rise
the channel vary throughout the water- from baseflow to maximum discharge and then
shed. In general, the connection is return to baseflow conditions.
strongest in streams with gravel
riverbeds in well-developed alluvial
floodplains.
be
o ff
e
r
te
af
r Reynolds 1982).
Storm runoff moves more rapidly over smooth, hard pave-
Time (hours) ment than over natural vegetation. As a result, the rising
limbs of storm hydrographs become steeper and higher in
Figure 1.15: A comparison of hydrographs
before and after urbanization. The discharge
urbanizing areas (Figure 1.15). Recession limbs also decline
curve is higher and steeper for urban streams more steeply in urban streams.
than for natural streams.
water table
water table
Figure 1.16: Cross sections of (a) influent and (b) effluent stream reaches. Influent or “losing”
reaches lose stream water to the aquifer. Effluent or “gaining” reaches receive discharges from
the aquifer.
Bankfull discharge. This discharge occurs when water just begins to leave the channel and spread onto
the floodplain (Figure 1.19). Bankfull discharge is equivalent to channel-forming (conceptual) and
effective (calculated) discharge.
Figure 1.19: Bankfull discharge. This is the flow at which water
begins to leave the channel and move onto the floodplain.
topographic floodplain
hydrologic floodplain
(bankfull width)
bankfull
elevation
Figure 1.20: Hydrologic and topographic floodplains. The hydrologic floodplain is defined by
bankfull elevation. The topographic floodplain includes the hydrologic floodplain and other lands
up to a defined elevation.
oxbow
lake clay plug
chute
oxbow
backswamp splay
meander
scrolls
natural
levee
Figure 1.21: Landforms and deposits of a floodplain. Topographic features on the floodplain
caused by meandering streams.
Figure 1.22: Transitional upland fringe. This Figure 1.23: Terraces formed by an incising
component of the stream corridor is a transi- stream. Terraces are formed in response to
tion zone between the floodplain and the new patterns of streamflow or sediment load
surrounding landscape. in the watershed.
scar p
rp
a floodplain evolves within the
s ca
widened channel (cross section C).
Geomorphologists often classify land- bankfull channel
scapes by numbering surfaces from the
lowest surface up to the highest surface. B. Incised Stream (early widening phase)
Surface 1 in most landscapes is the bot-
tom of the main channel. The next floodplain
terrace terrace
highest surface, Surface 2, is the flood-
scarp
rp
plain. In the case of an incising stream,
s ca
Surface 3 usually is the most recently
formed terrace, Surface 4 the next older terrace terrace
scarp
scarp
terrace, and so on. The numbering sys-
tem thus reflects the ages of the sur-
faces. The higher the number, the older
the surface. incised, widening channel
p
scar
p
rp
sca
s ca
rp
terrestrial
shrubs
annual
terrestrial Most river-
grasses spawning fish
start to breed.
maximum biomass
of aquatic vegetation
consolidation of
runoff of sediments;
nutrients moist soil plant
resulting from germination Many fish
decomposition decomposition respond to
of stranded drawdown by
aquatic vegetation, finding deeper
mineralization of water.
nutrients
regrowth of
terrestrial
grasses and shrubs
runoff and
concentration Fish migrate to
of nutrients consolidation main channel,
resulting from of sediments decomposition of most permanent lakes
decomposition remaining vegetation or tributaries.
Figure 1.27: Three longitudinal profile zones. Channel and floodplain characteristics change as
rivers travel from headwaters to mouth.
Source: Miller (1990). ©1990 Wadsworth Publishing Co.
ium
lluv
a
d
re
sto
of
bed
me
ma
volu
ter
e
i al
arg
Increase
ch
gra
dis
tive
am
in
stre
si z
rela
tic
ris
e
te
ac
ar
sl o p
ch
channel width
e
channel depth
mean flow velocity
Figure 1.28: Changes in the channel in the three zones. Flow, channel size, and sediment
characteristics change throughout the longitudinal profile.
1 1 2
1
1 4
original single-thread stream breaks up Figure 1.31: (a) Single-thread and (b) braided
into multiple channels. Streams entering streams. Single-thread streams are most
common. Braided streams are uncommon and
deltas in a lake or bay are often anasto-
usually formed in response to erodible banks,
mosed. Streams on alluvial fans, in con- an abundance of coarse sediment, and rapid
trast, can be braided or anastomosed. and frequent variations in discharge.
predators
microbes
collectors
trout
4
Stream Size (order)
perch
periphyton coarse
6 particulate
fine matter
particulate
matter
7 fine
particulate
matter
8
microbes
phytoplankton collectors
predators
9
10 catfish
11 zooplankton
12
Figure 1.34: The River Continuum Concept. The concept proposes a relationship between
stream size and the progressive shift in structural and functional attributes.
Source: Vannote et al. (1980). Published with the permission of NRC Research Press.
hapter 1 provided an overview of stream corridor look and function the way
stream corridors and the many per- it does. While Chapter 1 presented still
spectives from which they should be images, this chapter provides “film
viewed in terms of scale, equilibrium, and footage” to describe the processes, char-
space. Each of these views can be seen as acteristics, and functions of stream corri-
a “snapshot” of different aspects of a dors through time.
stream corridor. Section 2.A: Hydrologic and Hydraulic
Chapter 2 presents the stream corridor in Processes
motion, providing a basic understanding Understanding how water flows into and
of the different processes that make the through stream corridors is critical to
restorations. How fast, how much, how
deep, how often, and when water
flows are important
basic questions that
must be answered to
The hydrologic cycle describes the contin- gions that experience seasonal cycles of
uum of the transfer of water from pre- snowfall and snowmelt.
cipitation to surface water and ground The type of precipitation that will occur
water, to storage and runoff, and to the is generally a factor of humidity and air
eventual return to the atmosphere by temperature. Topographic relief and ge-
transpiration and evaporation (Figure ographic location relative to large water
2.2). bodies also affect the frequency and
Precipitation returns water to the earth’s type of precipitation. Rainstorms occur
surface. Although most hydrologic more frequently along coastal and low-
processes are described in terms of rain- latitude areas with moderate tempera-
fall events (or storm events), snowmelt tures and low relief. Snowfalls occur
is also an important source of water, es- more frequently at high elevations and
pecially for rivers that originate in high in mid-latitude areas with colder sea-
mountain areas and for continental re- sonal temperatures.
cloud formation
rain clouds
evaporation
s
il
fro m o c e a n
am
n
n
f r om s o
t r a n s p i r a ti o
io
tre
tat
ms
ge
precipitation
ve
fro
m
fro
lake
storage
surfa
c e ru
n of
f
infiltration
soil
percolation ocean
rock
deep percolation
grou
nd w
ater
Figure 2.2: The hydrologic cycle. The transfer of water from precipitation to surface water and
ground water, to storage and runoff, and eventually back to the atmosphere is an ongoing cycle.
<20 inches
20–30 inches
30–40 inches
40–50 inches
50–60 inches
60–70 inches
70–80 inches
>80 inches
Figure 2.4: Mean annual lake evaporation for the period 1946–1955.
Source: Dunne and Leopold (1978) modified from Kohler et al. (1959).
gravitational
ing, the actual rate of evapotranspira-
tion is below its potential rate.
force
dry
■ When vegetation loses water to the grains
atmosphere at a rate unlimited by
the supply of water replenishing the
roots, its actual rate of evapotranspi-
ration is equal to its potential rate of
evapotranspiration. rain
The amount of precipitation in a region
drives both processes, however. Soil
types and rooting characteristics also
play important roles in determining the
actual rate of evapotranspiration. wetted
grains
Infiltration, Soil Moisture, and
Ground Water capillary
Precipitation that is not intercepted or
force
ff
runo ches/hr
0. 5 i n
infiltration infiltration
.75 inches/hr 1 inch/hr
Figure 2.6: Infiltration and runoff. Surface runoff occurs when rainfall intensity exceeds infiltration
capacity.
nant force for water moving into soils pacity, the excess water either is de-
with very fine pores. tained in small depressions on the soil
The size and density of these pore surface or travels downslope as surface
openings determine the water’s rate of runoff (Figure 2.6).
entry into the soil. Porosity is the term The following factors are important in
used to describe the percentage of the determining a soil’s infiltration rate:
total soil volume taken up by spaces be- ■ Ease of entry through the soil surface.
tween soil particles. When all those
spaces are filled with water, the soil is ■ Storage capacity within the soil.
said to be saturated. ■ Transmission rate through the soil.
Soil characteristics such as texture and Areas with natural vegetative cover and
tilth (looseness) are key factors in deter- leaf litter usually have high infiltration
mining porosity. Coarse-textured, sandy rates. These features protect the surface
soils and soils with loose aggregates soil pore spaces from being plugged by
held together by organic matter or small fine soil particles created by raindrop
amounts of clay have large pores and, splash. They also provide habitat for
thus, high porosity. Soils that are tightly worms and other burrowing organisms
packed or clayey have low porosity. and provide organic matter that helps
Infiltration is the term used to describe bind fine soil particles together. Both of
the movement of water into soil pores. these processes increase porosity and
The infiltration rate is the amount of the infiltration rate.
water that soaks into soil over a given The rate of infiltration is not constant
length of time. The maximum rate that throughout the duration of a storm.
water infiltrates a soil is known as the The rate is usually high at the begin-
soil’s infiltration capacity. ning of a storm but declines rapidly as
If rainfall intensity is less than infiltra- gravity-fed storage capacity is filled.
tion capacity, water infiltrates the soil at A slower, but stabilized, rate of infiltra-
a rate equal to the rate of rainfall. If the tion is reached typically 1 or 2 hours
rainfall rate exceeds the infiltration ca- into a storm. Several factors are in-
Proportion by Volume
field
■ Water filling fine pore spaces and capacity
unfilled
reducing storage capacity. pore space
0.30
■ Wetted clay particles swelling and
wilting
effectively reducing the diameter of point
pore spaces, which, in turn, reduces 0.20
transmission rates.
Soils gradually drain or dry following a 0.10
storm. However, if another storm occurs clay
before the drying process is completed, loam heavy
clay loam
there is less storage space for new water. 0 fine clay loam
sandy loam
Therefore, antecedent moisture condi- light clay loam
sandy loam
tions are important when analyzing silt loam
fine sand
available storage. sand
Soil Moisture
Figure 2.7: Water-holding properties of various
After a storm passes, water drains out of soils. Water-holding properties vary by texture.
upper soils due to gravity. The soil re- For a fine sandy loam the approximate differ-
mains moist, however, because some ence between porosity, 0.45, and field capacity,
0.20, is 0.25, meaning that the unfilled pore
amount of water remains tightly held in
space is 0.25 times the soil volume. The differ-
fine pores and around particles by sur- ence between field capacity and wilting point is
face tension. This condition, called field a measure of unfilled pore space.
capacity, varies with soil texture. Like Source: Dunne and Leopold 1978.
porosity, it is expressed as a proportion
by volume. pore water. The moisture content of the
The difference between porosity and soil at this point, which varies depend-
field capacity is a measure of unfilled ing on soil characteristics, is called the
pore space (Figure 2.7). Field capacity permanent wilting point because plants
is an approximate number, however, be- can no longer withdraw water from the
cause gravitation drainage continues in soil at a rate high enough to keep up
moist soil at a slow rate. with the demands of transpiration, caus-
ing the plants to wilt.
Soil moisture is most important in the
context of evapotranspiration. Terrestrial Deep percolation is the amount of water
plants depend on water stored in soil. that passes below the root zone of
As their roots extract water from pro- crops, less any upward movement of
gressively finer pores, the moisture con- water from below the root zone (Jensen
tent in the soil may fall below the field et al. 1990).
capacity. If soil moisture is not replen- Ground Water
ished, the roots eventually reach a point
where they cannot create enough suc- The size and quantity of pore openings
tion to extract the tightly held interstitial also determines the movement of water
within the soil profile. Gravity causes
ground water
(phreatic water)
bedrock
face detention. Unlike depression stor- tion, the water table before a rainstorm
age, which evaporates to the atmos- has a parabolic surface that slopes to-
phere or enters the soil, surface ward a stream. Water moves downward
detention is only temporarily detained and along this slope and into the
from its journey downslope. It eventu- stream channel. This portion of the
ally runs off into the stream and is still flow is the baseflow. The soil below the
considered part of the total volume of water table is, of course, saturated. As-
overland flow. suming the hill slope has uniform soil
Overland flow typically occurs in urban characteristics, the moisture content of
and suburban settings with paved and surface soils diminishes with distance
impermeable surfaces. Paved areas and from the stream.
soils that have been exposed and com- During a storm, the soil nearest the
pacted by heavy equipment or vehicles stream has two important attributes as
are also prime settings for overland compared to soil upslope—a higher
flow. It is also common in areas of thin moisture content and a shorter distance
soils with sparse vegetative cover such to the water table. These attributes cause
as in mountainous terrain of arid or the water table to rise more rapidly in
semiarid regions. response to rainwater infiltration and
causes the water table to steepen. Thus a
Subsurface Flow
new, storm-generated ground water
Once in the soil, water moves in re- component is added to baseflow. This
sponse to differences in hydraulic head new component, called subsurface flow,
(the potential for flow due to the gradi- mixes with baseflow and increases
ent of hydrostatic pressure at different ground water discharge to the channel.
elevations). Given a simplified situa-
rl
ay
er
precipitation
Figure 2.10: Flow
Ho
paths of water over
rt
n
o
ov a surface. The por-
er
la n tion of precipitation
ha df saturated
s
ll o lo w overland that runs off or
w flow
gro u n d w a
su infiltrates to the
bsu
rfac ground water table
e flow
depends on the soil’s
permeability rate;
water te surface roughness;
r f
table lo w
and the amount,
duration, and intensi-
ty of precipitation.
15000
%
90
Mean Monthly Discharge (cfs)
10000
%
75
5000 50%
25%
10%
0
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. April May June July Aug. Sept.
Month
Figure 2.12: An example of monthly probability curves. Monthly probability that the mean
monthly discharge will be less than the values indicated. Yakima River near Parker, Washington.
(Data from U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.)
Source: Dunne and Leopold 1978.
Sediment Transport
Sediment particles found in the stream
channel and floodplain can be catego-
rized according to size. A boulder is the
largest particle and clay is the smallest
particle. Particle density depends on the
size and composition of the particle Figure 2.13: Raindrop impact. One of many
(i.e., the specific gravity of the mineral types of erosion.
content of the particle).
stream.
Table 2.3: Erosion types vs. physical processes.
Particle movement on the channel bot-
tom begins as a sliding or rolling mo- Erosion/Physical Process
tion, which transports particles along Erosion Type Sheet Concentrated Mass Combination
the streambed in the direction of flow Flow Wasting
Direction of
shear due to Tendency of Suggested motion of a
decrease of velocity to roll grain thrown up into
velocity an exposed Diagram of turbulent eddies in the
toward bed. grain. saltating grains. flow.
Figure 2.14: Action of water on particles near the streambed. Processes that transport bed load
sediments are a function of flow velocities, particle size, and principles of hydrodynamics.
Source: Water in Environmental Planning by Dunne and Leopold © 1978 by W.H. Freeman and Company.
Used with permission.
typical
flow rate
average
particle size
on stream
bottom
Figure 2.15: Particle transport. A stream’s total sediment load is the total of all sediment particles
moving past a defined cross section over a specified time period. Transport rates vary according to
the mechanism of transport.
occurs in a watershed and the increased is, the distribution of particle sizes in
load of sand exceeds the transport ca- each section of the stream remains in
pacity of the stream during events that equilibrium (i.e., new particles de-
move the sand into the channel. posited are the same size and shape as
particles displaced by tractive stress).
Stream and Floodplain Stability
Yang (1971) adapted the basic theories
A question that normally arises when described by Leopold to explain the
considering any stream restoration ac- longitudinal profile of rivers, the forma-
tion is “Is it stable now and will it be tion of stream networks, riffles, and
stable after changes are made?” The an- pools, and river meandering. All these
swer may be likened to asking an opin- river characteristics and sediment trans-
ion on a movie based on only a few port are closely related. Yang (1971) de-
frames from the reel. Although we often veloped the theory of average stream
view streams based on a limited refer- fall and the theory of least rate of en-
ence with respect to time, it is impor- ergy expenditure, based on the entropy
tant that we consider the long-term concept. These theories state that during
changes and trends in channel cross the evolution toward an equilibrium
section, longitudinal profile, and plan- condition, a natural stream chooses its
form morphology to characterize chan- course of flow in such a manner that
nel stability. the rate of potential energy expenditure
Achieving channel stability requires that per unit mass of flow along its course is
the average tractive stress maintains a a minimum.
stable streambed and streambanks. That
librium.
crease vegetative potential along the
stream corridor (e.g., low flow periods Qw ∼ _______
b, d, L
S
allow vegetation incursion into the
channel). Schumm (1977) also suggested that
Similar levels of adjustment also may width (b), meander wavelength (L),
be brought about by changes in land and channel gradient (S) are directly
use in the stream corridor and the up- proportional, and that depth (d) and
land watershed. Similarly, long-term sinuosity (P) are inversely proportional
changes in runoff or sediment yield to sediment discharge (Qs) in alluvial
from natural causes, such as climate streams:
change, wildfire, etc., or human causes,
such as cultivation, overgrazing, or Qs ∼ ______
b, L, S
rural-to-urban conversions, may lead to d, P
long-term adjustments in channel cross
section and planform that are fre- The above two equations may be rewrit-
quently described as channel evolution. ten to predict direction of change in
channel characteristics, given an in-
Stream channel response to changes in
crease or decrease in streamflow or sedi-
flow and sediment load have been de-
ment discharge:
scribed qualitatively in a number of
studies (e.g., Lane 1955, Schumm Qw+ ∼ b+, d+, L+, S–
1977). As discussed in Chapter 1, one
of the earliest relationships proposed Qw– ∼ b–, d–, L–, S+
for explaining stream behavior was sug-
gested by Lane (1955), who related Qs+ ∼ b+, d–, L+, S+, P–
mean annual streamflow (Q ) and
w
channel slope (S) to bed-material sedi- Qs– ∼ b–, d+, L–, S–, P+
1 Section C
2
0 1
helica
lf low
1
Depth (feet)
2
Section E
3
h e l i c a l fl o w
0
2 1
1 helica
lf low 2
2
Section G
3 3
4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 lo w 5
al f
h e li c
Horizontal Distance (feet)
3
helica
l flow
high low
velocity velocity
The quality of water in the stream corri- a few key concepts that are relevant to
dor might be a primary objective of stream corridor restoration. The reader
restoration, either to improve it to a de- is referred to other sources (e.g.,
sired condition or to sustain it. Estab- Thomann and Mueller 1987, Mills et al.
lishing an appropriate flow regime and 1985) for a more detailed treatment.
geomorphology in a stream corridor As in the previous sections, the physical
may do little to ensure a healthy ecosys- and chemical characteristics of streams
tem if the physical and chemical charac- are examined in both the lateral and
teristics of the water are inappropriate. longitudinal perspectives. The lateral
For example, a stream containing high perspective refers to the influence of the
concentrations of toxic materials or in watershed on water quality, with partic-
which high temperatures, low dissolved ular attention to riparian areas. The lon-
oxygen, or other physical/chemical gitudinal perspective refers to processes
characteristics are inappropriate cannot that affect water quality during trans-
support a healthy stream corridor. Con- port instream.
versely, poor condition of the stream
corridor—such as lack of riparian shad- Physical Characteristics
ing, poor controls on erosion, or exces-
sive sources of nutrients and oxygen- Sediment
demanding waste—can result in degra-
Section 2.B discussed total sediment
dation of the physical and chemical
loads in the context of the evolution of
conditions within the stream.
stream form and geomorphology. In ad-
This section briefly surveys some of the dition to its role in shaping stream
key physical and chemical characteristics form, suspended sediment plays an im-
of flowing waters. Stream water quality portant role in water quality, both in
is a broad topic on which many books the water column and at the sediment-
have been written. The focus here is on water interface. In a water quality con-
settling
+ oxygen
the atmosphere. When oxygen is below NH4
reaeration
the saturation concentration, it tends to
diffuse from the atmosphere to water.
ni
The saturation concentration of oxygen NO2- tr
ifi oxygen demand
ca
decreases with temperature according to tio
n
a complex power function equation -
NO3
(APHA 1995). In addition to tempera-
ture, the saturation concentration is af-
fected by water salinity and the
y ge n
atmospheric pressure. As the salinity of o lv e d o x
d is s
water increases, the saturation concen-
tration decreases. As the atmospheric
pressure increases the saturation con-
photosynthesis
respiration
nitrogen
t su
dissolved export to
import from organic downstream NH3
rf a
NH3
interstitial
water NO3
assimilation oxygen
concent-
nitrogen ration
fixation NO3
nitrification
N2 biota
assimilation cyanobacteria NO2
NH3 and microbial
populations decomposition
NH3
NO3 benthic algae
excretion
assimilation
denitrification
N2
nitrogen particulate
fixation organic matter
NO2 and associated decomposition NH3
microbes accum-
ulation
excretion
NH3
Figure 2.21: Dynamics and transformations of nitrogen in a stream ecosystem. Nutrient cycling
from one form to another occurs with changes in nutrient inputs, as well as temperature and
oxygen available.
Table 2.6: Sources and concentrations of pollutants from common point and nonpoint sources.
Figure 2.22: Relative aqueous solubility of different functional groups. The solubility of a
contaminant in water largely determines the extent to which it will impact water quality.
C-O-C
ether
O
=
ester C-O-R
O
=
carbonyl -C-
O
=
carboxyl -C-OH
-OH
hydroxyl
-NH2
amine
O
=
carboxylate -C-O
4,4' - PCB
dichlofenthion
chlorpyrifos
105
ronnel
dialifor methyl chlorpyrifos
phosatone diphenyl ether
104 parathion
dicapthon naphthalene
p-dichlorobenzene
fenitrothion
iodobenzene
103 malathion
bromobenzene
chlorobenzene
phosmel 2,4-D toluene
carbon tetrachloride
tetrachloroethylene salicylic acid
benzene
102 flourobenzene chloroform
nitrobenzene benzoic acid
phenylacetic acid
phenoxyzcetic acid
0
10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106
Solubility in Water (µmoles/L)
Figure 2.24: Relationship between octanol/H O partition coefficient and aqueous solubility. 2
5 1800 600
slope = Koc
Log BCF in Trout Muscle
3 biphenyl
ne
900 300
re
P- dichloro-
py
benzene diphenylether
2
tetrachloroethylene 600 200
e
carbontetrachloride
ren
1 300 nth 100
2 3 4 5 6 7 ena
ph
Log Poct
0
0.0 .005 .010 .015 .020 .025
Figure 2.25: Relationship between octanol/
Fraction Organic Carbon
water partition (Poct ) coefficient and bioaccu-
mulation factor (BCF) in trout muscle. Water
Figure 2.26: Relationship between pyrene,
quality can be inferred by the accumulation
phenanthrene, and fraction organic carbon.
of contaminants in fish tissue.
Contaminant concentrations in sediment vs.
water (Kd) are related to the amount of organ-
ic carbon available.
Table 2.8: Regression equations for sediment adsorption coefficients (Koc ) for various
contaminants.
reduction
reduction
O O
addition, many older industrial areas
OtE O OEt OtE P OEt
have soil concentrations of certain met- S NO2 O
O S p- nitorphenol
als that are elevated due to past indus- OtE P OEt OtE P OEt
trial practices. Movement of metals from
reduction
O O
soil to watershed is largely a function of
the erosion and delivery of sediment. NO2 NO2
hy
dro
In certain watersheds, a major source of + lys
is OH
NH2 NH2
metals loading is provided by acid mine O
hydrolysis
hydrolysis
drainage. High acidity increases the sol- OtE P OEt
ubility of many metals, and mines tend O
NH2
to be in mineral-rich areas. Abandoned S p- aminophenol O
mines are therefore a continuing source OtE P OEt OtE P OEt
of toxic metals loading in many streams. OH
hydrolysis
s OH
NO2 ysi
O drol
Toxic Concentrations of Bioavailable hy
inorganic
OtE P OH
Metals Along the Stream Corridor phosphate
OH
Most metals have a tendency to leave
the dissolved phase and attach to sus-
Figure 2.29: Metabolic reactions for a single
pended particulate matter or form in-
parent pesticide. Particles break down through
soluble precipitates. Conditions that processes of hydrolysis, oxidation, reduction,
partition metals into particulate forms and photolysis.
