h Mr.R.N.Chauhan and lab assistant Mr.

Damoder for guiding me on a systematic basi

s and ensuring that in completed all my experiments with ease.Rigorous hard work
has put in this project to ensure that it proves to be the best. I hope that it
proves to be the best. I hope that this project will prove to be a breeding gro
und for the next generation of students and will guide them in every possible wa
y.

Aim
Study Of Constituents Of Alloys

Introduction
An alloy(through the Fr. aloyer, from Lat. alligare, to combine), is a partial o
r complete solid solution of one or more elements in a metallic matrix. Complete
solid solution alloys give single solid phase microstructure, while partial sol
utions give two or more phases that may be homogeneous in distribution depending
on thermal (heat treatment) history. Alloys usually have different properties f
rom those of the component elements. Alloying one metal with other metal(s) or n
on metal(s) often enhances its properties. For instance, steel is stronger than
iron, its primary element. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity,
Young's modulus, and electrical and thermal conductivity, of an alloy may not d
iffer greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties, such as te
nsile strength and shear strength may be substantially different from those of t
he constituent materials. This is sometimes due to the sizes of the atoms in the
alloy, since larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and s
maller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist
deformation. Alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small a
mounts of one element occur. For example, impurities in semi-conducting ferromag
netic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, S
uhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or
more metals. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc. Bronze, used for beari
ngs, statues, ornaments and church bells, is an alloy of copper and tin. Unlike
pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point. Instead, they have
a melting range in which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases. T
he temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus and the temperature
when melting is complete is called the liquidus. However, for most alloys there
is a particular proportion of constituents (in rare cases two) which has a sing
le melting point. This is called the alloy's eutectic mixture.

Some Common Alloys And Their Uses

AmalgamAny alloy of mercury is called an amalgam. Most metals are soluble in mer
cury, but some (such as iron) are not. Amalgams are commonly used in dental fill
ings because they have been relatively cheap, easy to use, and durable. In addit
ion, until recently, they have been regarded as safe. They are made by mixing me
rcury with silver, copper, tin, and other metals. The mercury content of dental
fillings has recently stirred controversy, based on the potentially harmful effe
cts of mercury. Mercury amalgams have also been used in the process of mining go
ld and silver, because of the ease with which mercury amalgamates with them. In
addition, thallium amalgam is used as the liquid material in thermometers, becau
se it freezes at 58C, whereas pure mercury freezes at -38C.
BrassA decorative brass paperweight (left), along with zinc and copper samples.
Brass is the term used for alloys of copper and zinc in a solid solution. It has
a yellow color, somewhat similar to gold. It was produced in prehistoric times,
long before zinc was discovered, by melting copper with calamine, a zinc ore. T
he amount of zinc in brass varies from 5 to 45 percent, creating a range of bras
ses, each with unique properties. By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy
of copper and tin. Despite this distinction, some types of brasses are called br
onzes. Brass is relatively resistant to tarnishing and is often used for decorat
ive purposes. Its malleability and acoustic properties have made it the metal of
choice for musical instruments such as the trombone, tuba, trumpet, and euphoni
um. Although saxophones and harmonicas are made out of brass, the saxophone is a
woodwind instrument, and the harmonica, a free reed aerophone. In organ pipes d
esigned as "reed" pipes, brass strips are used as the "reed." Aluminum makes bra
ss stronger and more corrosion resistant. It forms a transparent, self-healing,
protective layer of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) on the surface. Tin has a similar eff
ect and

finds its use especially in seawater applications (naval brasses). Combinations

of iron, aluminum, silicon, and manganese make brass resistant to wear and tear.
BronzeBronze refers to a broad range of copper alloys, usually with tin as the main ad
ditive, but sometimes with other elements such as phosphorus, manganese, aluminu
m, or silicon. Typically, bronze is about 60 percent copper and 40 percent tin.
The use of bronze was particularly significant for early civilizations, leading
to the name "Bronze Age." Tools, weapons, armor, and building materials such as
decorative tiles were made of bronze, as they were found to be harder and more d
urable than their stone and copper predecessors. In early use, the natural impur
ity arsenic sometimes created a superior natural alloy, called "arsenical bronze
." Though not as strong as steel, bronze is superior to iron in nearly every app
lication. Bronze develops a patina (a green coating on the exposed surface), but
it does not oxidize beyond the surface. It is considerably less brittle than ir
on and has a lower casting temperature. Several bronze alloys resist corrosion (
especially by seawater) and metal fatigue better than steel; they also conduct h
eat and electricity better than most steels. Bronze has myriad uses in industry.
It is widely used today for springs, bearings, bushings, and similar fittings,
and is particularly common in the bearings of small electric motors. It is also
widely used for cast metal sculpture and is the most popular metal for top-quali
ty bells and cymbals. Commercial bronze, otherwise known as brass, is 90 percent
copper and 10 percent zinc. It contains no tin.