(presence of suspended sediments, dis-
solved and particulate organic carbon,
carbonates, bicarbonates, and other tral pH’s than in acidic or highly alka-
ions that complex metals) reduce po- line waters.
tential bioavailability of metals. Also, Ecological Functions of Soils
calcium reduces metal uptake, appar-
ently by competing with metals for ac- Soil is a living and dynamic resource
tive uptake sites on gill membranes. pH that supports life. It consists of inor-
is also an important water quality factor ganic mineral particles of differing sizes
in metal bioavailability. In general, (clay, silt, and sand), organic matter in
metal solubilities are lower at near neu- various stages of decomposition, nu-
merous species of living organisms,
Table 2.9: Potential water quality impacts of selected stream restoration and watershed management practices.
cany
on e
ffec
t —d
ow
nh
ill d
alder-walnut r ai
na
ge
of
co
ol
,m
oi
st
ai
sycamore-ash r
pla
n
ta
nd
a n im
al dispersa
cottonwood- l
willow
nel
chan
plain
flood
dor
m corri
strea
Figure 2.30: Canyon effect. Cool moist air settles in canyons and creates microhabitat that occurs
on surrounding slopes.
sand-silt
over cobbles
transverse bar
over cobbles
moss on
boulder
fine gravel
debris dam patch
Stream Segment Segment System Reach System “Pool/Riffle” System Microhabitat System
Figure 2.32: Hierarchical organization of a stream system and its habitat subsystems.
Approximate linear spatial scale, appropriate to second- or third-order mountain stream.
microorganisms epilithic
(e.g., hyphomycete algae
fungi)
dissolved
organic
matter microorganisms
flocculation
fine
particulate
organic
invertebrate matter invertebrate
shredders scrapers
invertebrate
collectors
vertebrate invertebrate
Figure 2.33: Stream predators predators
biota. Food relation-
ships typically found
n streams.
Bourassa and Morin 1995). Further- effect on the abundance and taxonomic
more, the larger species often play im- composition of algae and periphyton in
portant roles in determining community streams. Likewise, macroinvertebrate
composition of other components of predators, such as stoneflies, can influ-
the ecosystem. For example, herbivo- ence the abundance of other species
rous feeding activities of caddisfly lar- within the invertebrate community
vae (Lamberti and Resh 1983), snails (Peckarsky 1985).
(Steinman et al. 1987), and crayfish Collectively, microorganisms (fungi
(Lodge 1991) can have a significant and bacteria) and benthic invertebrates
Table 2.12: Ranges of densities commonly
facilitate the breakdown of organic ma-
observed for selected groups of stream biota. terial, such as leaf litter, that enters the
stream from external sources. Some
Biotic Density invertebrates (insect larvae and am-
Component (Individuals/Square Mile)
phipods) act as shredders whose feed-
Algae 109 – 1010
ing activities break down larger organic
Bacteria 1012 – 1013
leaf litter to smaller particles. Other in-
Protists 108 – 109
vertebrates filter smaller organic mater-
Microinvertebrates 103 – 105 ial from the water (blackfly larvae,
Macroinvertebrates 104 – 105 some mayfly nymphs, and some caddis-
Vertebrates 100 – 102 fly larvae), scrape material off surfaces
Species Max. Weekly Max. Temp. for Max. Weekly Max. Temp.
Average Temp. for Survival of Short Average Temp. for Embryo
Growth (Juveniles) Exposure (Juveniles) for Spawninga Spawningb
Atlantic salmon 68ºF 73ºF 41ºF 52ºF
Bluegill 90ºF 95ºF 77ºF 93ºF
Brook trout 66ºF 75ºF 48ºF 55ºF
Common carp 70ºF 91ºF
Channel catfish 90ºF 95ºF 81ºF 84ºFc
Largemouth bass 90ºF 93ºF 70ºF 81ºFc
Rainbow trout 66ºF 75ºF 48ºF 55ºF
Smallmouth bass 84ºF 63ºF 73ºFc
Sockeye salmon 64ºF 72ºF 50ºF 55ºF
a Optimum or mean of the range of spawning temperatures reported for the species.
b Upper temperature for successful incubation and hatching reported for the species.
c Upper temperature for spawning.
cover or decrease baseflows can increase order meadow stream than in a compa-
instream temperatures to levels that ex- rable wooded reach from April through
ceed critical thermal maxima for fishes October, the reverse was true from No-
(Feminella and Matthews 1984). Thus, vember through March. In a review of
maintenance or restoration of normal temperature effects on stream macroin-
temperature regimes can be an impor- vertebrates common to the Pennsylva-
tant endpoint for stream managers. nia Piedmont, Sweeney (1992) found
Riparian vegetation is an important fac- that temperature changes of 2 to 6 ºC
tor in the attenuation of light and tem- usually altered key life-history charac-
perature in streams (Cole 1994). Direct teristics of the study species. Riparian
sunlight can significantly warm streams, forest buffers have been shown to pre-
particularly during summer periods of vent the disruption of natural tempera-
low flow. Under such conditions, ture patterns as well as to mitigate the
streams flowing through forests warm increases in temperature following de-
rapidly as they enter deforested areas, forestation (Brown and Krygier 1970,
but may also cool somewhat when Brazier and Brown 1973).
streams reenter the forest. In Pennsylva- The exact buffer width needed for tem-
nia (Lynch et al. 1980), average daily perature control will vary from site to
stream temperatures that increased site depending on such factors as
12ºC through a clearcut area were sub- stream orientation, vegetation, and
stantially moderated after flow through width. Along a smaller, narrow headwa-
1,640 feet of forest below the clearcut. ter stream, the reestablishment of
They attributed the temperature reduc- shrubs, e.g., willows and alders, may
tion primarily to inflows of cooler provide adequate shade and detritus to
ground water. restore both the riparian and aquatic
A lack of cover also affects stream tem- ecosystems. The planting and/or
perature during the winter. Sweeney reestablishment of large trees, e.g., cot-
(1993) found that, while average daily tonwoods, willows, sycamores, ash, and
temperatures were higher in a second- walnuts (Lowe 1964), along larger,
higher order rivers can improve the seg-
Table 2.14: Summary of dissolved oxygen concentrations (mg/L) generally associated with effects
on fish in salmonid and nonsalmonid waters.
Source: USEPA 1987.
Figure 2.34: Effects of acid rain on some aquatic species. As acidity increases (and pH decreases) in
lakes and streams, some species are lost.
Rainbow trout
(Oncorhyncus mykiss) *embryonic life stage
**selected species
Brown trout
(Salmo trutta)
Brook trout
(Salvelinus fontinalus)
Smallmouth bass
(Micropterus dolomieu)
Flathead minnow
(Pimephalus promelas)
Pumpkinseed sunfish
(Lepomis gibbosus)
Yellow perch
(Perca flavescens)
Bullfrog*
(Rana catesbeiana)
Wood frog*
(R. sylvatica)
American toad*
(Bufo americanus)
Spotted salamander*
(Ambystoma maculatum)
Clam**
Crayfish**
Snail**
Mayfly**
A B
Figure 2.38: Landscapes with (A) high and (B) low degrees of connectivity. A connected landscape
structure generally has higher levels of functions than a fragmented landscape.
Figure 2.40: The width of the vegetation buffer influences filter and barrier functions.
Dissolved substances, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients, entering a vegetated
stream corridor are restricted from entering the channel by friction, root absorption, clay, and
soil organic matter.
Adapted from Ecology of Greenways: Design and Function of Linear Conservation Areas.
Edited by Smith and Hellmund. © University of Minnesota Press 1993.
gullying, and the free flow of sediments the conditions of the corridor may ger-
and nutrients into the stream. minate and establish a population. The
Edges at the boundaries of stream corri- lobes have acted as a selective filter col-
dors begin the process of filtering. lecting some seeds at the edge and al-
Abrupt edges concentrate initial filter- lowing other species to interact at the
ing functions into a narrow area. A boundary (Forman 1995).
gradual edge increases filtering and
spreads it across a wider ecological
gradient (Figure 2.41).
Movement parallel to the corridor is
affected by coves and lobes of an un-
even corridor’s edge. These act as barri-
ers or filters for materials flowing into
the corridor. Individual plants may
selectively capture materials such as
(a) (b)
wind-borne sediment, carbon, or pro-
pagules as they pass through a convo- Figure 2.41: Edges can be (a) abrupt or
luted edge. Herbivores traveling along (b) gradual. Abrupt edges, usually caused
by disturbances, tend to discourage movement
a boundary edge, for example, may stop
between ecosystems and promote movement
to rest and selectively feed in a shel- along the boundary. Gradual edges usually
tered nook. The wind blows a few seeds occur in natural settings, are more diverse,
into the corridor, and those suited to and encourage movement between ecosystems.
Figure 3.4: Eastern upland forest system. The beech/maple-dominated system is resistent to many natural forms of
stress due to high biomass; deep, established root systems; and other adaptations.
Common Disturbances
Dams, channelization, and the intro-
duction of exotic species represent
forms of disturbance found in many
if not all of the land uses discussed
later in this chapter. Therefore, they
are presented as separate discussions
in advance of more specific land use
activities that potentially introduce
disturbance. Many societal benefits are
derived from these land use changes.
This document, however, focuses on Figure 3.7: An impoundment dam. Dams range
their potential for disturbance and sub- widely in size and purpose, and in their effects
sequent restoration of stream corridors. on stream corridors.
Dams
communities, and habitat or can aug-
Ranging from small temporary struc- ment flows, which also results in alter-
tures constructed of stream sediment to ations to the stream corridor.
huge multipurpose structures, dams
Dams affect resident and migratory
can have profound and varying impacts
organisms in stream channels. The
on stream corridors (Figure 3.7). The
disruption of flow blocks or slows the
extent and impact largely depend on
passage and migration of aquatic or-
the purposes of the dam and its size in
ganisms, which in turn affects food
relation to stream flow.
chains associated with stream corridor
Changes in discharges from dams can functions (Figure 3.8). Without high
cause downstream effects. Hydropower flows, silt is not washed from the gravel
dam discharges may vary widely on a beds on which many aquatic species
hourly and daily basis in response to rely for spawning. Upstream fish move-
peaking power needs and affect the ment may be blocked by relatively
downstream morphology. The rate of small structures. Downstream move-
change in the discharge can be a signif- ment may be slowed or stopped by the
icant factor increasing streambank ero- dam or its reservoir. As a stream current
sion and subsequent loss of riparian dissipates in a reservoir, smolts of
habitat. Dams release water that differs anadromous fish may lose a sense of
from that received. Flowing streams can downstream direction or might be sub-
slow and change into slack water pools, ject to more predation, altered water
sometimes becoming lacustrine envi- chemistry, and other effects.
ronments. A water supply dam can de-
Dams also affect species by altering
crease instream flows, which alters the
water quality. Relatively constant flows
stream corridor morphology, plant
can create constant temperatures,
nd
nd e
the distinct advantage of an herbicide/burn con-
bou
trol program. Costs can be low if resprouting is
Rio Gra
I-85
uge
minor and burning removes much of the aerial
refuge
ref
vegetation. Because an herbicide/burn program is headquarters
potentially cost-effective, this technique is again
being experimented with at the refuge. Costs are unit 28
being further reduced by combining the original unit 29
herbicide with a less expensive herbicide. A delay
of 2 years prior to broadcast burning is expected unit 30
to dramatically reduce resprouting, allowing time
for the herbicide to effectively move throughout
y
dar
the entire plant. Disadvantages of herbicide appli- Bosque del Apache
ref
un
National Wildlife
cation include restrictions regarding application
ug
bo
Refuge,
e
near water bodies and impacts on native vegeta- New Mexico
tion remnants within salt cedar monocultures.
Advantages of mechanical control include proven
effectiveness and more thorough site preparation spot herbicide applications are made using a 1
for revegetation. Disadvantages include signifi- percent solution from a small sprayer. To date,
cant site disturbance, equipment approximately 1,000 acres of salt cedar have
breakdowns/delays, and lower effectiveness in been controlled, with over 500 acres effectively
tighter clay soils. Both methods require skill in restored to native riparian vegetative communi-
equipment operation, whether applying herbicide ties. A combination of techniques in the control
aerially or operating heavy equipment. of salt cedar has proven effective and will contin-
Other salt cedar infestations on the refuge are ue to be used in the future.
relatively minor, consisting of small groups of
plants or scattered individual plants. Nonetheless, Table 3.1: Salt cedar control techniques at Bosque del Apache.
these patches are aggressively controlled to pre-
vent spread. Heavy equipment requires working
Unit Herbicide Broadcast Root Root Pile %
space and is generally restricted to sites of 1 acre Burn Plow Rake Burn Control
and larger. For these smaller areas, front end 28 x x x 88%
loaders have been filled with “stinger bars,”
29 x x x x x 90%
which remove individual plant root crowns much
30 x x x 99%
like a root plow. For areas of less than 1 acre,
Urbanization
Urbanization in watersheds poses spe-
cial challenges to the stream restoration
practitioner. Recent research has shown
that streams in urban watersheds have
a character fundamentally different
from that of streams in forested, rural,
or even agricultural watersheds. The
amount of impervious cover in the wa-
tershed can be used as an indicator to
predict how severe these differences
can be. In many regions of the country,
as little as 10 percent watershed imper-
vious cover has been linked to stream
degradation, with the degradation be-
Figure 3.19: Trail sign. Recreational hiking can
cause soil compaction and increased surface coming more severe as impervious
runoff. cover increases (Schueler 1995).
Impervious cover directly influences
3.20). Propeller wash and water dis- urban streams by dramatically increas-
placement can disrupt and resuspend ing surface runoff during storm events
bottom sediments, increase bank ero- (Figure 3.21). Depending on the de-
sion, and disorient or injure sensitive gree of watershed impervious cover, the
aquatic species. In addition, waste dis-
charges or accidental spills from boats
or loading facilities can contribute pol-
lutants to the system (NRC 1992).
Both concentrated and dispersed recre-
ational use of stream corridors can
cause disturbance and ecological
change. Camping, hunting, fishing,
boating, and other forms of recreation
can cause serious disturbances to bird
colonies. Ecological damage primarily
results from the need for access for the
recreational user. A pool in the stream
might be the attraction for a swimmer
or fisherman, whereas a low stream-
bank might provide an access point for
boaters. In either case, a trail often de-
velops along the shortest or easiest
route to the point of access on the
stream. Additional impact may be a
function of the mode of access to the Figure 3.20: Recreational boating. Propeller
stream: motorcycles and horses cause wash and accidental spills can degrade stream
conditions.
10% 20%
runoff runoff
30% 55%
runoff runoff
Figure 3.21: Relationship between impervious cover and surface runoff. Impervious
cover in a watershed results in increased surface runoff. As little as 10 percent impervi-
ous cover in a watershed can result in stream degradation.
Piped Discharge/Cont.Outlets
Dredging for Mineral Extract.
Soil Exposure or Compaction
Reduction of Floodplain
Irrigation and Drainage
Streambed Disturbance
Withdrawal of Water
Utility Crossings
Channelization
Hard Surfacing
Contaminants
Exotic Species
Land Grading
Overgrazing
Bridges
Levees
Dams
Trails
Potential Effects
Homogenization of landscape elements
Activity has potential for direct impact. Activity has potential for indirect impact.
Piped Discharge/Cont.Outlets
Soil Exposure or Compaction
Reduction of Floodplain
Irrigation and Drainage
Streambed Disturbance
Withdrawal of Water
Utility Crossings
Channelization
Hard Surfacing
Contaminants
Exotic Species
Land Grading
Overgrazing
Bridges
Levees
Dams
Trails
Potential Effects
Activity has potential for direct impact. Activity has potential for indirect impact.
e A
well conceived and developed stream
corridor restoration plan is critical to eral key functions.
any restoration effort. The restoration plan
w Problem Solving Framework-The
establishes a framework for documenting restoration plan establishes a frame-
the processes, forms, and functions oper- work for addressing critical stream cor-
ating within the corridor; identifying dis- ridor restoration issues, problems, and
turbances that disrupt or eliminate those needs. As such, it prevents disjointed
functions, and planning and implement- decision-making and facilitates the
ing restoration activities. The restoration organization of restoration activities.
plan essentially serves as the cornerstone
H Documenting the Results of the
Process-The restoration plan serves
as a record of all sub-
--1 sequent activities by
outlining the restora-
the transfer of "lessons learned"
to other groups undertaking
restoration efforts and helps .
legitimize the restoration process.
Communication and
Outreach-The restoration plan
serves to communicate the ele-
ments of the corridor restoration
process to the public and other
interested parties. It also serves
an important symbolic function
in that it represents the common
vision of multiple partners.
The overall objective of the restora- The Stream Corridor Restoration Plan
Development Process
tion plan will differ depending on
local needs and objectives. Each
corridor restoration initiative has complexity and extent of the mea-
unique ecological, social, and eco- sures needed to achieve the
nomic conditions that dictate activi- planned restoration goals.
ties to meet specific needs and In recognition of the diversity of
changing circumstances. Despite restoration plan objectives, Part /I of
these differences, the restoration the document focuses on identifying
plan should emphasize the ecologi- and explaining a general restoration
cal integrity of the stream corridor. plan development process that each
initiative should follow This process
A Note About Scope
is characterized as a decision-
The restoration Although the concepts presented in making process composed of several
plan should these chapters are appropriate for
emphasize the steps (see illustration). These funda-
maintenance all restoration initiatives, the organi- mental steps include: getting orga-
and restoration zational structure can be simplified nized; identifying problems and
of the ecological for smaller restorations.
integrity and opportunities; developing goals and
the dynamic Not all restorations are complex or objectives; selecting and designing
stability of the restoration alternatives; and imple-
costly. Some may be as simple as a
stream corridor
slight change in the way that re- men tation, monitoring, evaluation,
-
by focusing on
multiple scales, sources are managed in and along and adaptation.
functions, and the stream corridor involving only
values. Each of these steps can be inte-
minor costs. Other restoration ini- grated into any program- or
tiatives, however, may require sub- agency-specific restoration planning
stantial funds because of 'the process. In addition, these steps
This section presents the key compo- of drinking water is usually more of a
nents of organizing and initiating the basin-specific or local-scale issue.
development of a stream corridor In setting boundaries, two other factors FAST
FORWARD
restoration plan and establishing a are equally as important. One is the na-
planning and management framework ture of human-induced disturbance, in-
to facilitate communication among all cluding the magnitude of its impact on
involved and interested parties. Ensur- stream corridors. The other factor is the
ing the involvement of all partners and social organization of people, including
beginning to secure their commitment where opportunities for action are dis- REVERSE
to the project is a central aspect of tributed across the landscape.
“getting organized” and undertaking a
restoration initiative. (See Chapter 6 for The challenge of establishing useful
detailed information on securing com- boundaries is met by conceptually su-
mitments.) It is often helpful to identify perimposing the three selection factors. Review Chap-
a common motivation for taking action One effective way of starting this ter 1. Preview
and also to develop a rough outline of process is through the identification, by Chapter 5’s
restoration goals. In addition, defining public forum or other free and open Identifying
the scale of the corridor restoration ini- means, of a stream reach or aquatic re- Scale Consider-
tiative is important. Often the issues to source area that is particularly valued by ations.
be addressed require that restoration be the community. The scoping process
considered on a watershed or whole- would continue by having resource
reach basis, rather than by an individ- managers or landowners define the geo-
ual jurisdiction or one or two graphical area that contributes to both
landholders. the function and condition of the val-
ued site or sites. Those boundaries
Setting Boundaries
Geographical boundaries provide a spa-
tial context for technical assessment
and a sense of place for organizing
community-based involvement. An es-
tablished set of project boundaries
streamlines the process of gathering, or- Setting boundaries
ganizing, and depicting information for Forming an advisory group
decision making. Establishing technical teams
When boundaries are selected, the area Identifying funding sources
should reflect relevant ecological Establishing points of contact and a decision structure
processes. The boundaries may also re- Facilitating involvement and information sharing among
flect the various scales at which ecologi- participants
cal processes influence stream corridors
Documenting the process
(see Chapter 5, Identifying Scale Consid-
erations). For example, matters affecting
the conservation of biodiversity tend to
play out at broader, more regional
scales. On the other hand, the quality
visory group is private citizens, public interest groups, objectives known to decision makers.
an effective economic interests, public officials, and
any other groups or individuals who are ■ Ensuring that local values are taken
and efficient
way to plan interested in or might be affected by the into account during the restoration
and manage restoration initiative. Grassroots citizen process.
the restoration groups comprise multiple interests that The point to remember is that the true
effort, al- hopefully share a stated common con- role of the advisory group is to advise
though not all cern for environmental conservation. the decision maker or sponsor—the
restoration de- Such broad-based participation helps agency(s), organization(s), or individ-
cision makers ensure that self-interest or agency agen- ual(s) leading and initiating the restora-
will choose to das do not drive the process from the tion effort—on the development of the
establish one.
top down. Local citizens should be en- restoration plan and execution of
listed and informed to the extent that restoration activities. Although the advi-
their values and preferences drive deci- sory group will play an active planning
sion making with technical guidance and coordinating role, it will not make
from agency participants. the final decisions. As a result, it is im-
portant that all members of the advi-
sory group understand the issues,
develop practical and well thought-out
recommendations, and achieve consen-
sus in support of their recommenda-
tions.
Typically, it is the responsibility of the
decision maker(s) to identify and orga-
nize the members of the advisory
group. Critical to this process is the
identification of the key participants.
Participants can be identified by mak-
ing announcements to the news media,
writing to interested organizations,
making public appearances, or directly
contacting potential partners.
The exact number of groups or individ-
uals that will compose the advisory
Figure 4.1: Advisory group meeting. The advi- group is difficult to determine and is
sory group, composed of a variety of communi- usually situation-specific. In general, it
ty interests, plays an active role in advising the
is important that the group not be so
decision maker(s) throughout the restoration
process.
small that it is not representative of all
Source: S. Ratcliffe. Reprinted by permission.
Figure 4.2: Lower Missouri River. Water released from dams is causing downstream erosion.
Advisory Group
Provides consensus-based Technical Team
recommendations to the Analyzing economic
decision maker based upon issues and concerns
Technical Team information from the relevant to the stream
Analyzing condition technical teams and input corridor restoration
of stream corridor from all participants. initiative.
structure and
functions.
Figure 4.4: Flow of communication. Restoration plan development requires a decision structure
that streamlines communication between the decision maker, the advisory group, and the various
technical teams.
viduals will have some personal interest increasing buffer widths between agri-
in the condition of the stream corridor cultural fields and drainage channels).
and associated ecosystems in their re- Thus, it is in the best interest of the
gion. A failure to provide them the op- restoration initiative to include these
portunity to review and comment on persons as decision makers.
stream corridor restoration plans will A variety of public outreach tools can
often result in objections later in the be useful in soliciting input from partic-
process. ipants. Some of the most common
Private landowners, in particular, often mechanisms include public meetings,
have the greatest personal stake in the workshops, and surveys. Tools for Facili-
restoration work. As part of the restora- tating Participant Involvement and Infor-
tion effort it might be necessary for pri- mation Sharing During the Restoration
vate landowners to place some of their Process, provides a more complete list of
assets at increased risk, make them potential outreach options.
more available for public use, or reduce
the economic return they provide (e.g.,
restricting grazing in riparian areas or
❏ Has an advisory committee been established? ❏ Have risk and uncertainty been adequately consid-
ered in planning?
❏ Have funding sources been identified?
❏ Have alternative designs been formulated?
❏ Has a decision structure been developed and points
of contact identified? ❏ Have cost-effectiveness and incremental cost of
alternatives been evaluated?
❏ Have steps been taken to ensure that participants
are included in the restoration processes? During Project Implementation and Management...
❏ Has the problem that requires treatment been ❏ Based on the monitoring result, are the anticipated
investigated and defined? intermediate objectives being achieved? If not, are
❏ Has consensus been reached on the mission of the appropriate steps being taken to correct the prob-
restoration initiative? lem(s)?
❏ Have restoration goals and objectives been identi- ❏ Do the objectives or performance indicators need
fied by all participants in the restoration effort? to be modified? If so, what changes might be
required in the monitoring program?
❏ Has the restoration been planned with adequate
scope and expertise? ❏ Is the monitoring program adequate?
❏ Has the restoration plan had an annual or mid- During Postrestoration...
course correction point in line with adaptive man- ❏ To what extent were restoration plan objectives
agement procedures? achieved?
❏ Have the indicators of stream corridor structure ❏ How similar in structure and function is the
and function been directly and appropriately linked restored corridor ecosystem to the reference
to the restoration objectives? ecosystem?
❏ Have adequate monitoring, surveillance, manage- ❏ To what extent is the restored corridor self-
ment, and maintenance programs been specified sustaining (or will be), and what are the mainte-
as an integral part of the restoration plan? Have nance requirements?
monitoring costs and operational details been inte- ❏ If all stream corridor structure and functions were
grated so that results will be available to serve as not restored, have the critical structure and func-
input in improving techniques used in the restora- tions been restored?
tion work?
❏ How long did the restoration initiative take?
❏ Has an appropriate reference system (or systems)
❏ What lessons have been learned from this effort?
been selected from which to extract target values
of performance indicators for comparison in con- ❏ Have those lessons been shared with interested
ducting the evaluation of the restoration initiative? parties to maximize the potential for technology
transfer?
❏ Have sufficient baseline data been collected over a
suitable period of time on the stream corridor and ❏ What was the final cost, in net present value terms,
associated ecosystems to facilitate before-and-after of the restoration work?
treatment comparisons? ❏ What were the ecological, economic, and social
❏ Have critical restoration procedures been tested on benefits realized by the restoration initiative?
a small experimental scale to minimize the risks of ❏ How cost-effective was the restoration initiative?
failure? ❏ Would another approach to restoration have pro-
duced desirable results at lower cost?
Data Collection
Data collection should begin with a
technical team, in consultation with the
advisory group and the decision maker,
identifying potential data needs based
on technical and institutional require-
ments. The perspective of the public
1. Data collection and analysis
should then be solicited from partici-
2. Definition of existing stream corridor conditions pants or through public input forums.
(structure and function) and causes of disturbance Data targeted for collection should gen-
3. Comparison of existing conditions to desired condi- erally provide information on both the
tions or a reference condition historical and baseline conditions of
4. Analysis of the causes (disturbances) of altered or stream corridor structure and functions,
impaired stream corridor conditions as well as the social, cultural, and eco-
5. Determination of how management practices might
nomic conditions of the corridor and
be affecting stream corridor structure and functions
the larger watershed.
6. Development of problem and opportunity statements Data are collected with the help of a
variety of techniques, including remote
sensing, historical maps and pho-
tographs, and actual resource inventory
using standardized on-site field tech-
niques, evaluation models, and other
recognized and widely accepted
Data Analysis
Data analysis, like data collection, plays
an important role in all elements of
problem identification as well as other
aspects of the restoration process. Data
analysis techniques range from qualita- Figure 4.9: Characterizing stream corridor condi-
tive evaluations using professional judg- tions. Data collection and analysis are impor-
ment to elaborate computer models. tant components of problem identification.
(a) (b)
Figure 4.11: Condition continuum. The condition contin-
uum runs from (a) untouched by humans to (b) severely
impaired.
Source: L. Goldman.
Determination of
Management Influence on
Stream Corridor Conditions
Once the conditions have been identi-
Figure 4.14: Residential development.
Urbanization can severely impair conditions
fied and the causes of those conditions
critical for riparian vegetation by increasing described, the key remaining question is
impervious surfaces. whether the causative factors are a func-
tion of and responsive to management.
Specific management factors that con-
between activities or events potentially
tribute to impairment might or might
disturbing the stream corridor and the
not have been identified with the causes
structure and functions defining the
of impairment previously identified.
corridor. However, there are modes by
which stream corridor activities and
structures can affect ecological condi-
tions that involve both direct and indi-
rect impacts. The box Examples of How
Activities Occurring Within the Corridor
Can Affect Structure and Functions pro-
vides some examples of the modes by
FAST
FORWARD which activities can affect stream corri-
dor structure and functions.
In conducting the problem analysis, it
is important to investigate the various
Preview modes of ecological interaction at the
Chapter 7’s reach and system scales. The analysis
Quantitative might need to be subjective and deduc-
Tools section. tive, in which case use of an interdisci-
plinary team is essential. In other cases,
the analysis might be enhanced by ap-
plication of available hydrologic, hy-
draulic, sedimentation, water quality, or Figure 4.15: Riparian vegetation and structure.
habitat models. The loss of logs in a stream alters flow
hydraulics and channel structure.
Problem or Opportunity
Statements for Stream
the restoration effort but also become
Corridor Restoration
the basis for developing specific restora-
The final step in the process of prob- tion objectives. Moreover, they form
lem/opportunity identification and the basis for determining success or
analysis is development of concise failure of the restoration initiative.
statements to drive the restoration ef- Problem/opportunity statements are
fort. Problem/opportunity statements therefore critical for design of a relevant
not only serve as a general focus for monitoring approach.
nce the basic organizational steps restoration process. In other words, plan-
have been completed and the prob- ners must work to ensure a logical flow
lems/opportunities associated with the and relationship between problem and
stream corridor have been identified, the opportunity statements, restoration goals
next two stages of the restoration plan and objectives, and design.
development process can be initiated.
Remember that the restoration planning
These two stages, the development of
process can be as complex as the stream
restoration goals and objectives and alter-
corridor to be restored. A project might
native selection and design, require input
involve a large number of landowners and
from all partners. The advisory group
decision makers. It might also be fairly
should work in collaboration with the de-
simple, allowing planning through a
cision maker(s) and technical teams.
streamlined process. In either case, proper
During the objective development, alter- planning will lead to success.
native selection, and design stages, it is
Proper planning in the beginning of the
important that continuity be maintained
restoration process will save time and
among the fundamental steps of the
money for the life of the project. This is
often accomplished by managing Although active restorations that
the causes rather than the include the installation of designed
symptoms. measures are common, the “no
action” or passive alternative might
This chapter is divided into two sec-
be more ecologically desirable,
tions that describe the basic steps
depending on the specific goals
of defining goals and objectives, se-
and time frame of the plan.
lecting alternatives, and designing
restoration measures. Section 5.B: Alternative Selection
and Design
Section 5.A: Developing
Restoration Goals and Objectives The selection of restoration alterna-
tives is a complex process that is
Restoration objectives are essential
intended to address the identified
for guiding the development and
problems/opportunities and accom-
implementation of restoration ef-
plish restoration goals and objec-
forts and for establishing a means
tives. Some of the important
to measure progress and evaluate
factors to consider in designing
success. This section outlines some
restoration measures, as well as
of the major considerations that
some of the supporting analysis
need to be taken into account in
that facilitates alternative selection,
developing restoration goals and
are discussed.
objectives for a restoration plan.
Figure 5.4: Urban stream corridor. Population The Stream Corridor Scale
growth and land use trends, such as urbaniza-
tion, should be considered when developing Each stream corridor targeted for
restoration goals and objectives. restoration is unique. A project goal of
Landscape concerns pertinent to devel- restoring multiple ecological functions
oping goals and objectives for stream might encompass the channel systems,
corridor restoration should also include the active floodplain, and possibly adja-
an assessment of land use and projected cent hill slopes or other buffer areas
development trends in the watershed. that have the potential to directly and
By making an effort to accommodate indirectly influence the stream or pro-
predictable future land use and devel- tect it from surrounding land uses
opment patterns, degradation of stream (Sedell et al. 1990). A wide corridor is
corridor conditions can be prevented or
reduced.
Biodiversity Considerations
The continuity that corridors provide
among different areas and ecosystem
types has often been cited as a major
tool for maintaining regional biodiver-
sity because it facilitates animal move-
ment (particularly for large mammals)
and prevents isolation of plant and ani-
mal populations. However, there has
been some dispute over the effective-
ness of corridors to accomplish these
objectives and over the creation of inap-
propriate corridors having adverse con-
sequences (Knopf 1986, Noss 1987, Figure 5.5: Animal population dynamics.
Simberloff and Cox 1987, Mann and Restoration plans may target species, but biodi-
versity should be the basic goal of restoration.
Plummer 1995).
fish and wildlife habitat, and others) the final configuration of the corridor
that the restoration effort is intended to should balance multiple and often con-
restore. In many cases, however, it will flicting objectives, including optimizing
not be possible to reestablish the origi- ecological structure and function and Preview Chap-
nal corridor width, and restoration will accommodating the diverse needs of ter 6’s Adaptive
be focused on a narrower strip of land landowners and other participants. Management
directly adjacent to the channel. section.
The Reach Scale
Where narrow corridors are established
through urban or agricultural land- A reach is the fundamental unit for de-
scapes, certain functions might be re- sign and management of the stream
stored (e.g., stream shading), while corridor. In establishing goals and ob-
others might not (e.g., wildlife move- jectives, each reach must be evaluated
ment). In particular, very narrow corri- with regard to its landscape and indi-
dors, such as western riparian areas, vidual characteristics, as well as their in-
may function largely as edge habitat fluence on stream corridor function and
and will favor unique and sometimes integrity. For example, steep slopes adja-
opportunistic plant and animal cent to a channel reach must be consid-
species. In some situations, creating a ered where they contribute potentially
large amount of edge habitat might be significant amounts of runoff, subsur-
detrimental to species that require face flow, sediment, woody debris, or
large forested habitat or are highly vul- other inputs. Another reach might be
nerable to predation or nest parasitism particularly active with respect to chan-
and disturbances. nel migration and might warrant ex-
panding the corridor relative to other
The corridor configuration and restora-
reaches to accommodate local stream
tion options depend to a large extent
dynamics.
on the pattern of land ownership and
use at the stream corridor scale. Corri- Identifying Restoration
dors that traverse agricultural land may Constraints and Issues
involve the interests of many individual
landowners with varying levels of com- Once participants have reached consen-
mitment to or interest in the restoration sus on the desired future condition and
initiative. examined scale considerations, atten-
tion should be given to identifying
Often, landowners will not be inclined restoration constraints and issues. This
to remove acreage from production or process is important in that it helps
alter land use practices without incen- identify limitations associated with es-
tive. In urban settings, citizen groups tablishing specific restoration goals and
may have a strong voice in the objec- objectives. Moreover, it provides the in-
tives and layout of the corridor. On formation that will be needed when in-
large public land holdings, manage- tegrating ecological, social, political,
ment agencies might be able to commit and economic values.
to the establishment and management
of stream corridors and their water- Due to the innumerable potential chal-
sheds, but the incorporation of compet- lenges involved in identifying all of the
constraints and issues, it is often help-
Technical Constraints
Technical constraints include the avail-
ability of data and restoration technolo-
gies. In terms of data availability, it is
important that the technical team begin
by compiling and analyzing data avail-
able on stream corridor structure and Figure 5.6: Field sampling. Collecting the right
functions. Analyzing these data will en- kinds of data with the proper quality control
and translating that data into information use-
able the identification of information ful for making decisions is a challenge.
gaps and should allow the restoration
effort to proceed, even though all of the
information might not be at hand. It Quality Assurance, Quality
should be noted that there is usually a Control
wealth of technical information avail-
able either in published sources or in The success of a stream corridor restora-
public agency offices as unpublished tion plan depends on the following:
source material. ■ Efficient and accurate use of existing
In addition to data availability, a sec- data and information.
ond technical constraint might involve ■ Reliable collection of new data that
the tools or techniques used to analyze are needed, recognizing the required
or collect stream corridor data. Some level of precision and accuracy
restoration techniques and methodolo- (Figure 5.6).
gies are not complete and might not be ■ Interpretation of the meaning of the
sufficient to conduct the restoration ef- data, including translating the data
fort. It is also generally known that into information that can be used to
technology transfer and dissemination make planning decisions.
associated with available techniques are
far behind the existing information ■ A locally led, voluntary approach.
base, and field personnel might not The concept of quality assurance or
readily have access to needed informa- quality control is not new. When time,
tion. It is important that the technical materials, or money are to be ex-
teams are up-to-date with restoration pended, results should be as reliable
technology and are prepared to modify and efficiently derived as possible. Pro-
implemented plans through adaptive visions for quality control or quality as-
management as necessary. surance can be built into the restoration
plan, especially if a large number of
marine areas. The silt- and clay-sized particles are Figure 5.9: Glines Canyon Dam. (a) Before removal and
also reduced in the lower river, but resuspension of (b) simulation after removal.
this material may cause the loss of aquatic life and
adversely affect water users downstream for the Following the removal of both dams, the salmon
approximately two to three years this process is and steelhead runs are expected to total about
expected to last (NPS 1996). Nevertheless, the pre- 390,000 fish, compared to about 12,000 to
ferred alternative incorporates the natural erosive 20,000 (primarily hatchery) fish. These fish will
and transport capacity of the river to move this provide over 800,000 pounds of carcass biomass
material downstream, although roughly half of the (NPS 1995). About 13,000 pounds of this biomass
fine and coarse materials will remain in the newly is marine-derived nitrogen and phosphorous, the
dewatered reservoir areas. Water quality and fish- benefits of which will cascade throughout the
eries mitigation actions are planned to reduce the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem. The vast majority
impacts of sediment releases during and following of wildlife species are expected to benefit from the
dam removal. Revegetation actions will be imple- restoration of this food resource and the recovery
mented on the previously logged slopes for stabi- of over 700 acres of important lowland habitat.
lization purposes and to accelerate the achieve- Restoration of the fish runs will also support the
ment of old-growth characteristics. The old reser- federal government’s trust responsibility to the
voir bottoms will be allowed to revegetate natural- Tribe for its treaty-reserved harvest rights. More
ly; “greenup” should occur within three to five wetlands will be recovered than will be lost from
years. draining the reservoirs.
The principal funding for this project was provid- power rate payers in the Northwest. The purpose
ed by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) for funding is to improve the fish habitat compo-
(Table 5.1). The BPA funds are used to help nent of the “Strategy for Salmon,” which is one
implement the Asotin Creek Model Watershed of the four elements referred to as the four H’s—
Plan, which is part of the Northwest Power harvest management, hatcheries and their prac-
Planning Council’s “Strategy for Salmon.” The tices, survival at hydroelectric dams, and fish habi-
moneys for funding by BPA are generated from tat improvement.
Table 5.1: Project costs for J. Bar S. winter feeding area meander reconstruction and upstream revetments.
Projects Costs
Fencing $400
no
no
stop
institutional
analysis formulate
model alternatives
micro-
habitat
model total
habitat
model
strategy technical
design scoping
macro-
habitat
model network
habitat
model
Figure 5.15: Overview of the
instream flow incremental
methodology. IFIM describes
the spatial and temporal habi-
tat features of a given river.
6000
5000 D
output associated with each solution
C E are shown in Figure 5.17. Solution A
4000
would provide 80 units of output at a
3000 B
A cost of $2,000, or $25 per unit. Solu-
2000 cost effectiveness
frontier tion B would provide an additional 20
0 units of output (100 – 80) at an addi-
0 80 100 120 140 tional cost of $600 ($2,600 – $2,000).
Units of Output
The incremental cost per unit (incre-
mental cost divided by incremental out-
Figure 5.16: Cost effectiveness frontier. This
put) for the additional 20 units B
graph plots the solutions’ total cost (vertical
axis) against their output levels (horizontal axis).
provides over A is, therefore, $30. Simi-
lar computations can be made for solu-
tions E and F. Solutions C and D have
been deleted from the analysis because
units when 10 more units could be pro- they were previously identified as ineffi-
duced by E for $900 less cost? cient in production.
Figure 5.16 shows the “cost-effective- As shown in Figure 5.17, the incremen-
ness frontier” for the solutions listed in tal cost per unit is measured on the ver-
the table. This graph, which plots the tical axis; both total output and
solutions’ total cost (vertical axis) incremental output can be measured on
against their output levels (horizontal the horizontal axis. The distance from
axis), graphically depicts the two the origin to the end of each bar indi-
screening rules. The cost-effective solu- cates total output provided by the corre-
tions delineate the cost-effectiveness sponding solution. The width of the bar
frontier. Any solutions lying inside the associated with each solution identifies
frontier (above and to the left), such as the incremental amount of output that
C and D, are not cost-effective and would be provided over the previous,
should not be included in subsequent smaller-scaled solution; for example,
incremental cost analysis. Solution E provides 20 more units of
Incremental Cost Analysis output than Solution B . The height of
the bar illustrates the cost per unit of
Incremental cost analysis is intended to
that additional output; for example,
provide additional information to sup-
those 20 additional units obtainable
port a decision about the desired level
through Solution E cost $50 each.
of investment. The analysis is an inves-
180
160 F
Figure 5.17: Incremental cost and output display. This graph plots the cost per unit (vertical axis)
against the total output and incremental output (horizontal axis).
er, involved a skillful coordination of existing sources of support from state Upper
Paint
and local governmental programs combined with additional help from Branch
Indian Creek
nongovernmental organizations such as Trout Unlimited and from other
citizen volunteers. The signatory agencies (e.g., the District of Columbia, Beaverdam
Sligo Creek
Prince George’s and Montgomery Counties, and the state of Maryland) Creek
A key element in maximizing resources from existing programs is the orga- Hickey
Run Tidal
Anacostia
nization of special technical assistance teams for priority subwatersheds
(Figure 6.1). Subwatershed Action Plan (SWAP) coordinators carry out
public education and outreach efforts, and they also assist in comparing
the management needs of their subwatersheds with activities of local gov- Watts Branch
ernment. Because many of the problems in the Anacostia relate to urban
storm water runoff, many infrastructure projects can have a bearing on Figure 6.1: Anacostia Basin.
restoration needs. When such infrastructure projects are identified, SWAP coor- Nine priority subwatersheds
compose the Anacostia Basin.
dinators try to coordinate with the project sponsor and involve the sponsor in
Source: MWCOG 1997. Reprinted by
the Anacostia program. If possible, the SWAP coordinator attempts to inte- permission.
grate the retrofit and management objectives of the program and the project.
Dividing Implementation
Responsibilities
With funding in place and restoration
tools and activities identified, the focus
should shift to dividing the responsibil-
ities of restoration implementation
among the participants. This process
involves identifying all the relevant
players, assigning responsibilities, and
securing commitments.
Technical Assistance One-to-one interaction between professionals and the interested citizen
or landowner. Includes provision of recommendations and technical assis-
tance about restoration measures specific to a stream corridor or reach.
Tax Advantages Benefits that can be provided through state and local taxing authorities
or by a change in the federal taxing system that rewards those who
implement certain restoration measures.
Cost-share to Individuals Direct payment to individuals for installation of specific restoration mea-
sures. Most effective where the cost-share rate is high enough to elicit
widespread participation.
Direct Purchase of Stream Direct purchase of special areas for preservation or community-owned
Corridors or of Lands Causing greenbelts in urban areas. Costs of direct purchase are usually high, but
the Greatest Problems the results can be very effective. Sometimes used to obtain access to
critical areas whose owners are unwilling to implement restoration
measures.
Nonregulatory Site Inspections Periodic site visits by staff of local, state, or federal agencies can be a
powerful incentive for voluntary implementation of restoration measures.
Easements Conservation easements on private property are excellent tools for imple-
menting parts of a stream corridor restoration plan (see more detailed
discussion in following box). Flowage easements may be a critical compo-
nent in order to design, construct, and maintain structures and flow
conditions.
Local/State
Permits Required Activities Covered Administered By
Table 6.1:
Varies thresholds and definitions e.g., clearing/grading, sensitive/critical areas, water quality, Local grading,
Examples of per- vary by state aquatic access planning, or building
mit requirements departments; various
state departments
for restoration
activities. Federal
Permits Required Activities Covered Administered By
Section 10, Rivers and Harbors Act Building of any structure in the channel or along the banks U.S. Army Corps
of 1849 of navigable waters of the U.S. that changes the course, of Engineers
condition, location, or capacity
Section 404, Letters of permission Minor or routine work with minimum impacts U.S. Army Corps
Federal Clean of Engineers
Water Act Nationwide 3 Repair, rehabilitation, or replacement of structures destroyed
permits by storms, fire, or floods in past 2 years
13 Bank stabilization less than 500 feet in length solely for erosion
protection
26 Filling of up to 1 acre of a non-tidal wetland or less than 500
linear feet of non-tidal stream that is either isolated from other
surface waters or upstream of the point in a drainage
network where the average annual flow is less than 5cfs
Figure 6.11: Site access. In certain areas, access agreements, such as a right of entry or implemen-
tation easement, might have to be obtained to install restoration measures.
A
■
lthough the Winooski project was experimental in the 1930s, many of its elements were highly
successful:
Recognition of the importance of landscape relationships and an emphasis on comprehensive
treatment of the entire watershed rather than isolated, individual problem areas.
■ Using an interdisciplinary technical team for planning and implementation.
■ Strong landowner participation.
■ Empowerment of landowners to carry out the restoration measures using low-cost approaches
(often using materials from the farm).
■ Fostering the use of experimental methods that are now recognized as viable biotechnical
approaches.
The success of restoration efforts de- anticipate the duration of specific im-
pends more on having a competent plementation tasks, the lead time neces-
project manager than on any other fac- sary to prepare for those tasks, and the
tor. The ideal project manager should consequences of inevitable delays. A
be skilled in leadership, scheduling, manager who has little familiarity with
budgeting, technical issues, human rela- the planning and design effort can nei-
tionships, communicating, negotiating, ther execute the implementation plans
and customer relations. Most will find efficiently nor adjust those plans in the
this a daunting list of attributes, but an face of unanticipated conditions. A cer-
honest evaluation of a manager’s short- tain amount of flexibility is key. Often
comings before restoration is under way specific techniques are tied to specific
might permit a complementary support building material, for example. Adjust-
team to assist the one who most com- ments are often made according to
monly guides restoration to comple- what is available.
tion.
Familiarity With the Reach
Thorough Understanding of
Planning and Design Materials Existing site conditions are seldom as
they appear on a set of engineering
Orchestrating the implementation of all plans. Variability in landform and vege-
but the simplest restoration efforts re- tation, surface water and ground water
quires the integration of labor, equip- flow, and changing site conditions dur-
ment, and supplies, all within a context ing the interval between initial design
determined by requirements of both and final implementation are all in-
the natural system and the legal system. evitable. There is no substitute for fa-
Designs must be adequate and based miliarity with the site that extends
on a foundation of sound physical and beyond what is shown on the plans, so
biological principles, tempered with the that implementation-period “surprises”
experience of past efforts, both success- are kept to a minimum (Figure 6.14).
ful and unsuccessful. Schedules must Similarly, when such surprises do occur,
Restoration Planning
Develop baseline data at the site.
Implementation of Restoration Plan
Monitor implementation activities.
Collect as-built or as-implemented information.
Postimplementation
Collect performance data.
Conduct other studies as needed.
Figure 6.22: Instream modifications. Restoration evaluation may focus on the physical traits of
the channel that were intentionally modified during project implementation such as the riffles
pictured.
act
management
to admit failure perpetuates the same
mistakes instead of educating others
m o nit o r about pitfalls that might affect their ef-
forts, too. Accepting failure reiterates
Modify plans using monitoring, technical, and social the importance of setting appropriate
feedback expectations. Participants should all ac-
knowledge that failure is one of the
Track restoration policy, programs, and individual pro-
possible outcomes of restoration.
jects as feedback for further restoration policy and
Should failure occur, they should resist
program redesign
the natural temptation to bury their dis-
Restoration initiatives: recommend annual assessments appointment and instead help others to
use monitoring data and other data/expertise learn from their experience.
midcourse corrections or alternative actions
Documenting and Reporting
link reporting/monitoring schedules for midcourse
corrections The monitoring report should also in-
Manager may contract some/all monitoring, but peri- clude a systematic review of changes in
odically must visit sites, review reports, discuss with resource management priorities and wa-
contractors. tershed conditions along with a discus-
sion of the possible implications for
restoration measures and objectives.
Figure 6.23: Adaptive management. The review should be wide-ranging, in-
Adjusting management direction as new cluding observations and concerns that
information becomes available requires a might not require immediate attention
willingness to experiment and accept but should be documented to ensure
occassional failures. continuity in case of turnover in per-
sonnel. The monitoring report should
sions can be made regarding any mid- alert project managers to proposed de-
course corrections or other alternative velopments or regulation changes that
actions, including modification of could affect the restoration effort, so
goals. The annual assessments would that feedback can be provided and
use monitoring data and might require stream corridor concerns can be consid-
additional data or expertise from out- ered during planning for the proposed
side the restoration team. Because the developments.
overall idea is to make the restoration Documentation and reporting of the
“work,” while not expending large progress and development of the
amounts of funds to adhere to inflexi- restoration provide written evidence
ble and unrealistic goals, decisions that the restoration manager can use for
would be made regarding the physical a variety of purposes. Three simple con-
actions that might be needed versus al- cepts are common among the best-
terations in restoration goals. documented restorations:
corridor conditions?
7 7.A
7.B
7.C
7.D
Hydrologic Processes
Geomorphic Processes
Chemical Characteristics
Biological Characteristics
Discharge (cfs)
30 cies are used in some states.
20
Computer software for performing low-
flow analyses using a record of daily
15 lowest mean flows is documented by Hutchi-
average 7-day flow son (1975) and Lumb et al. (1990). An
1
August September October
example of a low-flow frequency curve
for the annual minimum 7-day low
Figure 7.2: Annual hydrograph displaying low flow is given in Figure 7.3 for Scott
flows. The daily mean flows on the lowest part River near Fort Jones, California, for the
of the annual hydrograph are averaged to give same period (1951 to 1980) used in the
the 7-day and 14-day low flows for that year. flood frequency analyses above.
From Figure 7.3, one can determine
USGS and USEPA recommend using that the Q7,10 is about 20 cfs, which is
the Pearson Type III distribution to the comparable to the 99th percentile
logarithms of annual minimum d-day (daily mean flow exceeded 99 percent
low flows to obtain the flow with a of the time) of the flow duration curve
nonexceedance probability p (or recur- (Figure 7.1). This comparison is consis-
rence interval T = 1/p). The Pearson tent with findings of Fennessey and
Type III low-flow estimates are com- Vogel (1990), who concluded that the
puted from the following equation: Q7,10 from 23 rivers in Massachusetts
Xd,T = Md – KTSd was approximately equal to the 99th
flow duration percentile. The USGS rou-
where: tinely publishes low flow estimates at
Xd,T = the logarithm of the annual gauged sites (Zalants 1991, Telis 1991,
minimum d-day low flow for Atkins and Pearman 1994).
which the flow is not exceeded Following are discussions of different
in 1 of T years or which has a ways to look at the flows that tend to
probability of p = 1/T of not form and maintain streams. Restora-
being exceeded in any given year tions that include alterations of flows or
Md = the mean of the logarithms of changes in the dimensions of the
annual minimum d-day low stream must include engineering analy-
flows ses as described in Chapter 8.