PewterPewter plate:Pewter is traditionally composed of 85 to 99 percent tin, with the

remainder consisting of copper, which acts as a hardener. Lead is added to lower
grades of pewter, giving a bluish tint. Traditionally, there were three grades
of pewter: fine, for eatingware, with 96 to 99 percent tin and 1 to 4 percent co
pper; trifle, also for eating and drinking utensils but duller in appearance, wi
th 92 percent tin, 1 to 4 percent copper, and up to 4 percent lead; and lay or l
ey metal, not for eating or drinking utensils, which could contain up to 15 perc
ent lead. Modern pewter mixes the tin with copper, antimony, and/or bismuth rath
er than lead. Physically, pewter is a bright, shiny metal that is similar in app
earance to silver. Like silver, it oxidizes to a dull gray over time if left unt
reated. It is a very malleable alloy, beingsoft enough to carve with hand tools.
It also takes good impressions from punches or presses. Given this inherent sof
tness and malleability, pewter cannot be used to make tools. Some types of pewte
r pieces, such as candlesticks, were turned on a metal lathe, and these items ar
e sometimes referred to as "holloware." Pewter has a low melting point (around 2
25 to 240C), depending on the exact mixture of metals. Duplication by casting giv
es excellent results. The use of pewter was common from the Middle Ages up until
the various developments in glass-making during the eighteenth and nineteenth c
enturies. Pewter was the chief tableware until the making of china. With the mas
s production of glass products, glass has universally replaced pewter in daily l
ife. Today, pewter is mainly used for decorative objects such as collectible sta
tuettes and figurines, replica coins, and pendants.

Nickel silver (German silver)Nickel silver is an alloy of copper, nickel, and of

ten (but not always) zinc. It is named for its silvery appearance and contains n
o elemental silver. Other common names for this alloy are German silver, paktong
, new silver, and alpacca (or alpaca). Many different formulations of alloys fal
l in the general category of "nickel silver." Besides containing copper, nickel,
and zinc, some formulations may include antimony, tin, lead, or cadmium. A repr
esentative industrial formulation (Alloy No.752) is 65 percent copper, 18 percen
t nickel, and 17 percent zinc. In metallurgical science, such alloys would be mo
re properly termed nickel bronze. Some nickel silver alloys, especially those co
ntaining high proportions of zinc, are stainless. The earliest use of nickel sil
ver appears to have been in China. It became known to the West from imported war
es called Paktong or Pakfong, where the silvery metal color was used to imitate
sterling silver. It was discovered to be an alloy composed of copper, nickel, an
d zinc in the eighteenth century. Nickel silver first became popular as a base m
etal for silverplated cutlery and other silverware, notably the electroplated wa
res called "E.P.N.S." (electro-plated nickel silver). It is used in zippers, cos
tume jewelry, and musical instruments (such as cymbals). After about 1920, its u
se became widespread for pocketknife bolsters, due to its machinability and corr
osion resistance. In some countries, it is used in the production of coins. Its
industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for
its corrosion resistance, and heating coils for its high electrical resistance.

SteelSteel is an alloy composed mainly of iron, with carbon content between 0.02
and 1.7 percent by weight. Carbon is the most costeffective alloying material f
or iron, but many other alloying elements are also used. Carbon and other elemen
ts act as hardening agents, preventing iron atoms in the crystal lattice from sl
iding past one another. By varying the amount of alloying elements and their dis
tribution in the steel, one can control its qualities such as hardness, elastici
ty, ductility, and tensile strength. Steel with increased carbon content can be
made harder and stronger than iron, but it is also more brittle. The maximum sol
ubility of carbon in iron is 1.7 percent by weight, occurring at 1130 C. Higher c
oncentrations of carbon or lower temperatures produce cementite, which reduces t
he material's strength. Alloys with higher carbon content than this are known as
cast iron because of their lower melting point. Steel should also be distinguis
hed from wrought iron, with little or no carbon (usually less than 0.035 percent
). Currently, there are several classes of steels in which carbon is replaced wi
th other alloying materials, and carbon, if present, is undesired. More recently
, steels have been defined as iron-based alloys that can be plastically formedpou
nded, rolled, and so forth.

Experiment - 1
Aim : To analyze a sample of brass qualitatively. Requirements : China dish, tes
t-tube funnel, filter paper and common laboratory reagents. Theory : Brass is an
alloy of copper and zinc. with the following. Composition : Cu = 60-90% and Zn.
= 10-40%. Thus Cu and Zn. form the main constituents of brass. Both these metal
s dissolved in 50% of nitric acid due to formation of nitrates which are soluble
. 3 Cu + 8HNO3 (Dil) 3 Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O or Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3 Cu+2 + 2NO +
4H2O 4Zn + 10HNO3 (Dil) 4 Zn (NO2)2 + N2O + 5H2O 4Zn + 2NO+ 10H 4 Zn+2 + N2O + 5
H2O The solution is boiled to expel the oxides of nitrogen and the resulting sol
ution is tested for Cu2+ and Zn+2 ions. Procedure : 1. Place a small piece of br
ass in a china dish and heat this with minimum quantity of 50% HNO3 so as to dis
solve the piece completely. 2. Continue heating the solution till a dry solid re
sidue is obtained. 3. Dissolve the solid residue in dil. HCl and filter. Add dis
tilled water to the filtrate. 4. Pass H2S gas through the filtrate. A black prec
ipitate of copper sulphide is obtained. Separate the black ppt. and keep the fil
trate for the test of Zn+2 ions Dissolve black ppt. by heating them with 50% HNO
3. To this solution add ammonium hydroxide solution. Appearance of deep blue col
ouration in the solution shows the presence of copper ions in the solution. 5. T
o test Zn+2 ions, boil the filtrate to remove H2S gas, then add solid NH4Cl to t
his and heat to dissolve NH4Cl. Add excess of NH4OH so that a solution is ammoni
acal. Now pass H2S gas through this ammoniacal solution. Separate the precipitat
es and dissolve it in minimum amount of dil. HCl. Boil to expel H2S gas and add
potassium Ferro cyanide solution, white or bluish white ppt. confirm Zn+2 ions i
n the solution. Result : The given sample of brass contains copper and zinc. met
als as the main constituents.

Experiment - 2
Aim : To analyze a sample of bronze qualitatively.
laboratory reagents.
Requirements : China dish, test-tube funnel, filter paper and common Theory : Br
onze is an alloy of copper and tin with the following. Composition :
Cu = 88-96% and Sn. = 4-12%. Thus copper and zinc. form the main constituents of
bronze. Both these metals dissolved in nitric acid. 3 Cu + 8H+ + 2NO3 3 Cu2+ +
2NO + 4H2O 4Sn + NO3 + 10 H 4 Sn+2 + NH4+ + 3H2O (Cold and Dil. Acid) Sn + 4NO3 +
4H H2Sn O3 + 2NO2 + H2O (Conc. acid) (Metastannic Acid) Excess of nitric acid is
removed by heating the solution. The resulting solution now would contain Cu+2
ions and metastannic acid. This solution is acidified with dil. HCl and H2S gas
is passed when the sulphides of copper and tin are formed. Cu+2 + S2- CuS (Black
ppt.) H2SnO3 + 2H2S SnS2 (Black ppt.) + 3H2O The sulphides are separated by boi
ling the ppt. with yellow ammonium sulphide when SnS2 goes into solution as thio
stannate where as CuS is not affected. SnS2 + (NH4)2S (NH4)2 SnS2 (Soluble) Ammo
nium thiostannate. CuS + (NH4)2S CuS (Unaffected) Black ppt. The soluble black p
pt. is tested for Cu+2 ions and the solution is tested for Sn2+ ions as in eleme
ntary qualitative analysis.
Procedure :
1. Take about 1g. of small pieces of bronze in a china dish and add to it 5-10 m
l. of dil. HNO3. 2. Heat the contents slowly to dissolve copper and tin complete
ly and then boil the contents to a paste to remove excess of HNO3. All this is c
arried out in cup board. 3. Dissolve this dry mass in distilled water containing
HCl (1:1) to get a clear solution.

4. Transfer the solution in a test tube and pass H2S in excess i.e. till the pre
cipitation is complete. Filter and reject the filtrate. 5. Take the black ppt. i
n a test tube and add to it 2-3 ml. of yellow ammonium sulphide and heat. Filter
the contents. Black residue is tested for Cu+2 ions and filtrate is tested for
Sn+2 ions. 6. Analysis of black residue : Transfer a little of the black ppt. in
to a test tube. Add to it 2-3 ml. of 50%. HNO3 and boil the contents of the tube
. A light blue or green sol. indicates the presence of Cu+2. Divide this sol. In
to two parts. (a) To one part add excess of NH4OH a deep blue colouration confir
ms the presence of Cu+2 ions. (b) Acidify the second part with acetic acid and a
dd K4 [Fe (CN)6] i.e. potassium ferrocyanide solution. A reddish brown ppt. conf
irms the presence of Cu+2 ions. 7. Analysis of filtrate : Boil the filtrate with
1 ml. of dil. HCl. A yellow ppt. is obtained. Dissolve in 1 ml. conc. HCl. To t
his solution add 0.5 g. of zinc. Dust and boil it for 2-3 minutes. Filter and to
filtrate add 1-2 ml. of mercuric chloride solution. A white ppt. turning grey o
n standing confirms the presence of Sn+4 ions. Result : The given sample of bron
ze contains - Cu and Sn as the main constituents.

Bibliography
Comprehensive Chemistry Practical ClassXII. http://www.icbse.com
www.google.com www.wikipedia.org www.allprojectreports.com www.chemistryprojects
.com