Sd = the standard deviation of the Channel-forming Flow
logarithms of the annual mini- The channel-forming or dominant dis-
mum d-day low flows charge is a theoretical discharge that if
KT = the Pearson Type III frequency constantly maintained in an alluvial
factor stream over a long period of time
would produce the same channel geom-
The desired quantile, Qd,T, can be ob-
etry that is produced by the long-term
tained by taking the antilogarithm of
natural hydrograph. Channel-forming
the equation.
discharge is the most commonly used
The 7-day, 10-year low flow (Q7,10) is single independent variable that is
used by about half of the regulatory found to govern channel shape and
agencies in the United States for man- form. Using a channel-forming dis-
aging water quality in receiving waters charge to design channel geometry is
102
10
1
95 90 80 70 50 30 20 10 5
Annual Nonexceedance Probability (percent)
not a universally accepted technique, al- Figure 7.3: Annual minimum 7-day low flow
though most river engineers and scien- frequency curve. The Q on this graph is about
7,10
tists agree that the concept has merit, at 20 cfs. The annual minimum value of 7-day
running means for this gauge is about 10
least for perennial (humid and temper- percent.
ate) and perhaps ephemeral (semiarid)
rivers. For arid channels, where runoff is
generated by localized high-intensity as the natural sequence of events (Inglis
storms and the absence of vegetation 1949). Wolman and Miller (1960) de-
ensures that the channel will adjust to fined “moderate frequency” as events
each major flood event, the channel- occurring “at least once each year or
forming discharge concept is generally two and in many cases several or more
not applicable. times per year.” They also considered
the sediment load transported by a
Natural alluvial rivers experience a wide
given flow as a percentage of the total
range of discharges and may adjust
amount of sediment carried by the river
their geometry to flow events of differ-
during the period of record. Their re-
ent magnitudes by mobilizing either
sults, for a variety of American rivers lo-
bed or bank sediments. Although Wol-
cated in different climatic and
man and Miller (1960) noted that “it is
physiographic regions, showed that the
logical to assume that the channel
greater part (that is, 50 percent or
shape is affected by a range of flows
more) of the total sediment load was
rather than a single discharge,” they
carried by moderate flows rather than
concurred with the view put forward
catastrophic floods. Ninety percent of
earlier by civil engineers working on
the load was carried by events with a re-
“regime theory” that the channel-
turn period of less than 5 years. The
forming or dominant discharge is the
precise form of the cumulative curve ac-
steady flow that produces the same
tually depends on factors such as the
gross channel shapes and dimensions
Stage (feet)
sponding to that elevation. 11
The above relationships seldom work in 9
bankfull stage
7
incised streams. In an incised stream,
5
the top of the bank might be a terrace
4
(an abandoned floodplain), and indica-
3
tors of the active floodplain might be
found well below the existing top of
bank. In this situation, the elevation of 100 1,000 10,000
the channel-forming discharge will be
Discharge (cfs)
well below the top of the bank. In addi-
tion, the difference between the ordi- Figure 7.4: Determination of bankfull stage
nary use of the term “bankfull” and the from a rating curve. The discharge that corre-
geomorphic use of the term can cause sponds to the elevation of the first flat deposi-
tional surface is the bankfull discharge.
major communication problems.
Field identification of bankfull eleva-
tion can be difficult (Williams 1978), Bankfull stage has also been defined
but is usually based on a minimum using morphologic factors, as follows:
width/depth ratio (Wolman 1955), to- ■ Schumm (1960) defined bankfull
gether with the recognition of some dis- stage as the height of the lower limit
continuity in the nature of the channel of perennial vegetation, primarily
banks such as a change in its sedimen- trees.
tary or vegetative characteristics. Others
have defined bankfull discharge as ■ Similarly, Leopold (1994) states that
follows: bankfull stage is indicated by a
change in vegetation, such as herbs,
■ Nixon (1959) defined the bankfull grasses, and shrubs.
stage as the highest elevation of a
river that can be contained within ■ Finally, the bankfull stage is also
the channel without spilling water defined as the average elevation of
on the river floodplain or washlands. the highest surface of the channel
bars (Wolman and Leopold 1957).
■ Wolman and Leopold (1957)
defined bankfull stage as the eleva- The field identification of bankfull stage
tion of the active floodplain. indicators is often difficult and subjec-
tive and should be performed in stream
■ Woodyer (1968) suggested bankfull reaches that are stable and alluvial
stage as the elevation of the middle (Knighton 1984). Additional guidelines
bench of rivers having several over- are reviewed by Wharton (1995). In un-
flow surfaces. stable streams, bankfull indicators are
■ Pickup and Warner (1976) defined often missing, embryonic, or difficult to
bankfull stage as the elevation at determine.
which the width/depth ratio Direct determination of the discharge at
becomes a minimum. bankfull stage is possible if a stream
uency (C
eq
Fr
)
nd
)
(B
ea
ve
ud
ur
C
nit
(A) g
in
at
ag
cy
fM
en
ge
qu
to
r
ha
F re
sc
uc
Di
od
t
en
Pr
im
Sed
Discharge
Figure 7.5: Effective discharge determination flow duration curve (A) and the sedi-
from sediment rating and flow duration curves. ment transport rating curve (B). A
The peak of curve C marks the discharge that is graphical representation of the relation-
most effective in transporting sediment.
Source: Wolman and Miller (1960).
ship between sediment transport, fre-
quency of the transport, and the
effective discharge is shown in Figure
Although the assumption that the chan-
7.5. The peak of curve C marks the dis-
nel-forming flow has a recurrence inter-
charge that is most effective in trans-
val of 1 to 3 years is sufficient for
porting sediment and, therefore, does
reconnaissance-level studies, it should
the most work in forming the channel.
not be used for design until verified
through inspection of reference reaches, For stable alluvial streams, effective dis-
data collection, and analysis. This is es- charge has been shown to be highly
pecially true in highly modified streams correlated with bankfull discharge. Of
such as in urban or mined areas, as well the various discharges related to chan-
as ephemeral streams in arid and semi- nel morphology (i.e., dominant, bank-
arid areas. full, and effective discharges), effective
discharge is the only one that can be
Effective Discharge
computed directly. The effective dis-
The effective discharge is defined as the charge has morphological significance
increment of discharge that transports since it is the discharge that transports
the largest fraction of the sediment load the bulk of the sediment.
over a period of years (Andrews 1980).
The effective discharge represents the
The effective discharge incorporates the
single flow increment that is responsi-
principle prescribed by Wolman and
ble for transporting the most sediment
Miller (1960) that the channel-forming
over some time period. However, there
discharge is a function of both the mag-
is a range of flows on either side of the
nitude of the event and its frequency of
effective discharge that also carry a sig-
occurrence. An advantage of using the
nificant portion of the total annual sed-
effective discharge is that it is a calcu-
iment load.
lated rather than field-determined
value. The effective discharge is calcu- Biedenharn and Thorne (1994) used
lated by numerically integrating the a graphical relationship between the
10
10 100 1000
Drainage Area (square miles)
Figure 7.6: Regional relationships for bankfull and mean annual discharge as a function of
drainage area. The mean annual flow is normally less than the bankfull flow.
Source: Dunne and Leopold 1978.
Table 7.1: Functional parameters used in basins. Given that both Qbf and Qm ex-
regional estimates of bankfull discharge. hibit a similar functional dependence
In column a are regression coefficients
on A, a consistent proportionality is to
and in column b are exponents that can
be used in the bankfull discharge equation.
be expected between these discharge
Source: Dunne and Leopold 1978. measures within the same region. In
fact, Leopold (1994) gives the following
River Basin a b average values of the ratio Qbf/Qm for
Southeastern PA 61 0.82 three widely separated regions of the
Upper Salmon River, ID 36 0.68 United States: 29.4 for 21 stations in
Upper Green River, WY 28 0.69 the Coast Range of California, 7.1 for
San Francisco Bay Region, CA 53 0.93 20 stations in the Front Range of Col-
Qbf = aAb orado, and 8.3 for 13 stations in the
Eastern United States.
tt
e
ed
p e ri m e t e r depth n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
(stage)
top R = hydraulic radius (feet or meters)
width
S = energy slope (water surface slope).
area Manning’s roughness coefficient may be
mean depth =
top width
area thought of as an index of the features of
hydraulic radius =
wetted perimeter channel roughness that contribute to
the dissipation of stream energy. Table
Figure 7.7: Hydraulic parameters. Streams have
7.2 shows a range of n values for vari-
specific cross-sectional and longitudinal profile
characteristics. ous boundary materials and conditions.
Two methods are presented for estimat-
parallel the streambed, the slope of the ing Manning’s roughness coefficient for
energy grade line is assumed to equal natural channels:
the water surface slope. When the slope ■ Direct solution of Manning’s equa-
of the energy grade line is known, vari- tion for n.
ous resistance formulas allow comput-
■ Comparison with computed n values
ing mean cross-sectional velocity.
for other channels.
The importance of Manning’s equation
Each method has its own limitations
in stream restoration is that it provides
and advantages.
the basis for computing differences in
flow velocities and elevations due to Direct Solution for Determining
differences in hydraulic roughness. Manning’s n
Note that the flow characteristics can be Even slightly nonuniform flow can be
altered to meet the goals of the restora- difficult to find in natural channels. The
tion either by direct intervention or by method of direct solution for Man-
changing the vegetation and roughness ning’s n does not require perfectly uni-
of the stream. Manning’s equation is form flow. Manning n values are
also useful in determining bankfull dis- computed for a reach in which multiple
charge for bankfull stage. cross sections, water surface elevations,
Manning’s equation is also used to cal- and at least one discharge have been
culate energy losses in natural channels measured. A series of water surface pro-
with gradually varied flow. In this case, files are then computed with different n
calculations proceed from one cross sec- values, and the computed profile that
tion to the next, and unique hydraulic matches the measured profile is
parameters are calculated at each cross deemed to have an n value that most
section. Computer models, such as nearly represents the roughness of that
HEC-2, perform these calculations and stream reach at the specific discharge.
are widely used analytical tools.
wake
rock wake
Variation in Gradual 0.000 Size and shape of channel cross sections change gradually.
channel cross
section (n2) Alternating 0.001-0.005 Large and small cross sections alternate occasionally, or the main flow
occasionally occasionally shifts from side to side owing to changes in cross-
sectional shape.
Alternating 0.010-0.015 Large and small cross sections alternate frequently, or the main flow
frequently frequently shifts from side to side owing to changes in cross-sectional
shape.
Effect of Negligible 0.000-0.004 A few scattered obstructions, which include debris deposits, stumps,
obstruction (n3) exposed roots, logs, piers, or isolated boulders, that occupy less than
5 percent of the cross-sectional area.
Minor 0.005-0.015 Obstructions occupy less than 15 percent of the cross-sectional area and
the spacing between obstructions is such that the sphere of influence
around one obstruction does not extend to the sphere of influence
around another obstruction. Smaller adjustments are used for curved
smooth-surfaced objects than are used for sharp-edged angular objects.
Severe 0.040-0.050 Obstructions occupy more than 50 percent of the cross-sectional area
or the space between obstructions is small enough to cause turbulence
across most of the cross section.
Amount of Small 0.002-0.010 Dense growths of flexible turf grass, such as Bermuda, or weeds
vegetation (n4) growing where the average depth of flow is at least two times the
height of the vegetation; supple tree seedlings such as willow,
cottonwood, arrowweed, or saltcedar growing where the average
depth of flow is at least three times the height of the vegetation.
Medium 0.010-0.025 Turf grass growing where the average depth of flow is from one to
two times the height of the vegetation; moderately dense stemmy
grass, weeds, or tree seedlings growing where the average depth of
the flow is from two to three times the height of the vegetation;
brushy, moderately dense vegetation, similar to 1- to 2-year-old willow
trees in the dormant season, growing along the banks and no
significant vegetation along the channel bottoms where the hydraulic
radius exceeds 2 feet.
Large 0.025-0.050 Turf grass growing where the average depth of flow is about equal to
the height of vegetation; 8- to 10-year-old willow or cottonwood trees
intergrown with some weeds and brush (none of the vegetation in
foliage) where the hydraulic radius exceeds 2 feet; bushy willows
about 1 year old intergrown with some weeds along side slopes (all
vegetation in full foliage) and no significant vegetation along channel
bottoms where the hydraulic radius is greater than 2 feet.
Very Large 0.050-0.100 Turf grass growing where the average depth of flow is less than half
the height of the vegetation; bushy willow trees about 1 year old
intergrown with weeds along side slopes (all vegetation in full foliage)
or dense cattails growing along channel bottom; trees intergrown
with weeds and brush (all vegetation in full foliage).
Degree of meandering1 Minor 1.00 Ratio of the channel length to valley length is 1.0 to 1.2.
(adjustment values
apply to flow confined Appreciable 1.15 Ratio of the channel length to valley length is 1.2 to 1.5.
in the channel and do
not apply where Severe 1.30 Ratio of the channel length to valley length is greater than 1.5.
downvalley flow
crosses meanders) (m)
1
Adjustments for degree of irregularity, variations in cross section, effect of obstructions, and vegetation are added to the base n value before multiplying by the
adjustment for meander.
channel boundary
Straight
High
flow
bars
low
low
Relative Stability
Channel Pattern
Meandering
width/depth ratio
gradient
Braided
Low
high
high
Typical Bed Variable Sand Gravel Gravel, Cobble, Boulder N/A Variable
Material cobble boulder
Reach Type Response Response Response Response Transport Transport Transport Source
Sediment Overbank, Overbank, Overbank, Overbank, Bedforms Lee & stoss • Bed
Storage bedforms bedforms, bedforms, inactive sides of flow
Elements inactive inactive channel obstructions
channel channel
Typical Slope S < 0.03 S < 0.001 0.001 < S 0.01 < S 0.03 < S 0.08 < S Variable S > 0.20
(m/m) and and and and
S < 0.02 S < 0.03 S < 0.08 S < 0.30
Entrenchment Moderately
Ratio Entrenched (Ratio: < 1.4) Entrenched (1.4-2.2) Slightly Entrenched (> 2.2)
Width/Depth Low moderate Moderate Very Low moderate to High very High Low
Ratio width/depth ratio to High w/d width/depth ratio width/depth width/depth width/depth w/d
(<12) (>12) (>12) (<12) (>12) (>40) (<40)
Stream
Type A G F B E C D DA
Slope slope range slope range slope range slope range slope range slope range slope range slope
>0.10 0.04- 0.02- <0.02 0.02- <0.02 .04- 0.02- <0.02 0.02- <0.02 .02- .001- <.001 .02- .001- <.001 <.005
0.099 0.039 0.039 0.099 0.039 0.039 0.039 0.02 0.039 0.02
Channel
Material
Cobble A3a+ A3 G3 G3c F3b F3 B3a B3 B3c E3b E3 C3b C3 C3c- D3b D3
Gravel A4a+ A4 G4 G4c F4b F4 B4a B4 B4c E4b E4 C4b C4 C4c- D4b D4 D4c- DA4
Sand A5a+ A5 G5 G5c F5b F5 B5a B5 B5c E5b E5 C5b C5 C5c- D5b D5 D5c- DA5
Silt/Clay A6a+ A6 G6 G6c F6b F6 B6a B6 B6c E6b E6 C6b C6 C6c- D6b D6 D6c- DA6
Schumm et al. (1984), Harvey and Wat- Figure 7.12: Rosgen’s stream channel classifica-
son (1986), and Simon (1989) have tion system (Level II). This classification system
proposed similar channel evolution includes a recognition of specific characteristics
models due to bank collapse based on a of channel morphology and the relationship
between the stream and its floodplain.
“space-for-time” substitution, whereby
Source: Rosgen 1996. Published by permission of
downstream conditions are interpreted Wildland Hydrology.
as preceding (in time) the immediate
location of interest and upstream con-
ditions are interpreted as following (in
time) the immediate location of inter- Simon 1989, 1995) have gained wide
est. Thus, a reach in the middle of the acceptance as being generally applicable
watershed that previously looked like for channels with cohesive banks.
the channel upstream will evolve to Both models begin with a pre-
look like the channel downstream. disturbance condition, in which the
Downs (1995) reviews a number of channel is well vegetated and has
classification schemes for interpreting frequent interaction with its flood-
channel processes of lateral and vertical plain. Following a perturbation in the
adjustment (i.e., aggradation, degrada- system (e.g., channelization or change
tion, bend migration, and bar forma- in land use), degradation occurs, usu-
tion). When these adjustment processes ally as a result of excess stream power
are placed in a specific order of occur- in the disturbed reach. Channel degra-
rence, a channel evolution model dation eventually leads to oversteep-
(CEM) is developed. Although a num- ening of the banks, and when critical
ber of CEMs have been suggested, two bank heights are exceeded, bank fail-
models (Schumm et al. 1984 and ures and mass wasting (the episodic
Party:______________________ Date:_______________________
State:______________________ County:_____________________
Stream: ___________________________________________________
Bankfull Measurements: Lat/Long __________________________
Width _______________ Depth ______________ W/D ______________
Sinuosity (Stream Length/Valley Length) or (Valley Slope/Channel Slope):
Strm. Length ___________________ Valley Slope __________________________
Valley Length ___________________ Channel Slope ________________________
SL VS
Sinuosity VL _____________________ Sinuosity CS __________________________
Entrenchment Ratio (Floodprone Width/Bankfull Width):
Floodprone width is water level at 2x maximum depth in bankfull cross-section,
or width of intermediate floodplain (10-50 yr. event)
Bankfull Width __________________ Floodprone Width ____________________
Entrenchment Ratio ____________________
Slight = 2.2+ Moderate + 1.41-2.2 Entrenched = 1.0-1.4
Dominant Channel Soils:
Bed Material _____________ Left Bank ______________ Right Bank ______________
Description of Soil Profiles (from base of bank to top)
Left: __________________________________________________________________________
Right: _________________________________________________________________________
Riparian Vegetation:
Left Bank: _______________________ Right Bank __________________________
% Total Area (Mass) L _________________ R __________________
% Total Ht w/Roots L __________________ R __________________
Ratio of Actual Bank Height to Bankfull Height _____________________________
Bank Slope (Horizontal to Vertical ): L ____________________ R _____________________
Figure 7.13: Example of stream classification worksheet used with Rosgen methods.
Source: NRCS 1994 (worksheet) and Rosgen 1996 (pebble count). Published by permission of Wildland Hydrology.
Class II. Channelized Class III. Degradation Class IV. Degradation and Widening
h<hc h<hc h>hc
floodplain terrace
h
h h
slumped material
Class I
Class III
primary
nickpoint Class IV
top ba Class V
precursor plunge nk
nickpoint pool direction Class VI
of flow
secondary
nickpoint
oversteepened reach aggradation zone aggraded material
IV Threshold Degradation; basal Slab, Large scallops and bank retreat; Riparian vegetation
erosion on banks. rotational and vertical face and upper-bank high relative to flow
pop-out surfaces; failure blocks on line and may lean
failures. upper bank; some reduction in toward channel.
bank angles; flow line very low
relative to top bank.
V Aggradation Aggradation; Slab, Large scallops and bank retreat; Tilted and fallen
development of rotational and vertical face, upper bank, and riparian vegetation;
meandering thalweg; pop-out slough line; flattening of bank reestablishing
initial deposition of failures; low- angles; flow line low relative to vegetation on slough
alternate bars; reworking angle slides of top bank; development of new line; deposition of
of failed material on previously floodplain. material above root
lower banks. failed collars of slough line
material. vegetation.
VI Restabilization Aggradation; further Low-angle Stable, alternate channel bars; Reestablishing
development of slides; some convex-short vertical face on vegetation extends up
meandering thalweg; pop-out top bank; flattening of bank slough line and upper
further deposition of failures near angles; development of new bank; deposition of
alternate bars; reworking flow line. floodplain; flow line high material above root
of failed material; some relative to top bank. collars of slough-line
basal erosion on outside and upper-bank
bends deposition of flood- vegetation; some
plain and bank surfaces. vegetation
establishing on bars.
Class I. Premodified Class II. Constructed Class III. Degradation Class IIIa. Degradation
under-
cutting
vertical previous
slab and face 70-90˚ profile
rotational
failures
upper bank degraded
previous channel
profile 25-50˚
pop-out bottom
failures
Class V. Aggradation
vertical
face previous
70-90˚ profile
upper bank
25-40˚
fluvial
deposition
slough line 20-25˚
500
5
1
4 19
200 2 17 18
8
7 3
12 9
Width (feet)
100 10 11
6
50
19
14
20 15 5
16 5 4
13 18
3
10 12 17
2
9 1
2 7
8
11
Depth (feet)
6 10
1.0 14
15
13
0.5 16
5
9 2 3 17 18
8
11
per second)
Width (feet
1 4 19
5
16 7
2 10
13 14 6 12
15
1
10 100 1000 10,000
Mean Annual Discharge (cfs)
1000
QB = 28.3DA0.69
100
10
1 10 100 1000 10,000
Drainage Area (DA) (square miles)
1000
Bankfull Surface Width (WB) (feet)
100
WB = 8.1DA0.38
10
Road Creek
1
1 10 100 1000 10,000
Drainage Area (DA) (square miles)
100
Cross-sectional Area (square feet)
50
10
5
Bankfull Dimensions
50
Width (feet)
10
5
Depth (feet)
0.5
.1 .05 1 5 10 50 100 500
Drainage Area in Square Miles
Figure 7.20: Regional curves for bankfull channel dimensions versus drainage area. Curves
showing channel dimensions relating to drainage area for a region of the country can be useful
in determining departure from “ normal” conditions. The use of such curves must be tempered
with an understanding of the limitations of the specific data that produced the curves.
Source: Dunne and Leopold 1978.
Reference Data Source Median Bed Banks Discharge Sediment Slope Bedforms
Material Size (ft3/s) Concentration
(mm) (ppm)
Lacey 1958 Indian canals 0.1 to 0.4 Cohesive to 100 to < 500
slightly 10,000
cohesive
Blench 1969 Indian canals 0.1 to 0.6 Cohesive 1 to 100,000 < 301 Not Ripples to
specified dunes
Simons and U.S. and Indian 0.318 to Sand 100 to 400 < 500 .000135 to Ripples to
Albertson 1963 canals 0.465 .000388 dunes
0.06 to 0.46 Cohesive 5 to 88,300 < 500 .000059 to Ripples to
.00034 dunes
Cohesive, Cohesive 137 to 510 < 500 .000063 to Plane
0.029 to 0.36 .000114
Nixon 1959 U.K. rivers gravel 700 to Not measured
18,050
Kellerhals 1967 U.S., Canadian, and 7 to 265 Noncohesive 1.1 to Negligible .00017 to Plane
Swiss rivers of low 70,600 .0131
sinuousity, and lab
Bray 1982 Sinuous Canadian 1.9 to 145 194 to “ Mobile” bed .00022 to
rivers 138,400 .015
Parker 1982 Single channel Little 353 to
Canadian rivers cohesion 211,900
Hey and Meandering U.K. 14 to 176 138 to Qs computed .0011 to
Thorne 1986 rivers 14,970 to range up .021
to 114
1 Blench (1969) provides adjustment factors for sediment concentrations between 30 and 100 ppm.
because of the large degree of natural the Lacey, Blench, and Simons and Al-
variation in most data sets. Published bertson formulas in channel restoration
hydraulic geometry relationships usu- work since these curves were developed
ally are based on stable, single-thread using canal data. Additionally, hydraulic
alluvial channels. Channel geometry- geometry relationships developed for
discharge relationships are more com- pristine or largely undeveloped water-
plex for multithread channels. sheds should not be applied to urban
Exponents and coefficients for hydraulic watersheds.
geometry formulas are usually deter- As shown in Table 7.5, hydraulic geom-
mined from data sets for a specific etry relationships for gravel-bed rivers
stream or watershed. The relatively are far more numerous than those for
small range of variation of the expo- sand-bed rivers. Gravel-bed relation-
nents k2, k5, and k8 is impressive, con- ships have been adjusted for bank soil
sidering the wide range of situations characteristics and vegetation, whereas
represented. Extremes for the data sets sand-bed formulas have been modified
used to generate the hydraulic geometry to include bank silt-clay content
formulas are given in Tables 7.6 and (Schumm 1977). Parker (1982) argues
7.7. Because formula coefficients vary, in favor of regime-type relationships
applying a given set of hydraulic geom- based on dimensionless variables. Ac-
etry relationships should be limited to cordingly, the original form of the
channels similar to the calibration sites. Parker formula was based on dimen-
This principle severely limits applying sionless variables.
Kellerhals 1967 Field (U.S., Gravel-bed 1.8 0.5 0.33 0.4 -0.12a 0.00062 -0.4 0.92a
Canada, and rivers with
Switzerland) paved beds
and and small bed
laboratory material
concentration
Schumm 1977 U.S. (Great Sand-bed 37k1* 0.38 0.6k4* 0.29 -0.12a 0.01136k7* -0.32
Plains) and rivers with
Australia properties
(Riverine shown in
Plains of Table 6
New South
Wales)
Bray 1982 Canadian Gravel-bed 3.1 0.53 -0.07 0.304 0.33 -0.03 0.00033 -0.33 0.59
rivers rivers
Parker 1982 Single- Gravel-bed 6.06 0.444 -0.11 0.161 0.401 -0.0025 0.00127 -0.394 0.985
channel rivers, banks
Alberta with little
rivers cohesion
1-5% tree/ 1.84 0.5 0.41 0.37 -0.11 0.00296k7** -0.43 -0.09
shrub cover
Greater than 1.51 0.5 0.41 0.37 -0.11 0.00296k7** -0.43 -0.09
5-50% tree/
shrub cover
Greater than 1.29 0.5 0.41 0.37 -0.11 0.00296k7** -0.43 -0.09
50% shrub
cover or
incised flood
plain
a Bed material size in Kellerhals’ equation is D90.
bn = Manning n.
k1* = M-0.39, where M is the percent of bank materials finer than 0.074 mm. The discharge used in this equation is mean annual rather than bankfull.
k4* = M0.432, where M is the percent of bank materials finer than 0.074 mm. The discharge used in this equation is mean annual rather than bankfull.
k7* = M-0.36, where M is the percent of bank materials finer than 0.074 mm. The discharge used in this equation is mean annual rather than bankfull.
k7** = D540.84 Qx0.10, where Qx = bed material transport rate in kg s-1 at water discharge Q, and D54 refers to bed material and is in mm.
of the channel. These types of relationships are most powerful when developed from
regional data sets with conditions that are typical of the area being restored. Radius of
curvature, r , is generally between 1.5 and 4.5 times the channel width, w, and more
c
commonly between 2w and 3w, while meander amplitude is 0.5 to 1.5 times the
meander wavelength, L (USACE 1994). Empirical (Apmann 1972, Nanson and Hickin
1983 ) and analytical (Begin 1981) results indicate that lateral migration rates are
greatest for bends with radii of curvature between 2w and 4w.
Adjustment processes that affect entire scour or channel incision, sufficient bed
fluvial systems often include channel level lowering can lead to bank instabil-
incision (lowering of the channel bed ity and to changes in channel planform.
with time), aggradation (raising of the It is often difficult to differentiate be-
channel bed with time), planform tween local and systemwide processes
geometry changes, channel widening or without extending the investigation up-
narrowing, and changes in the magni- stream and downstream of the site in
tude and type of sediment loads. These question. This is because channels mi-
processes differ from localized grate over time and space and so may
processes, such as scour and fill, which affect previously undisturbed reaches.
can be limited in magnitude and extent. For example, erosion at a logjam ini-
In contrast, the processes of channel tially may be attributed to the deflec-
incision and aggradation can affect long tion of flows caused by the woody
reaches of a stream or whole stream debris blocking the channel. However,
systems. Long-term adjustment the appearance of large amounts of
processes, such as incision, aggradation, woody debris may indicate upstream
and channel widening, can exacerbate channel degradation related to instabil-
local scour problems. Whether ity of larger scope.
streambed erosion occurs due to local
10,000
10,000
1000
L = 10.9w1.01 L = 4.7rm0.98
100
10
1 10 100 1000 5 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000
Channel Width (feet) Mean Radius of Curvature (feet)
40,000 cfs
260
26,000 cfs
6000 cfs
3800 cfs
250
1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Year
Figure 7.25: Specific gauge plot for Red River dation if there are large scour holes,
at Index, Arkansas. Select discharges from the particularly in bendways. The existence
gauge data that represent the range of flows. of very deep local scour holes may
Source: Biedenharn et al. 1997.
completely obscure temporal variations
assess reach conditions or to make pre- in the thalweg. This problem can some-
dictions about the ultimate response on times be overcome by eliminating the
a river. pool sections and focusing only on the
Comparative Surveys and Mapping crossing locations, thereby allowing
aggradational or degradational trends
One of the best methods for directly as- to be more easily observed.
sessing channel changes is to compare
channel surveys (thalweg and cross Although thalweg profiles are a useful
section). tool, it must be recognized that they re-
flect only the behavior of the channel
Thalweg surveys are taken along the bed and do not provide information
channel at the lowest point in the cross about the channel as a whole. For this
section. Comparison of several thalweg reason it is usually advisable to study
surveys taken at different points in time changes in the cross-sectional geometry.
allows the engineer or geomorphologist Cross-sectional geometry refers to
to chart the change in the bed elevation width, depth, area, wetted perimeter,
through time (Figure 7.26). hydraulic radius, and channel con-
Certain limitations should be consid- veyance at a specific cross section.
ered when comparing surveys on a If channel cross sections are surveyed
river system. When comparing thalweg at permanent monumented range
profiles, it is often difficult, especially locations, the cross-sectional geometry
on larger streams, to determine any at different times can be compared
distinct trends of aggradation or degra-
1977 thalweg
1985 thalweg
320
Elevation (feet)
300
280
260
t= the time since the year prior to The variation of the regression coeffi-
the onset of the adjustment cients a and b with longitudinal dis-
process, in years (t0=0) tance along the channel can be used as
an empirical model of bed level adjust-
Future elevations of the channel bed ment providing there are data from
can, therefore, be estimated by fitting enough sites. Examples using both
the equations to bed elevations and by equations are provided for the Obion
solving for the period of interest. Either River system, West Tennessee (Figure
equation provides acceptable results, 7.27). Estimates of bed-level change
depending on the statistical significance with time for unsurveyed sites can be
of the fitted relation. Statistical signifi-
Figure 7.27:
Coefficient a and b -0.010 1st adjustment
values for regression 2nd adjustment
functions for esti- -0.005
mating bed level
adjustment versus -0.000
ongitudinal distance
along stream. Future -0.005
b-Value
-0.030
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance Upstream from Mouth (miles)
1.06
1st adjustment
2nd adjustment
1.04
1.02
a-Value
1.00
.98
a-values from equation
z/zØ = a + be(-kt) area of maximum
disturbance and
.96 mouth of Obion
River forks
.94
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Distance Upstream from Mouth (miles)
Bank Stability
Streambanks can be eroded by moving
water removing soil particles or by col-
lapse. Collapse or mass failure occurs
when the strength of bank materials is
too low to resist gravity forces. Banks
that are collapsing or about to collapse
are referred to as being geotechnically
unstable (Figure 7.28). The physical
properties of bank materials should be
described to aid characterization of po-
tential stability problems and identifica- Figure 7.28: Bank erosion by undercutting.
Removal of toe slope support leads to instability
requiring geotechnical solutions.
outflow fine-grained
continues soil layer
Figure 7.29: Relationship of dominant bank
failure mechanisms and associated stratigraph- sandy pervious
ics. (a) Uniform bank undergoing planar type soil layer
failure (b) Uniform shallow bank undergoing fine-grained
soil layers
rotational type failure (c) Cohesive upper bank,
noncohesive lower bank leads to cantilever 3. Failed Blocks Topple or Slide
type failure mechanism (d) Complex bank
stratigraphy may lead to piping or sapping
type failures.
Source: Hagerty 1991. In Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering. Vol. 117 Number 8. Reproduced by
permission of ASCE.
40
º
=
35
º
40 I º
30
º
25
c
º
Stability Number Ns = Hc
20 20
º
15
10º Figure 7.31: Stability
10 number (N ) as a
S
5º function of bank
=0 angle (i) for a failure
surface passing
5
through the bank
toe. Critical bank
height for worst-case
condition can be
computed.
2
Source: Chen 1975.
90 75 60 45 30 15
Slope Angle I (degrees)
1974) and by using a saturated bulk- with knowledge of the variability in co-
unit weight. These results are repre- hesive strengths. Five categories of
sented by the lower line, “saturated mean cohesive strength of channel
conditions.” banks are identified in Figure 7.33.
The frequency of bank failure for the Critical bank heights above the mean
three stability classes (unstable, at-risk, low-water level and saturated condi-
and stable) is subjective and is based tions were used to construct the figure
primarily on empirical field data (Fig- because bank failures typically occur
ure 7.32). An unstable channel bank during or after the recession of peak
can be expected to fail at least annually flows. The result is a nomograph giving
and possibly after each major storm- critical bank heights for a range of bank
flow in which the channel banks are angles and cohesive strengths that can
saturated, assuming that there is at least be used to estimate stable bank config-
one major stormflow in a given year. urations for worst-case conditions, such
At-risk conditions translate to a bank as saturation during rapid decline in
failure every 2 to 5 years, again assum- river stage. For example, a saturated
ing that there is a major flow event to bank at an angle of 55 degrees and a
saturate the banks and to erode toe ma-
Critical Bank Height (Hc) (feet)
Geomorphic Processes
7–61
Critical Bank Height (Hc) (feet)
100 ■ The timing of renewed bank stability
c = cohesion, in pounds per square (in the case of aggradation and
inch
decreasing bank heights).
c = 2.01 - 3.70
10 c = 1.51 - 2.00 ■ The bank height and angle needed
c = 1.01 - 1.50
c = 0.51 - 1.00
for a stable bank configuration under
c = 0 - 0.50
a range of moisture conditions.
1 Estimates of future channel widening
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 also can be made using measured
Bank Angle (degrees) channel-width data over a period of
years and then fitting a nonlinear func-
Figure 7.33: Critical bank-slope configurations
tion to the data (Figure 7.34). Williams
for various ranges of cohesive strengths under
saturated conditions. Specific data on the
and Wolman (1984) used a dimension-
cohesive strength of bank materials can be less hyperbolic function of the follow-
collected to determine stable configurations. ing form to estimate channel widening
downstream from dams:
(Wi / Wt) = j1 + j2 (1 / t)
cohesive strength of 1.75 pounds per
square inch would be unstable when where:
bank heights exceed about 10 feet. Wi = initial channel width, in feet
Predictions of Bank Stability and Wt = channel width at t years after
Channel Width
W1, in feet
Bank stability charts can be used to
determine the following: t = time, in years
0 d
W=xt
5
10 future
where:
channel
15 widening by W = channel width, in feet
mass-wasting
20 process x = coefficient, determined by regres-
25 projection sion, indicative of the initial channel
of slough-line angle
30 width
35 t = time, in years
channel centerline
40
d = coefficient, determined by regres-
100 80 60 40 20 0 sion, indicative of the rate of channel
Distance from Centerline of Channel (feet) widening.
Figure 7.34: Method to estimate future channel widening
(10–20 years) for one side of the channel. The ultimate bank
width can be predicted so that the future stream morphology
can be visualized.
Manual sampling has several advan- Automated samplers have been im-
tages. These approaches are generally proved greatly in the last 10 years and
uncomplicated and often inexpensive now have features that are useful for
(particularly when labor is already many sampling purposes. Generally,
available). Manual sampling is required such sampling devices require larger
for sampling some pollutants. For ex- initial capital investments or the pay-
ample, according to Standard Methods ment of rental fees, but they can reduce
(APHA 1995), oil and grease, volatile overall labor costs (especially for long-
compounds, and bacteria must be ana- running sampling programs) and in-
lyzed from samples collected using crease the reliability of flow-weighted
manual methods. (Oil, grease, and bac- compositing.
teria can adhere to hoses and jars used Some automatic samplers include an
in automated sampling equipment, upper part consisting of a microproces-
causing inaccurate results; volatile com- sor-based controller, a pump assembly,
pounds can vaporize during automated and a filling mechanism, and a lower
sampling procedures or can be lost part containing a set of glass or plastic
from poorly sealed sample containers; sample containers and a well that can
and bacteria populations can grow and be filled with ice to cool the collected
Nearly all analytical procedures for as- for the corridor, a value observed at an
sessing the condition of biological re- “unimpacted” reference site, a range of
sources can be used in stream corridor values observed in other systems, or a
restoration. Such procedures differ, normative value for that class of stream
however, in their scale and focus and in corridors in a stream classification sys-
the assumptions, knowledge, and effort tem. However, the indicator itself and
required to apply them. These proce- the analysis that establishes the value
dures can be grouped into two broad of the indicator provide no direct infor-
classes— synthetic measures of system mation about what has caused the sys-
condition and analyses based on how tem to have a particular value for the
well the system satisfies the life history indicator.
requirements of target species or species Deciding what to change in the system
groups. to improve the value of the indicator
The most important difference between depends on a temporal analysis in
these classes is the logic of how they are which observed changes in the indica-
applied in managing or restoring a tor in one system are correlated with
stream corridor system. This chapter fo- various management actions or on a
cuses on metrics of biological condi- spatial analysis in which values of the
tions and does not describe, for indicator in different systems are corre-
example, actual field methods for lated with different values of likely con-
counting organisms. trolling variables. In both cases, no
more than a general empirical correla-
Synthetic Measures of System tion between specific causal factors and
Condition the indicator variable is attempted.
Synthetic measures of system condition Thus, management or restoration based
summarize some aspect of the struc- on synthetic measures of system condi-
tural or functional status of a system at tion relies heavily on iterative monitor-
a particular point in time. Complete ing of the indicator variable and trial
measurement of the state of a stream and error, or adaptive management, ap-
corridor system, or even a complete proaches. For example, an index of
census of all of the species present, is species composition based on the pres-
not feasible. Thus, good indicators of ence or absence of a set of sensitive
system condition are efficient in the species might be generally correlated
sense that they summarize the health of with water quality, but the index itself
the overall system without having to provides no information on how water
measure everything about the system. quality should be improved. However,
the success of management actions in
Use of indicators of system condition in
improving water quality could be
management or restoration depends
tracked and evaluated through iterative
completely on comparison to values of
measurement of the index.
the indicator observed in other systems
or at other times. Thus, the current Synthetic measures of system condition
value of an indicator for a degraded vary along a number of important di-
stream corridor can be compared to a mensions that determine their applica-
previously measured preimpact value bility. In certain situations, single
for the corridor, a desired future value species might be good indicators of
Although collecting algae in streams re- Figure 7.36: Breeding bird census data. Species
quires little effort, identifying for met- abundance curve in a riparian deciduous forest
rics, such as diversity indices and taxa habitat.
Source: Tramer 1996.
richness, may require considerable ef- As indicated above, the RBP are divided
fort. A great deal of effort may be ex- into three sets of protocols (RBP I to
pended to document diurnal and III) for macroinvertebrates. RBP I is a
seasonal variations in productivity. “screening” or reconnaissance-level
analysis used to discriminate obviously
Benthic Macroinvertebrates
impaired and nonimpaired sites from
The intent of the benthic rapid potentially affected areas requiring fur-
bioassessment is to evaluate overall bio- ther investigation. RBP II and III use a
logical condition, optimizing the use of set of metrics based on taxon tolerance
the benthic community’s capacity to re- and community structure similar to the
flect integrated environmental effects ICI used by the state of Ohio. Both are
over time. Using benthic macroinverte- more labor-intensive than RBP I and in-
brates is advantageous for the following corporate field sampling. RBP II uses
reasons: family-level taxonomy to determine the
■ They are good indicators of localized following set of metrics used in describ-
conditions. ing the biotic integrity of a stream:
■ They integrate the effects of short- ■ Taxa richness.
term environmental variables. ■ Hilsenhoff biotic index (Hilsenhoff
■ Degraded conditions are easily 1988).
detected. ■ Ratio of scrapers to filtering collectors.
■ Sampling is relatively easy. ■ Ratio of Ephemeroptera/Plecoptera/
■ They provide food for many fish of Trichoptera (EPT) and chironomid
commercial or recreational impor- abundances.
tance. ■ Percent contribution of dominant
■ Macroinvertebrates are generally taxa.
abundant. ■ EPT index.
■ Many states already have background ■ Community similarity index.
data.
■ Ratio of shredders to total number of
individuals.
Sl
0.4
w
flo 0.2
cross section A 0
0 1 2 3 4
Velocity (ft/sec)
1.0
0.8
0.6
Sl
V1 V2 V3 . . . . . . . . . . velocity
0.4
D1 D2 D3 . . . . . . . . . . depth
C1 C2 C3 . . . . . . . . . . cover 0.2
A1 A2 A3 . . . . . . . . . . area 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Depth (ft) Cover
100,000
Unstable Area
Weighted
0
00 100
Discharge
Figure 7.38: Conceptualization of how PHAB- competition and predation. The typical
SIM calculates habitat values as a function of application of PHABSIM assumes rela-
discharge. A. First, depth (Di), velocity (Vi), tively steady flow conditions such that
cover conditions (Ci), and area (Ai) are mea-
depths and velocities are comparably
sured or simulated for a given discharge. B.
Suitability index (SI) criteria are used to weight stable within the chosen time step.
the area of each cell for the discharge. The PHABSIM does not predict the effects of
habitat values for all cells in the study reach flow on channel change. Finally, the
are summed to obtain a single habitat value field data and computer analysis re-
for the discharge. C. The procedure is repeated quirements can be relatively large.
for a range of discharges.
Modified from Nestler et al. 1989. Two-dimensional Flow Modeling
Concern about the simplicity of the
one-dimensional hydraulic models used
in PHABSIM has led to current research
interest in the use of more sophisticated
two-dimensional hydraulic models to
■ The hydrology of the stream has will correspond in the restored system,
been altered; for example, if stream- is an important element of formulating
flow has diminished by diversion or reasonable restoration objectives and
flood attenuation, sites in the ripari- designing a restoration plan.
an zone may be drier and no longer Vegetation Effects of System
suitable for the historic vegetation or Alterations
for current long-lived vegetation that
was established under a previous In a vegetation-hydroperiod model,
hydrologic regime. vegetation suitability is determined by
streamflow and the inundating dis-
■ The inundating discharges of plots in charges of plots in the riparian zone.
the riparian zone have been altered The model can be used to predict ef-
so that streamflow no longer has the fects of alteration in streamflow or the
same relation to site moisture condi- relations of streamflow to plot moisture
tions; for example, levees, channel conditions on the suitability of the ri-
modifications, and bank treatments parian zone for different types of vege-
may have either increased or tation. Thus, the effects of flow
decreased the discharge required to alterations and changes in channel or
inundate plots in the riparian zone. bottomland topography proposed as
■ The vegetation of the riparian zone part of a stream restoration plan can be
has been directly altered, for exam- examined in terms of changes in the
ple, by clearing or planting so that suitability of various locations in the ri-
the vegetation on plots no longer parian zone for different plant species.
Extreme Events and Disturbance ignore because these are so widely per-
Requirements ceived as destructive both of biota and
of constructed river features. In reality,
Temporal variability is a particularly im- however, these extreme events seem to
portant characteristic of many stream be essential to physical channel mainte-
ecosystems. Regular seasonal differences nance and to the long-term suitability
in biological requirements are examples of the riverine ecosystem for distur-
of temporal variability that are often bance-dependent species. Cottonwood
incorporated into biological analyses in western riparian systems is one well-
based on habitat suitability and time understood case of a disturbance-de-
series simulations. The need for pendent species. Cottonwood
episodic extreme events is easy to regeneration from seed is generally re-
stricted to bare, moist sites. Creating
these sites depends heavily on channel
movement (meandering, narrowing,
avulsion) or new flood deposits at high
There are a number of statistical procedures for estimat- elevations. In some western riparian
ing the frequency and magnitude of extreme events systems, channel movement and depo-
(see flood frequency analysis section of chapter 8) and sition tend to occur infrequently in as-
describing various aspects of hydrologic variation. sociation with floods. The same events
Changing these flow characteristics will likely change are also responsible for destroying
some aspect of the distribution and abundance of organ- stands of trees. Thus maintaining good
isms. Analyzing more specific biological changes generally conditions for existing stands, or fixing
requires defining the requirements of target species; the location of a stream’s banks with
defining requirements of their food sources, competitors, structural measures, tends to reduce the
and predators; and considering how those requirements regeneration potential and the long-
are influenced by episodic disturbance events. term importance of this disturbance-
dependent species in the system as a
whole.
Valley Form
In some cases, entire stream valleys
have changed to the point of obscuring
geomorphic boundaries, making stream
corridor restoration difficult. Volcanoes,
earthquakes, and landslides are exam-
ples of natural disturbances that cause
changes in valley form. Encroachment
and filling of floodplains are among the
human-induced disturbances that mod-
(a) ify valley shape.
Seepage
1. Sponge effect for hydrologic flows, mimimizing
downstream flooding
2. Control of dissolved-substance inputs from matrix
matrix
edge portion of corridor in upland
interior portion of corridor in upland
hillslope
floodplain
meander band
interior of patch of natural floodplain vegetation
edge of patch of natural floodplain vegetation
other ecologically-compatible land use
Other measures may be used to provide reservoirs are shallow, forested flood-
structure and functions. They may be plain impoundments usually created by
implemented as separate actions or as building low levees and installing outlet
an integral part of the restoration plan structures (Figure 8.17). They are usu-
to improve habitat, in general, or for ally flooded in early fall and drained
specific species. Such measures can pro- during late March to mid-April. Drain-
vide short-term habitat until overall ing prevents damage to overstory hard-
restoration results reach the level of woods (Rudolph and Hunter 1964).
maturity needed to provide the desired Most existing greentree reservoirs are in
habitat. These measures can also pro- the Southwest.
vide habitat that is in short supply. The flooding of greentree reservoirs, by
Greentree reservoirs, nest structures, design, differs from the natural flood
and food patches are three examples. regime. Greentree reservoirs are typi-
Beaver are also presented as a restora- cally flooded earlier and at depths
tion measure. greater than would normally occur
Greentree Reservoirs under natural conditions. Over time,
modifications of natural flood condi-
Short-term flooding of bottomland tions can result in vegetation changes,
hardwoods during the dormant period lack of regeneration, decreased mast
of tree growth enhances conditions for production, tree mortality, and disease.
some species (e.g., waterfowl) to feed on Proper management of green tree reser-
mast and other understory food plants, voirs requires knowledge of the local
like wild millet and smartweed. Acorns system—especially the natural flood
are a primary food source in stream cor- regime—and the integration of manage-
ridors for a variety of fauna, including ment goals that are consistent with
ducks, nongame birds and mammals, system requirements. Proper manage-
turkey, squirrel, and deer. Greentree ment of greentree reservoirs can provide
Approach A Approach B (Hey 1994) Approach C (Fogg 1995) Table 8.1: Three
Task Tools Task Tools Task Tools approaches to
Determine Empirical formulas Determine bed Analyze measured Compute Regime or hydraulic
achieving final
meander for meander material data or use mean flow, geometry formulas design. There are
geometry wavelength, and discharge to be appropriate width, depth, with regional
and channel adaptation of carried by design sediment transport and slope at coefficients. variations of the
alignment.1 measurements from channel at design function2 and design final steps to a
predisturbed discharge, hydraulic properties discharge.4
conditions or nearly compute bed of reach upstream restoration design,
undisturbed reaches. material sediment from design reach. after the first five
concentration.
steps described in
Compute Channel length = Compute mean Regime or hydraulic Compute or Appropriate
sinuosity, sinuosity X valley flow, width, geometry formulas estimate flow relationship between
the text are done.
channel length. Channel depth, and slope with regional resistance depth, bed sediment
length, and slope= valley slope/ at design coefficients, or coefficient at size, and resistance
slope. sinuosity. discharge.4 analytical methods design coefficient, modified
(e.g. White, et.al., discharge. based on expected
1982, or Copeland, sinuosity and
1994).3 bank/berm vegetation.
Compute Regime or hydraulic Compute Sinuosity = valley Compute Uniform flow equation
mean flow geometry formulas sinuosity and slope/ channel mean channel (e.g. Manning, Chezy)
width and with regional channel length. slope. slope and continuity equation,
depth at coefficients, and Channel length= depth and design channel
design resistance equations sinuosity X valley required to cross-sectional shape;
discharge.4 or analytical length. pass design numerical water
methods (e.g. discharge. surface profile models
tractive stress, Ikeda may be used instead of
and Izumi, 1990, or uniform flow equation.
Chang, 1988).
Compute Empirical formulas, Determine Lay out a piece of Compute Allowable velocity or
riffle spacing observation of meander string scaled to velocity or shear stress criteria
(if gravel similar streams, geometry and channel length on a boundary based on channel
bed), and add habitat criteria. channel map (or equivalent sheer stress at boundary materials.
detail to alignment. procedure) such design
design. that meander arc discharge.
lengths vary from 4
to 9 channel widths.
Check Check stability. Compute riffle Empirical formulas, Compute Sinuosity = valley
channel spacing (if gravel observation of sinuosity and slope/ channel slope.
stability and bed), and add similar streams, channel Channel length=
reiterate as detail to design. habitat criteria. length. sinuosity X valley
needed. length.
1 Assumes meandering planform would be stable. Sinuosity and arc-length are known.
2 Computation of sediment transport without calibration against measured data may give highly unreliable results for a specific channel
(USACE, 1994, Kuhnle, et al., 1989).
3 The two methods listed assume a straight channel. Adjustments would be needed to allow for effects of bends.
4 Mean flow width and depth at design discharge will give channel dimensions since design discharge is bankfull. In some situations channel may be increased to
allow for freeboard. Regime and hydraulic geometry formulas should be examined to determine if they are mean width or top width.
rc
MA
w
ML
L meander wavelength
ML meander arc length
w average width at bankfull discharge
MA meander amplitude
rc radius of curvature
arc angle
Stable Channel Domain Resistance Sediment Third Relation Table 8.2: Selected
Method Equation Transport Equation analytical procedures
Copeland 1994 Sand-bed rivers Brownlie Brownlie Left to designer’s discretion for stable channel
design.
Chang 1988 Sand-bed rivers Various Various Minimum stream power
Chang 1988 Gravel-bed rivers Bray Chang (similar in Minimum slope
form to Parker,
Einstein)
Thorne 1988 Same as for Thorne and Hey Gravel-bed rivers 1.905 + k1*** 0.47 0.2077 + k4*** 0.42
et al. 1986
Adjustments for bank Grassy banks with no trees w = 1.46 wc – d = 0.8815 dc +
vegetationa or shrubs 0.8317 0.2106
1-5% tree and shrub cover w = 1.306 wc – d = 0.5026 dc +
8.7307 1.7553
5-50% tree and shrub cover w = 1.161 wc – d = 0.5413 dc +
16.8307 2.7159
Greater than 50% tree and w = 0.9656 wc – d = 0.7648 dc +
shrub cover, or incised into 10.6102 1.4554
flood plain
Chang equations for determining river width and depth. Coefficients for equations of the form w = k1QK2; d = K4QK5; where w is mean bankfull width (ft), Q is the bankfull
or dominant discharge (ft3/s), d is mean bankfull depth (ft), D50 is median bed-material size (mm), and S is slope (ft/ft).
a w and d in these equations are calculated using exponents and coefficients from the row labeled “gravel-bed rivers”.
c c .
k1* = (S D50-0.5 - 0.00238Q-0.51)0.02.
k4* = exp[-0.38 (420.17S D50 Q -0.5 -0.51 0.4
-1) ].
k1** = (S D50-0.5 )0.84.
k4** = 0.015 - 0.025 In Q - 0.049 In (S D50-0.5).
k1*** = 0.2490[ ln(0.0010647D501.15/SQ0.42 )]2.
k4*** = 0.0418 ln(0.0004419D501.15/SQ0.42 ).
in the space available, the discussion DOS operating systems. Their concep-
here is limited to a few selected models tual and numerical schemes are robust,
(Table 8.4). In addition, Garcia et al. having been proven in field applica-
(1994) review mathematical models of tions, and the code can be successfully
meander bend migration. used by persons without detailed
These models are characterized as hav- knowledge of the core computational
ing general applicability to a particular techniques. Examples of these models
class of problems and are generally and their features are summarized in
available for desktop computers using Table 8.4. The acronyms in the column
e g
d1
Plan a c g1
c1 e1
f
b
a1
b1 f1
Profile
Elevation
a a1
c c1
e e1
g g1
Figure 8.26: Example b b1
plan and profile of a d d1
naturally meandering
f f1
stream. Channel cross
sections vary based
on width, depth, and
slope. Station
with the least squares best fit at 6.31 hydrologic events during project life.
channel widths. Riffle spacing tends to Good design practice also requires
be nearer 4 channel widths on steeper checking channel performance at dis-
gradients and 8 to 9 channel widths on charges well above and below the de-
more gradual slopes (R.D. Hey, per- sign condition. A number of
sonal communication, 1997). Hey and approaches are available for checking
Thorne (1986) also developed regres- both the vertical (bed) and horizontal
sion formulas for riffle width, mean (bank) stability of a designed stream.
depth, and maximum depth. These stability checks are an important
part of the design process.
Stability Assessment
Vertical (Bed) Stability
The risk of a restored channel being
damaged or destroyed by erosion or de- Bed stability is generally a prerequisite
position is an important consideration for bank stability. Aggrading channels
for almost all restoration work. Design- are liable to braid or exhibit accelerated
ers of restored streams are confronted lateral migration in response to middle
with rather high levels of uncertainty. In or point bar growth. Degrading chan-
some cases, it may be wise for designers nels widen explosively when bank
to compute risk of failure by calculating heights and angles exceed a critical
the joint probability of design assump- threshold specific to bank soil type. Bed
tions being false, design equation inac- aggradation can be addressed by stabi-
curacy, and occurrence of extreme
10˚
0˚
10˚ 45˚ 90˚
Bank Angle (deg)
Stage I
30˚
unstable
unreliable
stable
10˚
where a power number based on veloc-
ity, depth, and bend geometry exceeds
an erodibility index computed from 0˚
tabulated values of streambank material 10˚ 45˚ 90˚
Bank Angle (deg)
properties. Also among this group are
analytical models such as the one devel-
oped by Odgaard (1989), which con- Stage II
III
should be applied with careful consid- 20˚
eration of their limitations. For exam-
ple, Odgaard’s model should not be
applied to bends with “large curvature.” 10˚
Correction Factor A
1.0
Correction Factor F
1.8
0.9
frequency of design flow
1.6 alignment
0.8
1.4 0.7
16 14 12 10 8 6 4
1.2 Curve Radius ÷ Water Surface Width
Correction Factor B
1.0 1.0 Notes:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 In no case should the
Flood Frequency (percent chance) 0.8 allowable velocity be
exceeded when the 10%
1.5 0.6 chance discharge occurs,
bank slope regardless of the design
1.4 0.4 flow frequency.
Correction Factor D
1.2 1.2
Correction Factor Ce
1.1 1.1
SM
depth of design flow CH
,SC
1.0 ,M
,G
1.0 H
CL
,G
0.9
,M
0.9
C
density
L
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Water Depth (feet) 0.8
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Void Ratio (e)
Basic Velocities for Coherent Earth Materials (vb)
7.0
Basic Velocity for Discrete Particles of Earth Materials (vb)
6.5 Fine S Sand Gravel Cobble
13.0
CH
Basic Velocity (fps)
6.0 12.0
GC
11.0 Enter chart with D75 particle size
5.5 M 10.0 to determine basic velocity.
C L,G
SC
Basic Velocity (fps)
9.0
5.0 ,OH
MH 8.0
4.5 7.0
M 6.0
4.0 L,S sediment laden
,O 5.0
ML sediment laden flow
3.5 4.0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 3.0
Plasticity Index sediment free
2.0
5.5 1.0
0.0
1 1 1
5.0 8 4 2 1 2 4 6 81015
Grain Size (inches)
CH
Basic Velocity (fps)
Figure 8.31: Allowable velocities for unprotected earth channels. Curves reflect practical experience in
design of stable earth channels.
Source: USDA Soil Conservation Service 1977.
ft
lbs
s -1
ft - 2
0.001
0.0001
1 10 100
Bankfull Discharge per Unit Width, ft2 s-1
dational, while those with more gradual problem. Sediment transport relation-
slopes tended to be aggradational. ships are heavily dependent on the data
Downs (1995) developed stability crite- used in their development. Inaccuracy
ria for channel reaches in the Thames may be reduced by selecting transport
Basin of the United Kingdom based functions appropriate to the stream type
entirely on slope: channels straightened and bed sediment size in question. Addi-
during the 20th century were deposi- tional confidence can be achieved by ob-
tional if slopes were less than 0.005 and taining calibration data; however,
erosional if slopes were greater. calibration data are not available from a
channel yet to be constructed. If the ex-
Sediment Yield and Delivery isting channel is reasonably stable, de-
Sediment Transport
signers can compute a sediment
discharge versus streamflow relationship
If a channel is designed using an empiri- for the existing and proposed design
cal or a tractive stress approach, compu- channels using the same sediment trans-
tation of sediment-transport capacity port function and try to match the curves
allows a rough check to determine as closely as possible (USACE 1994).
whether deposition is likely to be a
Protection Erosion Acres Average Annual Sediment Sediment Sediment Sediment Delivered
Level Source or Erosion Rate Erosion Delivery to Deposited to Blue Stem Lake
Miles (tons/acre/year (tons/ Ratio Streams Uplands &
or tons/bank year) (percent) Floodplains (tons/ (percent)
mile/year) (tons/year) year)
150 ton
tributary D
Sediment budget.
Stream reaches
should be evaluated
s /d ay
for stability prior tributary E
cross-
to developing a section cross-
restoration plan. A section
D
to
50 s
0
n
/d
ay
2 5 0 to
Bed Material Load Routing Computations
ns/day
Bed material load transport capacity at B 500 tons/day
Bed material load transport capacity at C 900 tons/day cross-
section
Bed material load transport capacity at D 150 tons/day E cross-
50
Bed material load transport capacity at E 250 tons/day section
0
on
t
s /d C
Transport capacity at A 400 tons ay
on
/
s
50 tons deposition below B (550 - 500 = 50)
da
y
Load to C 500 tons transported below B
+ 250 tons from tributary E
750 tons to C Note:
Numbers represent
Transport capacity at C 900 tons tons/day bed material
150 tons erosion below C (750 - 900 = -150 tons) load in stream.
areas where sediment is building up or used to help predict the quantity of bed
where the stream is eroding. If these material sediment transported by a
problem areas do not match the predic- stream during a single storm event or
tions from the calculations, the sedi- over a typical runoff year.
ment transport equation may be To calculate the amount of sediment
inappropriate, or the sediment budget, transported by a stream during a single
the hydrology, or the channel surveys storm event, the hydrograph for the
may be inaccurate. event is divided into equal-length seg-
Single Storm versus Average Annual ments of time. The peak flow or the
Sediment Discharge average discharge for each segment is
The preceeding example predicts the determined. A spreadsheet can be devel-
amount of erosion and deposition that oped that lists the discharges for each
can be expected to occur over one day segment of a hydrograph in a column
at one discharge. The bed material (Table 8.6). The transport capacity from
transport equation probably used one the sediment rating curve for each dis-
grain size of sediment. In reality, a vari- charge is shown in another column
ety of flows over varying lengths of time (Figure 8.36). Since the transport ca-
move a variety of sediment particle pacity is in tons/day, a third column
sizes. Two other approaches should be should include the length of time repre-
sented by each segment of the hydro-
Discharge (ft3/s)
during a stream flow event.
400
300
1000
800
600
400
200
100
80
60
Discharge (cfs)
40
20
10
8
6
1
.1 .2 .4 .6 .8 1 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80 100 200 400 600 1000 5000 10,000
Suspended Sediment (tons/day)
Even where streams retain relatively ployed to help ensure plant establish-
natural patterns of flow and flooding, ment and improve habitat conditions.
stream corridor restoration might re- As discussed earlier in this chapter, inte-
quire that streambanks be temporarily gration of woody vegetative cuttings, in-
(years to decades) stabilized while dependently or in combination with
floodplain vegetation recovers. The ob- other natural materials, in streambank
jective in such instances is to arrest the erosion control projects is generally re-
accelerated erosion often associated ferred to as soil bioengineering. Soil-
with unvegetated banks, and to reduce bioengineered bank stabilization
erosion to rates appropriate for the systems have not been standardized for
stream system and setting. In these situ- general application under particular
ations, the initial bank protection may flow conditions, and the decision as to
be provided primarily with vegetation, whether and how to use them requires
wood, and rock as necessary (refer to careful consideration of a variety of fac-
Appendix A). tors. On larger streams or where erosion
In other cases, land development or is severe, an effective approach involves
modified flows may dictate the use of a team effort that includes expertise in
hard structures to ensure permanent soils, biology, plant sciences, landscape
stream stability, and vegetation is used architecture, geology, engineering, and
primarily to address specific ecological hydrology.
deficiencies such as a lack of channel Soil bioengineering approaches usually
shading. In either case (permanent or employ plant materials in the form of
temporary bank stabilization), stream- live woody cuttings or poles of readily
flow projections are used (as described sprouting species, which are inserted
in Chapter 7) to determine the degree deep into the bank or anchored in vari-
to which vegetation must be supple- ous other ways. This serves the dual
mented with more resistant materials purposes of resisting washout of plants
(natural fabrics, wood, rock, etc.) to during the early establishment period,
achieve adequate stabilization. while providing some immediate ero-
The causes of excessive erosion may be sion protection due to the physical re-
reversible through changes in land use, sistance of the stems. Plant materials
livestock management, floodplain alone are sufficient on some streams
restoration, or water management. In or some bank zones, but as erosive
some cases, even normal rates of bank forces increase, they can be combined
erosion and channel movement might with other materials such as rocks, logs
be considered unacceptable due to adja- or brush, and natural fabrics (Figure
cent development, and vegetation 8.37). In some cases, woody debris is
might be used primarily to recover incorporated specifically to improve
some habitat functions in the vicinity habitat characteristics of the bank and
of “hard” bank stabilization measures. near-bank channel zones.
In either case, the considerations dis- Preliminary site investigations (see
cussed above with respect to soils, use Figure 8.38) and engineering analyses
of native plant species, etc., are applica- must be completed, as described in
ble within the bank zone. However, a Chapter 7, to determine the mode of
set of specialized techniques can be em- bank failure and the feasibility of using
Effectiveness of Technique
The inherent factors in the properties
(a)
of a given bank stabilization technique,
and in the physical characteristics of a
proposed work site, influence the suit-
ability of that technique for that site.
Effectiveness refers to the suitability
and adequacy of the technique. Many
techniques can be designed to ade-
quately solve a specific bank stability
problem by resisting erosive forces and
geotechnical failure. The challenge is
to recognize which technique matches
the strength of protection against the
strength of attack and therefore per-
forms most efficiently when tested by
the strongest process of erosion and
most critical mechanism of failure. En-
(b) vironmental and economic factors are
Figure 8.37: A stabilized streambank. Plant integrated into the selection procedure,
materials can be combined with other materi- generally making soil bioengineering
als such as rocks, logs or brush, and natural methods very attractive. The chosen so-
fabrics. [(a) during and (b) after.]
16 gauge
wire
branch
cuttings
t
2f
live stake
baseflow
streambed
live
fascine
bundle
live stake
8- to 12-foot
length
rootwad
baseflow
streambed
thalweg channel
diameter of log =
16-in min.
Figure 8.48: Instream habitat. Suitable water quality, passage routes, and spawning grounds are
some of the characteristics of fish habitat.
Plan Layout
The location of each structure should
be selected. Avoid conflicts with bridges,
length of jetty
riparian structures, and existing habitat (varies)
resources (e.g., stands of woody vegeta-
tion). The frequency of structures should design flow
be based on the habitat requirements existing bank
2:1
previously determined, within the con- baseflow
text of the stream morphology and streambed
physical characteristics (see Chapter 7).
rock riprap 1
Care should be taken to place structures 1:
where they will be in the water during
baseflow. Structures should be spaced
to avoid large areas of uniform condi-
tions. Structures that create pools Front Elevation
not to scale
should be spaced five to seven channel
widths apart. Weirs placed in series
should be spaced and sized carefully to
avoid placing a weir within the backwa-
ter zone of the downstream structure,
since this would create a series of pools
with no intervening riffles or shallows.
approx.
been widely employed. Fact sheets on D100
several of these techniques are provided
in the Techniques Appendix, and numer-
ous design web sites are available Figure 8.50: Instream habitat structure.
Wing deflector habitat structure.
(White and Brynildson 1967, Seehorn Source: USDA-NRCS 1996a.
1985, Wesche 1985, Orsborn et al.
1992, Orth and White 1993, Flosi and
Reynolds 1994).
Channel Low St. Medium St. Boulder Bank Boulder Single Wing Double Wing Channel Bank
Type Check Dam Check Dam Placement Placement Deflector Deflector Constrictor Cover
A1 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
A2 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
B1-1 Poor Poor Good Excellent Poor Poor Poor Good
B1 Excellent Excellent N/A N/A Excellent Excellent N/A Excellent
B2 Excellent Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
B3 Fair Poor Poor Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
B4 Fair Poor Poor Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
B5 Fair Poor Poor Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
C1-1 Poor Poor Fair Excellent Poor Poor Poor Good
C1 Good Fair Fair Excellent Good Good Fair Good
C2 Excellent Good Good Excellent Good Excellent Excellent Good
C3 Fair Poor Poor Good Fair Fair Fair Good
C4 Fair Poor Poor Good Poor Poor Poor Fair
C5 Fair Poor Poor Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
C6 N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
D1 Fair Poor Poor Fair Fair Fair Fair Poor
D2 Fair Poor Poor Fair Fair Fair Fair Poor
Channel Half Log Floating Submerged Shelter Migration Gravel Traps Gravel
Type Cover Log Cover Barrier Placement
Meander Straight "V" Shaped Log
A1 N/A N/A N/A N/A Excellent Good Poor Poor
A2 N/A N/A N/A N/A Excellent Excellent Excellent Poor
B1-1 Good Good Good Excellent Fair Good Good Fair
B1 Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Fair
B2 Excellent Excellent Good Excellent Good Good Good Good
B3 Poor Fair Fair Fair Poor Poor Poor Poor
B4 Poor Fair Fair Fair Poor Poor Poor Poor
B5 Poor Fair Fair Fair Poor Poor Poor Poor
C1-1 Good Good Good Excellent Poor Fair Fair Fair
C1 Good Good Good Excellent Poor Fair Good Fair
C2 Good Excellent Excellent Excellent Poor Good Excellent Excellent
C3 Fair Good Fair Good Poor N/A N/A N/A
C4 Poor Good Fair Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
C5 Poor Good Fair Good Poor Poor Poor Poor
C6 N/A N/A N/A N/A Poor Poor Fair Fair
D1 Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor N/A Poor
D2 Poor Poor Poor Poor Poor N/A Poor Poor
Key:
Excellent - No limitation to location of structure placement or special modification in design.
Good - Under most conditions, very effective. Minor modification of design or placement required.
Fair - Serious limitation which can be overcome by placement location, design modification, or stabilization techniques.
Generally not recommended due to difficulty of offsetting potential adverse consequences and high probability of reduced effectiveness.
Poor - Not recommended due to morphological character of stream type and very low probability of success.
Not Applicable- Generally not considered since habitat components are not limiting.
Note : A3, A3-a, A4, A4-a, A5, A5-a channel types are not evaluated due to limited fisheries value.
While the RiMS can effectively intercept and treat Support for this work is from the Leopold Center
nonpoint source pollution from the uplands, it for Sustainable Agriculture, the Iowa Department
should be stressed that a riparian management of Natural Resources through a grant from the
system cannot replace upland conservation prac- USEPA under the Federal Nonpoint Source
tices. In a properly functioning agricultural land- Management Program (Section 319 of the Clean
scape, both upland conservation practices and an Water Act), and the USDA (Cooperative State
integrated riparian system contribute to achieving Research Education and Extension Service),
environmental goals and improved ecosystem National Research Initiative Competitive Grants
functioning. Program, and the Agriculture in Concert with the
Environment Program.
exotics to spread. Again, control of ex- flows created by impoundments are al-
otic species has some common aspects tered to favor native species and when
across land uses, but design approaches exotics such as salt cedar are removed
are different for each land use. before revegetation is attempted (Briggs
Control of exotics in some situations et al. 1994).
can be extremely difficult and may be Salt cedar is an aggressive, exotic colo-
impractical if large acreages or well- nizer in the West due to its long period
established populations are involved. and high rate of seed production, as well
Use of herbicides may be tightly regu- as its ability to withstand long periods of
lated or precluded in many wetland and inundation. Salt cedar can be controlled
streamside environments, and for some either by clearing with a bulldozer or by
exotic species there are no effective con- direct application of herbicide (Sudbrock
trol measures that can be easily imple- 1993); however, improper treatments
mented over large areas (Rieger and may actually increase the density of salt
Kreager 1990). Where aggressive exotics cedar (Neill 1990).
are present, every effort should be made Controlling exotics and weeds can be
to avoid unnecessary soil disturbance or important because of potential compe-
disruption of intact native vegetation, tition with established native vegeta-
and newly established populations of tion, colonized vegetation, and
exotics should be eradicated. artificially planted vegetation in restora-
Nonnative species such as salt cedar tion work. Exotics compete for mois-
(Tamarix spp.) and Russian olive ture, nutrients, sunlight, and space and
(Elaeagnus angustifolia) can outcom- can adversely influence establishment
pete native plantings and negatively rates of new plantings. To improve the
affect their establishment and growth. effectiveness of revegetation work, ex-
The likelihood of successful reestablish- otic vegetation should be cleared prior
ment often increases when artificial to planting; nonnative growth must also
■ Exotic Species
restoration. ■ Woody Debris Removal
■ Drainage
Landscape/
and drainage, and sediment or contami- ■ Controlled Outlets
Watershed
Exotic Species
nants as the most disruptive activities ■
■ Contaminants
■ Fragmentation
■ Homogenization
associated with agricultural land use. ■ Contaminants
Although an agricultural landscape ■ Exotic Invasion
■ Filter
Restored Wetland most conducive to serving the broadest
■ Filter Runoff
■ Sink
range of functions. This discussion
■ Habitat went on to suggest that a long, wide
Native Plant Cover stream corridor with contiguous vegeta-
■ Habitat
tive cover is a favored overall character-
Wetland Filter istic. A contiguous, wide stream
■ Filter Runoff
■ Sediment Sink corridor may be unachievable, however,
Habitat
■
where competing land uses prevail.
Restored Wetland and Furthermore, gaps caused by distur-
Riparian Habitat bances (utility crossings, highways and
■ Filter Runoff Channel Restoration
■ Sink ■ Re-instate Meander access lanes, floods, wind, fire, etc.)
Habitat
■ ■ Width/Depth
are commonplace.
■ Aquatic Habitat
Remineant Channel Connections
Nutrient Management ■
Restoration design should establish
functional connections within and ex-
Native Plant Recovery
■ Filter ternal to stream corridors. Landscape
■ Connectivity elements such as remnant patches of
Upland BMP’s for Agriculture
riparian vegetation, prairie, or forest
■ Conservation Cover ■ Residue Management exhibiting diverse or unique vegetative
■ Contour Farming ■ Strip Cropping
■ Field Borders ■ Tree/Shrub Planting
communities; productive land that can
■ Forestland Erosion Control ■ Water Spreading support ecological functions; reserve or
■ Hedgerow Planting ■ Wildlife Upland Habitat Management
■ Nutrient Management ■ Windbreak/Shelterbelt Establishment
abandoned land; associated wetlands or
■ Pest Management and Renovation meadows; neighboring springs and
stream systems; ecologically innovative
residential areas; and movement corri-
dors for flora and fauna (field borders,
activities and subsequent changes windbreaks, waterways, grassed terraces,
outlined in Chapter 3 come to mind. etc.) offer opportunities to establish
Those hypothetically reflected in the these connections. An edge (transition
figure are highlighted in Table 8.8. zone) that gradually changes from one
land use into another will soften envi-
Hypothetical Restoration ronmental gradients and minimize
Response disturbance.
Previous sections of this chapter and With these and the broad design guide-
earlier chapters identified connectivity lines presented in previous sections of
and dimension (width) as important this chapter in mind, Figure 8.53 pre-
structural attributes of stream corridors. sents a conceptual computer-generated
Nutrient and water flow, sediment trap- illustration of hypothetical restoration
Streambed Disturbance
Contaminants
Potential Effects
Decreased landscape diversity
Point source pollution
Nonpoint source pollution
Dense compacted soil
Increased upland surface runoff
Increased sheetflow with surface erosion rill and gully flow
Increased levels of fine sediment and contaminants in stream corridor
Increased soil salinity
Increased peak flood elevation
Increased flood energy
Decreased infiltration of surface runoff
Decreased interflow and subsurface flow to and within the stream corridor
Reduced ground water recharge and aquifer volumes
Increased depth to ground water
Decreased ground water inflow to stream
Increased flow velocities
Reduced stream meander
Increased or decreased stream stability
Increased stream migration
Channel widening and downcutting
Increased stream gradient and reduced energy dissipation
Increased flow frequency
Reduced flow duration
Decreased capacity of floodplain and upland
Increased sediment and contaminants
Decreased capacity of stream
Reduced stream capacity to assimilate nutrients/pesticides
Confined stream channel with little opportunity for habitat development
Increased streambank erosion and channel scour
Increased bank failure
Loss of instream organic matter and related decomposition
Increased instream sediment, salinity, or turbidity
Increased instream nutrient enrichment, sedimentation, and contaminants
leading to eutrophication
Activity has potential for direct impact. Activity has potential for indirect impact.
Streambed Disturbance
Vegetative Clearing
Channelization
Contaminants
Potential Effects
Highly fragmented stream corridor with reduced linear distribution of habitat
and edge effect
Loss of edge and interior habitat
Decreased connectivity and dimension (width) within corridor and to associated
ecosystems
Decreased movement of flora and fauna species for seasonal migration,
dispersal repopulation
Reduced stream capacity to assimilate nutrients/pesticides
Increase of opportunistic species, predators
Increased exposure to solar radiation, weather, and temperature
Magnified temperature and moisture extremes in corridor
Loss of riparian vegetation
Decreased source of instream shade, detritus, food, and cover
Loss of edge diversity
Increased water temperature
Impaired aquatic habitat
Reduced invertebrate population
Loss of wetland function
Reduced instream oxygen
Invasion of exotic species
Reduced gene pool
Reduced species diversity
Activity has potential for direct impact. Activity has potential for indirect impact.
results. Table 8.9 identifies some of tate stream corridor restoration. Forest
the restoration measures hypothetically management may be an on-going land
implemented and their potential use and part of the restoration effort.
effects on restoring conditions within Regardless, accessing and harvesting
the stream corridor and surrounding timber affects streams in many ways
landscape. including:
Windbreaks/Shelterbelts
Native Plant Cover
Upland Corridors
Riparian Habitat
Wetlands
Potential Resulting Effects
Increased landscape diversity
Increased stream order
Reduced point source pollution
Reduced nonpoint source pollution
Increased soil friability
Decreased upland surface runoff
Decreased sheetflow, width, surface erosion, rill and gully flow
Decreased levels of fine sediment and contaminants in stream corridor
Decreased soil salinity
Decreased peak flood elevation
Decreased flood energy
Increased infiltration of surface runoff
Increased interflow and subsurface flow to and within stream corridor
Increased ground water recharge and aquifer volumes
Decreased depth to ground water
Increased ground water inflow to stream
Decreased flow velocities
Increased stream meander
Increased stream stability
Decreased stream migration
Reduced channel widening and downcutting
Decreased stream gradient and increased energy dissipation
Decreased flow frequency
Increased flow duration
Increased capacity of floodplain and upland
Decreased sediment and contaminants
Increased capacity of stream
Increased stream capacity to assimilate nutrients/pesticides
Enhanced stream channel with more opportunity for habitat development
Decreased streambank erosion and channel scour
Decreased bank failure
Gain of instream organic matter and related decomposition
Decreased instream sediment, salinity, or turbidity
Measure contributes directly to resulting effect. Measure contributes little to resulting effect.
Windbreaks/Shelterbelts
and potential resulting effects (continued).
Measure contributes directly to resulting effect. Measure contributes little to resulting effect.
strip requirements e Residual vegetation must be sufficient to prevent degradation of downstream beneficial uses.
f In eastern OR, operators are required to "leave stabilization strips of undergrowth... sufficient to prevent washing of sediment into
by state. Class I streams below."
Warm winds, intense rainfall, and rapid snowmelt remain in place if they are in fourth-order or
during the winter of 1995-96 and again in the smaller streams and are situated in a manner that
winter of 1996-97 caused major flooding, land- maintains a connection between the structure
slides, and related damage throughout the Pacific and the streambank. They will be most durable
Northwest (Figure 8.54). Such flooding had not in watersheds with low landslide/debris torrent
been seen for more than 30 years in hard-hit frequency.
areas. Damage to roads, campgrounds, trails,
watersheds, and aquatic resources was wide-
spread on National Forest Service lands. These
events offered a unique opportunity to investi-
gate the effects of severe weather, examine the
influence and effectiveness of various forest man-
agement techniques, and implement a repair
strategy consistent with ecosystem management
principles.
The road network in the National Forests was
heavily damaged during the floods. Decisions
about the need to replace roads are based on
long-term access and travel requirements.
(a)
Relocation of roads to areas outside floodplains is
a measure being taken. Examination of road
crossings at streams concluded with design rec-
ommendations to keep the water moving, align
culverts horizontally and longitudinally with the
stream channel, and minimize changes in stream
channel cross section at inlet basins to prevent
debris plugs.
Many river systems were also damaged. In some
systems, however, stable, well-vegetated slopes
and streambanks combined with fully functioning
floodplains buffered the effects of the floods.
Restoration efforts will focus on aiding natural
(b)
processes in these systems. Streambank stabiliza-
Figure 8.54: 1996 Landslides. (a) April landslide:
tion and riparian plantings will be commonly
debris took out the track into the Greenwater River
used. Examination of instream structure durability and (b) July landslide: debris took out the road and
concluded that structures are more likely to deposited debris into the river.
Note: – = decrease; + = increase; 0 = no change. Stream gradient: 0 to 2% = flat; 2 to 4% = moderate; > 4% = steep. Banks refers to bank stability.
The Natural Resources Conservation Service, for- Control efforts included grading and vegetating
merly known as the Soil Conservation Service, the abandoned mine to reduce infiltration
has been working on the Oven Run project through acid-bearing layers and reduce erosion
along with the Stonycreek Conemaugh River and sedimentation, surface water controls to
Improvement (SCRIP) to improve water quality in carry water around the sites to safer outlets, and
a 4-mile reach above the Borough of Hooversville. treating discharge flow with anoxic limestone
SCRIP is a group of local and state government drains and chambered passive wetland treatments
as well as hundreds of individuals interested in (Figure 8.55(b)). Additionally, 1,000 feet of trees
improving the water quality in an area on were planted along one of the site streams to
Pennsylvania’s Degraded Watersheds list. shade the Stoneycreek River. Average annual
costs for the six sites were estimated to be
The initial goal of improving water quality result- $503,000 compared to average annual benefits
ed in improving habitat and aesthetic qualities. of $513,000.
The water coming into Hooversville had higher-
than-desired levels of iron, manganese, alu- The sites are being monitored on a monthly
basis, and 4 years after work was begun the
treatments have had a measurable success. The
acid influent has been neutralized, and the efflu-
ent is now a net alkaline. Iron, aluminum, and
manganese levels have been reduced, with iron
now at average levels of 0.5 mg/L from average
levels of 35 mg/L.
(a) (b)
Procedures for estimating peak dis- Sauer et al. (1983) provide equations
charges are described in Chapter 7, and like the one above and graphs that re-
effects of urbanization on magnitude of late the ratio of the urban to rural peak
peak flows must be incorporated into discharge (UQx/RQx) for recurrence in-
the analysis. Sauer et al. (1983) investi- tervals x = 2, 10, and 100 years. The 2-
gated the effect of urbanization on peak year peak ratio varies from 1.3 to 4.3,
flows by analyzing 199 urban water- depending on the values of BDF and IA;
sheds in 56 cities and 31 states. The ob- the 10-year ratio varies from 1.2 to 3.1;
jective of the analysis was to determine and the 100-year ratio varies from 1.1
the increase in peak discharges due to to 2.6. These ratios indicate that urban-
urbanization and to develop regression ization generally has a lesser effect on
equations for estimating design floods, higher-recurrence-interval floods be-
such as the 100-year or 1 percent cause watershed soils are more satu-
chance annual flood, for ungauged rated and floodplain storage more fully
urban watersheds. Sauer et al. (1983) depleted in large floods, even in the
developed regression equations based rural condition.
on watershed, climatic, and urban char- More sophisticated hydrologic analyses
acteristics that can be used to estimate than the above are often used, includ-
the 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 500-year ing use of computer models, regional
urban annual peak discharges for un- regression equations, and statistical
gauged urban watersheds. The equation analyses of gauge data. Hydrologic
for the 100-year flood in cubic feet per models, such as HEC-1 or TR-20, are
second (UQ100) is provided as an ex- often already developed for some urban
ample: watersheds.
.29 .15 1.26
UQ100 = 2.50 A SL (RI2+3) Once the flood characteristics of the
(ST+8)–.52 (13–BDF)–.28 IA.06 RQ100.63 stream are adjusted for urbanization,
new equilibrium channel dimensions
Techniques Appendix.
1000
In theory, a local watershed manage-
ment plan might be the best tool to
500 protect a stream corridor from the cu-
mulative impact of urban development;
however, in practice, few such plans
have realized this goal (Schueler 1996).
To succeed, such plans must address the
amount of bare ground exposed during
100
construction and the amount of imper-
vious area that will exist during and
50 after development of the watershed.
More importantly, success will depend
on using the watershed plan to guide
development decisions, and not merely
archiving it as a one-time study whose
recommendations were read once but
10
10 50 100 500 1000 never implemented (Schueler 1996).
Storm Runoff (cfs-days)
Key Tools of Urban Stream
Figure 8.58: Sediment-transport curves for Restoration Design
growing season storms. The effect of urban-
ization on sediment discharge is illustrated Restoration design for streams degraded
from data collected in a 32-square-mile area. by prior urbanization must consider
pre-existing controls and their effects on
restoration objectives. Seven restoration
ment discharge as evidenced by the sig-
tools can be applied to help restore
nificant scatter about each relation.
urban streams. (Schereler,1996) These
In addition to sediment basins, man- tools are intended to compensate for
agement practices for erosion and sedi- stream functions and processes that
ment control focus on the following have been diminished or degraded by
objectives: prior watershed urbanization. The best
■ Stabilizing critical areas along and results are usually obtained when the
on highways, roads, and streets. following tools are applied together.
2' min.
12" min.
Minimum
6' max. 4"x 4" trench.
Backfill trench with
Post spacing may be increased native soil or 3/4"-1/5"
to 8' if wire backing is used. washed gravel.
Note: Filter fabric fences shall be installed along contour whenever possible.
Figure 9.3: Silt fence installation guidelines. ing preparations should have been
Erosion control measures must be installed
made:
properly.
Source: King County, Washington. ■ Additional erosion control materials
should be stockpiled on site, includ-
ing straw bales, filter fabric and wire
centerline of backing, posts, sand and burlap bags,
swale or ditch
flow
Site Clearing
Once the appropriate construction
equipment has been acquired and site
preparation has been completed, any
placed by a helicopter’s cable. Although necessary site clearing can begin. Site
the hourly rate is about that of the daily clearing involves setting the geographic
cost of ground-based equipment, the limits, removing undesirable plant
ability to reach a stream channel with- species, addressing site drainage issues,
out use of an access road is sometimes and protecting and managing desirable
indispensable. existing vegetation.
Where access is good but the riparian Geographic Limits
corridor is intact, instream modifica-
tions can be made with a telescoping Site clearing should not proceed unless
crane. This equipment comes in a vari- the limits of activity have been clearly
ety of sizes. A fairly large, fully mobile marked in the field. Where large trees
unit can extend across a riparian zone are present, each should be marked
100 feet wide to deliver construction with colored and labeled flagging to en-
materials to a waiting crew without dis- sure that the field crew understands
turbing the intervening ground or vege- what is to be cut and what is to remain
tation. Where operational constraints and be protected from damage.
permit their use, bulldozers and scrap-
ers can be very useful, particularly for Removal of Undesirable Plant
earthmoving activities that are ab- Species
solutely necessary to get the job done. Undesirable plant species include non-
In addition, loaders are excellent tools native and invasive species that might
for transporting rocks, transplanting threaten the survival of native species.
large plants, and digging and placing Undesirable plants are normally re-
sod. moved by mechanical means, but the
For planting, standard farm equipment, specific method should be tailored to
such as tractors with mounted disks or the species of concern if possible. For
harrows, are generally suitable unless example, simply cutting the top growth
Figure 9.10: Treatment of cuts and fills. Slope be vegetated with species that will be
gradient is an important factor in determining used at the restoration site to protect
appropriate restoration measures. the soil from erosion and noxious
weeds.
since the stability of noncompacted fills
is generally quite low. Contouring Earthmoving
The erosive power of water flowing should result
To reduce grading expenses, the cut and in a slope that
down a slope should be recognized
fill should be balanced so no material is stable, mini-
during earthmoving. The steepest direc- mizes surface
needs to be transported to or from the
tion down a hillside is also the direc- erosion by
site. If the volume of material resulting
tion of greatest erosion by overland or virtue of
from cuts exceeds that from fills, some
channelized flow. The overall topogra- length and
of the soil must be disposed of off-site.
phy of the graded surface should be de- gradient, and
Disposal sites can be difficult to locate
signed to minimize the uncontrolled provides a fa-
and might require an additional grad-
flow of runoff in this direction. Chan- vorable envi-
ing permit from the local jurisdiction.
nelized flow should be diverted to ronment for
These possibilities should be planned
ditches cut into the soil that more plant growth.
for far enough in advance to avoid
closely follow the level contours of the
unanticipated delays during implemen-
land. Dispersed sheet flow should be
tation.
broken up by terraces or benches along
As a general rule, topsoil removed from the slope that also follow topographic
the site should be properly stockpiled contours. On a fine scale, the ground
for reuse during the final stages of im- surface can be roughened by the tracks
plementation. Even if undesirable of a bulldozer driven up and down the
species are present, the topsoil will pro- slope, or by a rake or harrow pulled
vide a growth medium suitable for the perpendicularly to the slope. In either
plant community appropriate to the case, the result is a set of parallel ridges,
site. It will also be a source of native spaced only a few inches apart, that fol-
species that can reestablish the desired low the contours of the land surface
diversity most rapidly (Liebrand and and greatly reduce on-site erosion.
Sykora 1992). Stockpiled soil also can
Straw or hay Available and inexpensive; may May need anchoring; may include undesirable
add undesirable seeds seeds
Hydraulic Blankets soil rapidly and Provides only shallow-rooted grasses, but may
mulches inexpensively out compete woody vegetation
Fabric mats Relatively (organic) or very (inorganic) High costs; suppresses most plant growth;
durable; works on steep slopes inorganic materials harmful to wildlife
Commercial Excellent soil amendment at Limited erosion-control effectiveness; expensive
compost moderate cost over large areas
Figure 9.20:
Remedial mainte-
nance. Soil bio-
engineering used
to repair failing
revetment.
Figure 9.23:
Engineered log jams.
Engineered log jams
(ELJs) can restore
riverine habitat and
in some situations
provide effective
bank protection.
restoration goal, for example, is to re- dicators are especially useful when de-
duce the salinity in a stream by 5 per- termining the bioaccumulation of a
cent, it would be much more difficult chemical.
to detect than a goal of reducing salin- Water chemistry samples are typically
ity by 50 percent. easier to replicate, can disclose slow
Chemical monitoring can often be used changes over time, and be used to pre-
in conjunction with biological monitor- vent catastrophic events when chemical
ing. There are pros and cons for using characteristics are near toxic levels. For
chemical and biological parameters example, water quality monitoring
when monitoring. Biological parame- might detect a slow decrease in pH over
ters are often good integrators of several a period of time. Some aquatic organ-
water quality parameters. Biological in- isms, such as trout, might not respond
Figure 9.25: Human interest in the stream corridor. Aesthetics are a highly valued benefit
associated with a healthy stream corridor.
■ Human health (disease, toxic/fish Use surveys, which determine the suc-
consumption advisories) cess of the restoration in terms of
■ Aesthetics (odor, views, sound, litter) human use, can provide additional bio-
logical data. Angler survey, creel census,
■ Non-consumptive recreation (hiking, birding questionnaires, and sign-in trail
birding, whitewater rafting, canoeing, boxes that request observations of spe-
outdoor photography) cific species can also provide biological
■ Consumptive recreation (fishing, data. Citizens’ groups can participate ef-
hunting) fectively, providing valuable assistance
at minimal cost.
■ Research and educational uses
■ Protection of property (erosion con-
trol, floodwater retention)
Streams
In effect, stream corridor restoration
and ongoing monitoring constitute
stream management. Many problems
detected during monitoring can be re-
solved by manipulation of the stream
corridor vegetation (Figure 9.27), land
uses, where possible, and only occa-
sionally, by direct physical manipula-
tion of the channel. If “resetting” of the
channel system is necessary, it essen-
tially becomes a redesign problem.
Where lateral erosion occurs in unantic-
ipated areas and poses an unacceptable
threat to function, property, or infra-
structure, another restoration approach
might have to be initiated.
Figure 9.27: Pruning streamside vegetation. Monitoring might detect
the need for manipulation of streamside vegetation.
Introduction
The following are presented as examples of the many
The user of techniques that are being used in support of stream
this document corridor restoration. Only a limited number of techniques
is cautioned not to by broad category are shown as examples. Neither the
attempt to replicate number of examples nor their descriptions are intended to
or apply any of be exhaustive. The examples are conceptual and contain lit-
the techniques dis- tle design guidance. All restoration techniques, however,
played without should be designed; often through an interdisciplinary
determining their
approach discussed in Part II of this document. Limited
appropriateness as
guidance is provided on applications, but local standards,
an integral part of
the restoration criteria, and specifications should always be used.
plan.
These and other techniques have specific ranges of
applicability in terms of physical and climate adaptation,
as well as for different physiographic regions of the
country. Techniques that are selected must be components
of a system designed to restore specific functions and
values to the stream corridor. The use of any single tech-
nique, without consideration of system functions and
values, may become a short-lived, ineffective fix laid on a
system-wide problem. All restoration techniques are most
effective when included as an integral part of a restoration
plan. Typically a combination of techniques are prescribed
to address prevailing conditions and desired goals.
Effective restoration will respond to goals and objectives
that are determined locally through the planning process
described in Chapters 4 though 6.
Appendix A A-1
The restoration plan may prescribe a variety of approaches
depending on the condition of the stream corridor and the
restoration goals:
• No action. Simply remove disturbance factors and “let
nature heal itself.”
• Management. Modify disturbance factors to allow
continued use of the corridor, while the system recovers.
• Manipulation. Change watershed, corridor, or stream
conditions through land use changes, intervention, and
designed systems ranging from installing practices to
altering flow conditions, to changing stream morpholo-
gy and alignment.
INSTREAM PRACTICES
Boulder Clusters...................................................................................................... A – 5
Weirs or Sills............................................................................................................ A – 5
Fish Passages .......................................................................................................... A – 6
Log/Brush/Rock Shelters ........................................................................................ A – 6
Lunker Structures.................................................................................................... A – 7
Migration Barriers .................................................................................................. A – 7
Tree Cover .............................................................................................................. A – 8
Wing Deflectors ...................................................................................................... A – 8
Grade Control Measures ........................................................................................ A – 9
STREAMBANK TREATMENT
Bank Shaping and Planting .................................................................................. A – 10
Branch Packing ...................................................................................................... A – 10
Brush Mattresses .................................................................................................... A – 11
Coconut Fiber Roll .................................................................................................. A – 11
Dormant Post Plantings ........................................................................................ A – 12
Vegetated Gabions ................................................................................................ A – 12
Joint Plantings ........................................................................................................ A – 13
Live Cribwalls .......................................................................................................... A – 13
Live Stakes .............................................................................................................. A – 14
Live Fascines ............................................................................................................ A – 14
Log, Rootwad, and Boulder Revetments .............................................................. A – 15
Riprap ...................................................................................................................... A – 15
Stone Toe Protection .............................................................................................. A – 16
Tree Revetments .................................................................................................... A – 16
Vegetated Geogrids................................................................................................ A – 17
WATER MANAGEMENT
Sediment Basins ...................................................................................................... A – 18
Water Level Control .............................................................................................. A – 18
CHANNEL RECONSTRUCTION
Maintenance of Hydraulic Connections................................................................ A – 19
Stream Meander Restoration ................................................................................ A – 19
Appendix A A-3
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Best Management Practices: Agriculture.............................................................. A – 22
Best Management Practices: Forestland .............................................................. A – 22
Best Management Practices: Urban Areas ............................................................ A – 23
Flow Regime Enhancement .................................................................................. A – 23
Streamflow Temperature Management .............................................................. A – 24
Appendix A A-5
INSTREAM PRACTICES
Appendix A A-7
INSTREAM PRACTICES
Appendix A A-9
STREAMBANK TREATMENT
Appendix A A-11
STREAMBANK TREATMENT
Appendix A A-13
STREAMBANK TREATMENT
Appendix A A-15
STREAMBANK TREATMENT
Appendix A A-17
WATER MANAGEMENT
Appendix A A-19
STREAM CORRIDOR MEASURES
Appendix A A-21
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Appendix A A-23
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
7. Cooper, C.M., and S.S. Knight. 1987. 16. Harrelson, C.C., J.P. Potyondy, C.L.
Fisheries in man-made pools below grade Rawlins. 1994. Stream channel reference
control structures and in naturally occurring sites: an illustrated guide to field technique.
scour holes of unstable streams. Journal of General Technical Report RM-245. U.S.
Soil and Water Conservation 42: 370-373. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Fort Collins, CO.
9. Darrach, A.G. et al. 1981. Building water
pollution control into small private forest 17. Harris, F.C. 1901. Effects of dams and like
and ranchland roads. Publication R6-S&PF- obstructions in silt-bearing streams.
006- 1980. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Engineering News 46.
Forest Service, Portland, Oregon.
18. Henderson, J.E. 1986. Environmental
10. DuPoldt, C.A., Jr. 1996. Compilation of designs for streambank protection projects.
technology transfer information from the Water Resources Bulletin 22(4): 549-558.
XXVII conference of the International
Erosion Control Association. U.S. 20. Iowa State University, University Extension.
Department of Agriculture, Natural 1996. Buffer strip design, establishment and
Resources Conservation Service, Somerset, maintenance. In Stewards of Our Streams.
New Jersey. Ames, Iowa.
Appendix A A- 25
22. Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County almanac 31. McLaughlin Water Engineers, Ltd. 1986.
and sketches here and there. Oxford Evaluation of and design recommendations
University Press, New York. for drop structures in the Denver
metropolitan area. A Report prepared for
23. Leopold, L.B., and D.L. Rosgen. 1991. the Denver Urban Drainage and Flood
Movement of bed material clasts in gravel Control District.
streams. In Proceedings of the Fifth Federal
Interagency Sedimentation Conference. Las 32. McMahon, T.A. 1993. Hydrologic design
Vegas, Nevada. for water use. In Handbook of Hydrology,
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24. Leopold, L.B., and M.G. Wolman. 1957. York.
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26. Little, W.C., and J.B. Murphy. 1982. Combs. American Society of Civil
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27. Logan, R., and B. Clinch. 1991. Montana Paul, Minnesota.
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29. Maryland Department of the Environment, Technical Report No. 2-760. U.S. Army
Water Management Administration. 1994. Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment
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association with Soil Conservation Service 39. National Research Council. 1992.
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30. Maryland Department of Natural Resources,
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sediment control guidelines for forest Kennedy. 1991. Annotated bibliography on
harvest operations in Maryland. Annapolis, grade control structures. Miscellaneous
Maryland. Paper, HL-914. U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Appendix A A- 26
41. Nelson, W.R., J.R. Dwyer, and W.E. 51. Schultz, R.C., J.P. Colletti, T.M. Isenhart,
Greenberg. 1988. Flushing and scouring W.W. Simpkings, C.W. Mize, and M.L.
flows for habitat maintenance in regulated Thompson. 1995. Design and placement of
streams. U.S. Environmental Protection a multi-species riparian buffer strip.
Agency, Washington, DC. Agroforestry Systems 29: 201-225.
42. New Hampshire Timberland Owners 52. Schumm, S.A. 1963. A tentative classifica-
Association. 1991. A pocket field guide for tion system of alluvial rivers. Circular 477.
foresters, landowners and loggers. Concord, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, DC.
New Hampshire.
43. New York Department of Environmental 53. Schumm, S.A. 1977. The fluvial system.
Conservation. 1992. Reducing the impacts John Wiley and Sons, New York.
of stormwater runoff from new
development. Albany, New York. 54. Schumm, S.A., M.D. Harvey, and C.A.
Watson. 1984. Incised channels:
44. Pennsylvania Fish Commission. (Undated). morphology, dynamics and control. Water
Fish habitat improvement for streams. Resources Publications, Littleton, Colorado.
Pennsylvania Fish Commission, Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania. 55. Seehorn, M.E. 1992. Stream habitat
improvement handbook. Technical
45. Reid, G.K., and R.D. Wood. 1976. Ecology Publication R8-TP 16. U.S. Department of
of inland waters and estuaries. D. Van Agriculture, Forest Service, Atlanta,
Nostrand Co., New York. Georgia.
46. Rosgen, D.L. 1985. A stream classification 56. Shields, F.D., Jr., and N.M. Aziz. 1992.
system— riparian ecosystems and their Knowledge-based system for environmental
management. First North American design of stream modifications. Applied
Riparian Conference, Tucson, Arizona. Engineering in Agriculture, ASCE 8: 4.
47. Rosgen, D.L. 1993. River restoration using 57. Shields, F.D., Jr., and R.T. Milhous. 1992.
natural stability concepts. In Proceedings of Sediment and aquatic habitat in river
Watershed ‘93, A National Conference on systems. Final Report. American Society of
Watershed Management. Alexandria, Civil Engineers Task Committee on
Virginia. Sediment Transport and Aquatic Habitat.
Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 118(5).
48. Saele, L.M. 1994. Guidelines for the design
of stream barbs. Streambank Protection and 58. Shields, F.D., Jr., S.S. Knight, and C.M.
Restoration Conference. U.S. Department Cooper. 1995. Incised stream physical
of Agriculture, Natural Resources habitat restoration with stone weirs.
Conservation Service, Portland, Oregon. Regulated Rivers: Research and
Management 10.
50. Schueler, T.R. 1987. Controlling urban
runoff: a practical manual for planning and 59. Shields, F.D., Jr., C.M. Cooper, and S.S.
designing urban BMPs. Metropolitan Knight. 1992. Rehabilitation of aquatic
Washington Council of Governments, habitats in unstable streams. Fifth
Washington, DC. Symposium on River Sedimentation.
Karlsruhe.
Appendix A A- 27
60. Shields, F.D., Jr. 1983. Design of habitat 72. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil
structures open channels. Journal of Water Conservation Service. 1977. Design of
Resources Planning and Management, open channels. Technical Release 25.
ASCE 109: 4.
73. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
61. Shields, F.D., Jr. 1982. Environmental Resources Conservation Service.
features for flood control channels. Water (Continuously updated). National handbook
Resources Bulletin, AWRA 18(5): 779-784. of conservation practices. Washington, DC.
63. Tate, C.H., Jr. 1988. Muddy Creek grade 74. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil
control structures, Muddy Creek, Conservation Service. (1983). Sediment-
Mississippi and Tennessee. Technical storage design criteria. In National
Report HL-88-11. U.S. Army Corps of Engineering Handbook, Section 3.
Engineers Waterways Experiment Station, Sedimentation, Chapter 8. Washington, DC.
Vicksburg, Mississippi.
75. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
65. Thompson, J.N., and D.L. Green. 1994. Resources Conservation Service. 1992.
Riparian restoration and streamside erosion Wetland restoration, enhancement or
control handbook. Tennessee Department of creation. In Engineering Field Handbook.
Environment and Conservation, Nashville, Chapter 13. Washington, DC.
Tennessee.
77. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
66. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1970. Resources Conservation Service. 1996.
Hydraulic Design of Flood Control Streambank and shoreline protection. In
Channels. EM-1110-1601, (Revision in Engineering field handbook, Part 650,
press 1990). Chapter 16.
67. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1981. Main 78. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
report, Final report to Congress on the Resources Conservation Service. 1995.
streambank erosion control evaluation and Riparian forest buffer, 391, model state
demonstration Act of 1974, Section 32, standard and general specifications.
Public Law 93-251. U.S. Army Corps of Watershed Science Institute, Agroforesters
Engineers, Washington, DC. and Collaborating Partners, Seattle,
Washington.
68. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983.
Streambank protection guidelines. U.S. 79. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC. Resources Conservation Service. c1995.
(Unpublished draft). Planning and design
69. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1989. guidelines for streambank protection. South
Engineering and design: environmental National Technical Center, Fort Worth,
engineering for local flood control channels. Texas.
Engineer Manual No. 1110-2- 1205.
Department of the Army, U.S. Army Corps 80. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
of Engineers, Washington, DC. Resources Conservation Service, and Illinois
Environmental Protection Agency. 1994.
70. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Illinois Urban Manual. Champaign, Illinois.
Service. 1989. Managing grazing of
riparian areas in the Intermountain Region, 81. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
prepared by Warren P. Clary and Bert F. 1993. Guidance specifying management
Webster. General Technical Report INT- measures for sources of nonpoint pollution
263. Intermountain Research Station, in coastal waters. Publication 840-B-92-
Ogden, UT. 002. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Water, Washington, DC.
Appendix A A- 28
82. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 86. Waldo, P. 1991. The geomorphic approach
1995. Water quality of riparian forest buffer to channel investigation. In Proceedings of
systems in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. the Fifth Federal Interagency Sedimentation
EPA-903-R-95-004. Prepared by the Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada.
Nutrient Subcommittee of the Chesapeake
Bay Program. 88. Welsch, D.J. 1991. Riparian forest buffers.
Publication NA-PR-07-91. U.S. Department
83. U.S. Department of Transportation. 1975. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Radnor,
Highways in the river environment— Pennsylvania.
hydraulic and environmental design
considerations. Training and Design 89. Welsch, D.J., D.L. Smart et al. (Undated).
Manual. Forested wetlands: functions, benefits and
the use of best management practices.
84. Vanoni, V.A., and R.E. Pollack. 1959. (Coordinated with U.S. Natural Resources
Experimental design of low rectangular Conservation Service, U.S. Army Corps of
drops for alluvial flood channels. Report Engineers, U.S. Environmental Protection
No. E-82. California Institute of Agency, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Technology, Pasadena, California. U.S. Forest Service). Publication No. NA-
PR- 01-95. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
85. Vitrano, D.M. 1988. Unit construction of Forest Service, Radnor, Pennsylvania.
trout habitat improvement structures for
Wisconsin Coulee streams. Administrative
Report No. 27. Wisconsin Department of
Natural Resources, Bureau of Fisheries
Management, Madison, Wisconsin.
Appendix A A- 29
Additional Information:
Andrews, E.D. 1983. Entrainment of gravel Short, H., and J. Ryan. 1995. The Winooski
from naturally sorted riverbed material. River watershed evaluation project report.
Geological Society of America 94: 1225-1231. Americorps— Corporation for National and
Community Service, and U.S. Department of
Arizona Riparian Council. 1990. Protection and Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation
enhancement of riparian ecosystems (An Service, Williston, Vermont.
Annotated Bibliography). Phoenix, Arizona.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
Coppin, N.J., and I.G. Richards. 1990. Use of Resources Conservation Service. 1992. Soil
vegetation in civil engineering. Butterworths, bioengineering for upland slope protection and
London, England. erosion reduction. In Engineering field
handbook, Part 650, Chapter 18.
Henderson, J.E., and F.D. Shields. 1984.
Environmental features for streambank U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil
protection projects. Technical Report E-84-11. Conservation Service. (Undated). Agriculture
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways Information Bulletin 460. Washington, DC.
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
Marble, A.D. 1992. A guide to wetland Resources Conservation Service. 1996.
functional design. Lewis Publishers, Boca Examining a 1930’s case study summary:
Raton, Florida. restoration of the Winooski River watershed,
Vermont. Watershed Science Institute,
Melanson, G.P. 1993. Riparian Landscape. Burlington, Vermont.
Cambridge University, Great Britain.
Washington State Department of Ecology. 1992.
Naiman, R.J. 1992. Watershed management. Stormwater management manual for the Puget
Springer-Verlag, New York. Sound basin. Olympia, Washington.
Pacific Rivers Council. 1993. Entering the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.
watershed. Washington, DC. 1995. Best management practices for water
quality. Bureau of Forestry, Madison,
Schueler, T.R., P.A. Kumble, and M.A. Heraty. Wisconsin.
1992. A current assessment of urban best
management practices. Washington Wullstein, L.H., D. Duff, and J. McGurrin et al.
Metropolitan Council of Governments for U.S. 1995. Indexed bibliography on stream habitat
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, improvement. Trout Unlimited. U.S. Fish and
DC. Wildlife Service, U.S. Forest Service, University
of Utah, Ogden, Utah.
Appendix A A- 30
Appendix B
INCH-POUND / METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS
Length
Unit of measure Abbreviation mm cm m km in ft mi
Area
Unit of measure Abbreviation m2 ha km2 ft2 acre mi2
Volume
Unit of measure Abbreviation km3 m3 L Mgal acre-ft ft3 gal
Flow Rate
Unit of measure Abbreviation km3/yr m3/s L/s mgd gpm cfs acre-ft/day
cubic meters/second m3/s (m3/sec) 0.0316 1 1000 22.8 15800 35.3 70.1
million U.S. gallons/day mgd (Mgal/d) — 0.044 43.8 1 694 1.547 3.07
Temperature
Unit of measure Abbreviation F C
Appendix B B-1
Index
Index B-33
Evaluation, 6-34, 6-41 Flow Ground water
baseline characterization, 9-29 allowable velocity check, 8-48, 8-51 aquifer, 2-10
effectiveness monitoring, 9-32 allowable stress check, 8-48, 8-51 aquitards, 2-10
fish barrier modifications, 9-36 baseflow, 1-14, 2-13 capillary fringe, 2-10
human interest, 9-38, 9-46 daily mean streamflow, 7-6 confined aquifer, 2-11
implementation monitoring, 9-32 ecological impacts, 2-15 pellicular water, 2-10
parameters, 9-32 ephemeral streams, 1-16 phreatic zone, 2-11
performance evaluation, 9-29 effluent or gaining reaches, 1-16 recharge area, 2-11
reference sites, 9-35 impact on fauna, 2-68 springs, seeps, 2-11
risk assessment, 9-29 influent or “losing” reaches, 1-16 unconfined aquifer, 2-11
trend assessment, 9-29 intermittent streams, 1-16 vadose zone, 2-10
validation monitoring, 9-32 mean annual flow, 7-15
Evaporation, 2-6 peak flow, 7-6 H
Evapotranspiration, 2-7 perennial streams, 1-16 Habitat Evaluation Procedures (HEP),
Exotic species, 3-10 stormflow, 1-14 7-87
control, 8-79 sources of data, 7-6 Habitat functions, 2-78
salt cedar, 3-12 uniform flow, 7-20 edge and interior, 2-81, 8-21
Western U.S., 3-11 Flow duration, 2-14 Habitat Recovery (instream), 8-70
flow duration curve, 7-3 procedures, 8-71
F Flow frequency, 2-14, 7-4 Hydraulic geometry
Fauna flood frequency analysis, 7-4, 7-7 channel planform, 7-47
aquatic fauna, 2-63 low-flow frequency analysis, 7-7 hydraulic geometry curves Salmon
beaver (see Beaver above) Food patches, 8-25 River, 7-43
benthic invertebrates, 2-63 Forests and forestry hydraulic geometry theory, 7-41,
birds, 2-57 buffer strips, 8-89 8-36
fish, 2-65 managing restoration, 9-42 meander geometry, 7-47,7-48,
habitat features, 2-56 site preparation, 3-17 7-49
mammals, 2-58 transportation, 3-17, 8-88 regime formulas, 7-49
mussels, 2-67 tree removal, 3-16 regime theory, 7-44
reptiles and amphibians, 2-57 Functions, 2-78 regional curves, 7-44
Fencing, 9-20 barrier, 2-78 relations based on mean annual
Filter and barrier functions, 2-84 conduit, 1-8, 2-78 discharge, 7-41
edges, 2-85 filter, 2-78 stability assessment, 7-44
Fish, 2-65 habitat, 2-78 Hydrologic cycle, 2-3
barriers, 8-75, 9-36 sink, 2-78 Hydrologic unit cataloging, 1-9
bioindicators, 7-83 source, 2-78
feeding and reproduction Funding,
organization, 4-9 I
strategies, 2-66 Indicator species, 7-76
managing restoration, 9-46 restoration implementation, 6-2
aquatic invertebrates
species richness, 2-65 habitat evaluation procedures,
Floodplain, 1-12 G 7-78
hydrologic floodplain, 1-18 Geomorphic assessment, 7-26 riparian response guilds, 7-78
topographic floodplain, 1-18 Geomorphology, 2-15 selecting indicators, 7-77
flood storage, 1-18 Goals and Objectives, 5-12, 5-14 Infiltration, 2-8
lag time, 1-18 desired future conditions, 5-3, infiltration capacity, 2-8
lateral accretion, 2-26 5-12 infiltration rate, 2-8
stability, 2-24 responsiveness, 5-14 porosity, 2-8
vertical accretion, 2-26 restoration constraints and issues, Implementing restoration, 6-2
Floodplain landforms and deposits, 5-7 construction, 9-12
1-19 restoration goals, 5-12 emergency maintenance, 9-26
backswamps, 1-19 restoration objectives, 5-13 flow diversion, 9-14
chute, 1-19 scale considerations, 5-3 minimizing disturbance, 9-4
clay plug, 1-19 self-sustainability, 5-14 plant establishment, 9-15
meander scroll, 1-19 tolerance, 5-14 remedial maintenance, 9-26
natural levees, 1-19 value, 5-14 scheduled maintenance, 9-26
oxbow, 1-19 vulnerability, 5-14 site preparation, 9-3, 9-10
oxbow lake, 1-19 Grazing staging areas, 9-4
restoration of microrelief, 8-8 loss of vegetative cover, 3-18 work zone, 9-3
splays, 1-19 physical impacts, 3-19 Inspection, 9-21
Flood-pulse concept, 1-21 restoration, 8-90, 9-43 Instream Flow Incremental Methodol-
Greentree reservoirs, 8-24 ogy (IFIM), 5-24,7-88,
Index B-35
Sediment transport, 2-15, 8-53 Stability (in stream and floodplain), U
bed load, 2-18 2-20, 2-87 Urbanization, 3-22
bed-material load, 2-18, 2-19 assessment, 8-44 altered channels, 3-24. 8-97
budget, 8-56 allowable stress check, 8-48 altered hydrology, 3-23, 8-97
discharge functions, 8-55 allowable velocity check, 8-48 design tools, 8-101
HEC-6, 8-54 controls, 8-64 habitat and aquatic life, 3-25
impact on habitat, 2-26 horizontal stability, 8-45 inspection program, 9-25
impact on water quality, 2-26 vertical stability, 8-44 runoff controls, 8-99
measured load, 2-19 Storm hydrograph, 1-15 sediment controls, 8-100
particle movement, 2-17 after urbanization, 1-15 sedimentation and contaminants,
processes, 7-57 recession limb, 1-15 3-24
saltation, 2-17 rising limb, 1-15
sediment load, 2-18 Stream classification, 7-26, 7-85
sediment rating curve, 7-13, 8-29 applications of geomorphic V
stream competence, 2-16 analysis, 7-37 Valley form, 8-4
stream power, 2-19, 8-52 advantages, 7-27 Vegetation
suspended bed material load, 2-18 alluvial vs. non-alluvial, 7-27 across the stream corridor, 1-21
suspended load, 2-18, 2-19 limitations, 7-27 along the stream corridor, 1-29
suspended sediment discharge, use in restoring biological canyon effect, 2-54
2-18 conditions, 7-86 distribution and characteristics,
tractive (shear) stress, 2-16, 8-38, Stream corridor, 1-1 2-51
8-48, 8-51 adjustments, 2-21 flooding tolerances, 7-96, 8-22
unmeasured load, 2-19 common features, 1-12 horizontal complexity, 2-52, 8-17
wash load, 2-18, 2-19 Stream corridor scale, 1-10 internal complexity (diversity),
Single-thread streams, 1-26 in developing goals and objectives, 2-51
Sinuosity, 1-27 5-6 landscape scale, 2-53
affecting slope, 2-22 Stream health structure, 2-55
meander design, 8-34, 8-36 visual assessment, 7-76 stream corridor scale, 2-53
Site access, 6-15, 9-4 Stream instability, 7-50 vertical complexity (diversity),
access easement, 6-16 bed stability, 7-51 2-55, 8-21
drainage easement, 6-16 local, 7-51 zonation, 7-96
fee acquisition, 6-16 systemwide, 7-51 Vegetation-hydroperiod modeling,
implementation easement, 6-16 Stream order, 1-25 7-94
right of entry, 6-15 as a classification system, 7-28 use in restoration, 8-23
Site clearing, 9-10 stream continuum concept, 1-30 Vegetation restoration, 8-14
Species requirements, 7-86, 8-7 Stream scale, 1-10 existing vegetation, 8-11
Specific gauge analysis, 7-52 Stream stability (balance), 1-14, 2-20 inspection, 9-24
Soil Stream system dynamics, 7-48 maintenance, 9-28
compaction, 8-9 Substrate, 2-71 restoration species, 8-10
ecological role of, 2-51 bed material particle size revegetation, 8-14, 9-15
depleted matrix, 2-49 distribution, 7-25, 8-28
functions, 2-45 hyphorheic zone, 2-72 W
hydric soils, 2-48 pebble count, 7-25 Waste disposal, sanitation, 9-9
microbiology, 2-46, 2-51, 8-9 vertical (bed) stability Water surface
salinity, 8-10 Subsurface flow, 2-12 energy equation, 7-21
soil surveys, 8-9 profile, 7-18
topographic position, 2-47 T slope survey, 7-24
type, 2-46 Temporal scale, 1-11 Water temperature, 2-28
wetland, 2-48 Terrace, 1-20 effects of cover, 2-68
Soil bioengineering, 8-23, 8-61 formation, 1-20 impacts of surface versus ground
geotechnical engineering, 9-13 numbering, 1-21 water pathways, 2-28
Soil moisture, 2-9 Thalweg, 1-12 impacts on fauna, 2-68
evaporation, 2-6 profiles, 7-53 sampling, 7-68
deep percolation, 2-9 surveys, 7-53 thermal loading, 2-28
field capacity, 2-9 Transitional upland fringe, 1-12, 1-20
permanent wilting point, 2-9 Transpiration, 2-5
relationship with temperature, Two-dimensional flow modeling,
2-47 7-90
Source and sink functions, 2-86
Spatial scale, 1-3
landscapes, 1-7
region, 1-6
reach, 1-10
watershed, 1-8
Index B-37
addendum file:///C|/Stream Corridor Restoration/SCRH-CD-ROM/SCRHweb/addenda/addendum.htm
mesic prairie
wet meadow
shallow marsh
shrub carr
floodplain forest
deep marsh
wet meadow
upland forest
prairie
hill
high
river
stage
low river
stage
floodplain natural main
bluff lake levee slough island channel backwater lake bluff
floodplain floodplain
corridor
Figure 1.11: A cross section of a river corridor. The three main components of the river corridor
can be subdivided by structural features and plant communities. (Vertical scale and channel width
are greatly exaggerated.)
Source: Sparks, Bioscience, vol. 45, p. 170, March 1995. ©1995 American Institute of Biological Science.
pass through without spilling over the tipped and equilibrium lost. If one variable changes, one or
banks. Two attributes of the channel are more of the other variables must increase or decrease
of particular interest to practitioners, proportionally if equilibrium is to be maintained.
channel equilibrium and streamflow. For example, if slope is increased and streamflow remains
the same, either the sediment load or the size of the particles
Lane's Alluvial Channel Equilibrium must also increase. Likewise, if flow is increased (e.g., by
Channel equilibirum involves the an interbasin transfer) and the slope stays the same, sediment
interplay of four basic factors: load or sediment particle size has to increase to maintain
channel equilibrium. A stream seeking a new equilibrium
■ Sediment discharge (Qs) tends to erode more sediment and of larger particle size.
■ Sediment particle size (D50) Alluvial streams that are free to adjust to changes in
■ Streamflow (Qw) these four variables generally do so and reestablish new
equilibrium conditions. Non-alluvial streams such as
■ Stream slope (S)
bedrock or artificial, concrete channels are unable to
Lane (1955) showed this relationship follow Lane's relationship because of their inability to
qualitatively as:
Qs • D50 ∝ Qw • S
stream channel
This equation is shown here as a
balance with sediment load on one
weighing pan and streamflow on the
other (Figure 1.13). The hook holding
the sediment pan can slide along the scarp
horizontal arm according to sediment
size. The hook holding the streamflow
side slides according to stream slope. thalweg
Channel equilibrium occurs when all
Figure 1.12: Cross section of a stream channel.
four variables are in balance. If a change
The scarp is the sloped bank and the thalweg is
occurs, the balance will temporarily be the lowest part of the channel.
de
gra ion
d a ti dat
on aggra
Qs • D50 Qw • S
Figure 1.13: Factors affecting channel equilibrium. At equilibrium, slope and flow balance the
size and quantity of sediment particles the stream moves.
Source: Rosgen (1996), from Lane, Proceedings, 1955. Published with the permission of American Society of
Civil Engineers.
topographic floodplain
hydrologic floodplain
(bankfull width)
bankfull
elevation
Figure 1.20: Hydrologic and topographic floodplains. The hydrologic floodplain is defined by
bankfull elevation. The topographic floodplain includes the hydrologic floodplain and other lands
up to a defined elevation.
predators
microbes
collectors
trout
4
Stream Size (order)
perch
periphyton coarse
6 particulate
fine matter
particulate
matter
7 fine
particulate
matter
8
microbes
phytoplankton collectors
predators
9
10 catfish
11 zooplankton
12
Figure 1.34: The River Continuum Concept. The concept proposes a relationship between
stream size and the progressive shift in structural and functional attributes.
Source: Vannote et al. (1980). Published with the permission of NRC Research Press.
typical
flow rate
average
particle size
on stream
bottom
Figure 2.15: Particle transport. A stream’s total sediment load is the total of all sediment particles
moving past a defined cross section over a specified time period. Transport rates vary according to
the mechanism of transport.
occurs in a watershed and the increased is, the distribution of particle sizes in
load of sand exceeds the transport ca- each section of the stream remains in
pacity of the stream during events that equilibrium (i.e., new particles de-
move the sand into the channel. posited are the same size and shape as
particles displaced by tractive stress).
Stream and Floodplain Stability
Yang (1971) adapted the basic theories
A question that normally arises when described by Leopold to explain the
considering any stream restoration ac- longitudinal profile of rivers, the forma-
tion is “Is it stable now and will it be tion of stream networks, riffles, and
stable after changes are made?” The an- pools, and river meandering. All these
swer may be likened to asking an opin- river characteristics and sediment trans-
ion on a movie based on only a few port are closely related. Yang (1971) de-
frames from the reel. Although we often veloped the theory of average stream
view streams based on a limited refer- fall and the theory of least rate of en-
ence with respect to time, it is impor- ergy expenditure, based on the entropy
tant that we consider the long-term concept. These theories state that during
changes and trends in channel cross the evolution toward an equilibrium
section, longitudinal profile, and plan- condition, a natural stream chooses its
form morphology to characterize chan- course of flow in such a manner that
nel stability. the rate of potential energy expenditure
Achieving channel stability requires that per unit mass of flow along its course is
the average tractive stress maintains a a minimum.
stable streambed and streambanks. That
cany
on e
ffec
t —d
ow
nh
ill d
alder-willow r ai
na
ge
of
co
ol
,m
oi
st
ai
sycamore-ash r
pla
n
ta
nd
a n im
al dispersa
cottonwood- l
willow
nel
chan
plain
flood
dor
m corri
strea
Figure 2.30: Canyon effect. Cool moist air settles in canyons and creates microhabitat that occurs
on surrounding slopes.
microorganisms epilithic
(e.g., hyphomycete algae
fungi)
dissolved
organic
matter microorganisms
flocculation
fine
particulate
organic
invertebrate matter invertebrate
shredders scrapers
invertebrate
collectors
vertebrate invertebrate
Figure 2.33: Stream predators predators
biota. Food relation-
ships typically found
n streams.
Bourassa and Morin 1995). Further- effect on the abundance and taxonomic
more, the larger species often play im- composition of algae and periphyton in
portant roles in determining community streams. Likewise, macroinvertebrate
composition of other components of predators, such as stoneflies, can influ-
the ecosystem. For example, herbivo- ence the abundance of other species
rous feeding activities of caddisfly lar- within the invertebrate community
vae (Lamberti and Resh 1983), snails (Peckarsky 1985).
(Steinman et al. 1987), and crayfish Collectively, microorganisms (fungi
(Lodge 1991) can have a significant and bacteria) and benthic invertebrates
Table 2.12: Ranges of densities commonly
facilitate the breakdown of organic ma-
observed for selected groups of stream biota. terial, such as leaf litter, that enters the
stream from external sources. Some
Biotic Density invertebrates (insect larvae and am-
Component (Individuals/Square Mile)
phipods) act as shredders whose feed-
Algae 109 – 1010
ing activities break down larger organic
Bacteria 1012 – 1013
leaf litter to smaller particles. Other in-
Protists 108 – 109
vertebrates filter smaller organic mater-
Microinvertebrates 103 – 105 ial from the water (blackfly larvae,
Macroinvertebrates 104 – 105 some mayfly nymphs, and some caddis-
Vertebrates 100 – 102 fly larvae), scrape material off surfaces
100
Cross-sectional Area (square feet)
50
10
5
Bankfull Dimensions
50
Width (feet)
10
5
Depth (feet)
0.5
.1 .05 1 5 10 50 100 500
Drainage Area in Square Miles
Figure 7.20: Regional curves for bankfull channel dimensions versus drainage area. Curves
showing channel dimensions relating to drainage area for a region of the country can be useful
in determining departure from “normal” conditions. The use of such curves must be tempered
with an understanding of the limitations of the specific data that produced the curves.
Source: Dunne and Leopold 1978.
Thorne 1988 Same as for Thorne and Hey Gravel-bed rivers 1.905 + k1*** 0.47 0.2077 + k4*** 0.42
et al. 1986
Adjustments for bank Grassy banks with no trees w = 1.46 wc – d = 0.8815 dc +
vegetationa or shrubs 0.8317 0.2106
1-5% tree and shrub cover w = 1.306 wc – d = 0.5026 dc +
8.7307 1.7553
5-50% tree and shrub cover w = 1.161 wc – d = 0.5413 dc +
16.8307 2.7159
Greater than 50% tree and w = 0.9656 wc – d = 0.7648 dc +
shrub cover, or incised into 10.6102 1.4554
flood plain
Chang equations for determining river width and depth. Coefficients for equations of the form w = k1QK2; d = K4QK5; where w is mean bankfull width (ft), Q is the bankfull
or dominant discharge (ft3/s), d is mean bankfull depth (ft), D50 is median bed-material size (mm), and S is slope (ft/ft).
a w and d in these equations are calculated using exponents and coefficients from the row labeled “gravel-bed rivers”.
c c .
k1* = (S D50-0.5 - 0.00238Q-0.51)0.02.
k4* = exp[-0.38 (420.17S D50 Q -0.5 -0.51 0.4
-1) ].
k1** = (S D50-0.5 )0.84.
k4** = 0.015 - 0.025 In Q - 0.049 In (S D50-0.5).
k1*** = 0.2490[ ln(0.0010647D501.15/SQ0.42 )]2.
k4*** = 0.0418 ln(0.0004419D501.15/SQ0.42 ).
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