IIT Roorkee Physics Lab Manual

PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL
Spring 2014
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
ROORKEE, INDIA
2013 - 2014
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List of Experiments for B. Tech. 1st Year Physics Laboratory

Year: 2013-2014
1. To determine the magnetic field of paired coils in Helmholtz arrangement.

2. To determine the value of Stefans constant.
3. To determine the resistivity of a semiconductor as a function of temperature and to estimate its
band gap using four-probe method.
4. To determine the mass susceptibility of a para-magnetic material by Quinckes method.
5. To study the B-H curve and calculate parameters: coercitivity, saturation magnetisation &
retentivity.
6. To determine the e/m by magnetron method.
7. To determine the first excitation potential of a gas by Franck- Hertz Experiment.
8.
To verify the Malus law using laser light.
9. To study the single slit diffraction by laser light.

10. To determine the value of Plancks constant by measuring radiation in a fixed spectral range.
11. To study polarization of laser light using quarter wave plate.
12. To measure Brewsters angle.
INSTRUCTION TO STUDENTS
1. Essential Component:
Laboratory work is an integral part of the course and satisfactory completion of it is required.
Your performance in the laboratory is taken into account in evaluating the performance in the
course. The laboratory grade is based on the reports you write, and on your performance in
examinations on laboratory work.
The objective of the laboratory is learning. The experiments are designed to illustrate phenomena
in different areas of Physics and to expose you to measuring instruments. Conduct the
experiments with interest and an attitude of learning.
The duration of the laboratory is for 2 hours. You are supposed to be fully engaged for the
complete duration of the laboratory. You cannot leave the laboratory until the completion of the
laboratory class hours.
Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make reliable
measurements!) and equally share the work with your partners.
2. Pre-lab Preparedness:
Be prompt in arriving to the laboratory and come well prepared for the experiment.
Before coming to the laboratory class you must carefully read the instructions given for
performing the experiment of the day. Unless you come fully prepared with this background
material you will not be able to complete the required work and you will miss the opportunity of
learning all aspects of the experiment. Thus, for your own benefit, prior study of the instruction
manual is very important.
3. Equipment needs your care:
On reaching the laboratory you should check the apparatus provided and ascertain if there are any
shortage or malfunctions. Set up the equipment in accordance with the instructions. Proceed
carefully and methodically. Remember that scientific equipment is expensive and quite
susceptible to damage. So handle it carefully. If the apparatus is complicated ask the instructor to
inspect before you proceed with the actual performance of the equipment.
Every time switch off the setup before leave, if you finish early, spend the remaining time to
complete the calculations and drawing graphs. Come equipped with calculators, scales, pencils
and etc.
Please do not fiddle idly with apparatus. Handle instruments with care. Report any breakage to
the instructor. Return all the equipment you have signed out for the purpose of your experiment.
4.. You must bring practical notebook and an observation record book in every practical class
for recording the observations. All work must be done in ink.
You must get at least one observation checked and signed by your instructor, failing which your
report will not be graded. Make the measurements required and record them neatly in tabular
form. Double-check to make sure that you have recorded all necessary data. You must complete
all experimental work in one class on two hours. After completing the experiments get the
reading signed by the instructor and get new experiment allotted for the next turn.
The completed report must be submitted in next practical class and get it checked by the
concerned faculty. You must be ready for viva about the experiment being checked because you
will be evaluated in each class for sessional marks.
5.. Acceptable results with given apparatus:
It is more important to see what results you get with given apparatus rather than what is the
correct result. The apparatus given to you is capable of certain accuracy and your result may be
completely acceptable even if it differs from correct results. You must learn to do things on
your own even if you might make mistakes some time.
Be totally honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings or doctor them
to get a better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the measurement
carefully. In any event all the data recorded in the table have to be faithfully displayed on the
graph.
6. Graphics:
Each graph should occupy one complete sheet; the information as to quantities plotted, scale
chosen and units should be mentioned clearly in ink along complete figure caption.
All presentations of data, table, graphs and calculations should be neatly and carefully done.
7. Figures/Circuit diagrams:
Neat and clean figures/ circuit diagrams should be drawn for each practical with complete figure
captions.
8. Following is the Format of the Reports:
a. Date
b. Objective
c. Apparatus used
d. Formulae used
e. Observation (least count, tables should be neat and self explanatory)
f.
Calculations (on the left side of the page) including maximum permissible error (MPE).
g. Results: Experimental value MPE; Standard value (Calculation of maximum possible

error is essential. Compare it with the result)
h. Precautions and sources of error.
You must keep your work place neat and clean and leave the lab neat and tidy.
Errors in Measurement
Measurement is the basis of scientific study. All measurements are, however, approximate values
(not true values) within the limitation of measuring device, measuring environment, process of
measurement and human error . If you measure the same object two different times, the two
measurements may not be exactly the same. The difference between two measurements is called
a variation in the measurements.
Another word for this variation - or uncertainty in measurement - is "error." This "error" is not
the same as a "mistake." It does not mean that you got the wrong answer. The error in
measurement is a mathematical way to show the uncertainty in the measurement. It is the
difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of what you were
measuring. We seek to minimize uncertainty and hence error to the extent possible.
Further, there is important aspect of reporting measurement. It should be consistent, systematic
and revealing in the context of accuracy and precision.
Accuracy is a measure of how close the result of the measurement comes to the "true",
"actual", or "accepted" value. It is associated with systematic error.
Precision of measurement is related to the ability of an instrument to measure values in
greater details. The precision of a measuring instrument is determined by the smallest
unit to which it can measure. The precision is said to be the same as the smallest
fractional or decimal division on the scale of the measuring instrument. It is associated
with random error.
Ways of Expressing Error in Measurement:
1. Greatest Possible Error:
Because no measurement is exact, measurements are always made to the "nearest
something", whether it is stated or not. The greatest possible error when measuring is
considered to be one half of that measuring unit. For example, you measure a
length to be 3.4 cm. Since the measurement was made to the nearest tenth, the greatest
possible error will be half of one tenth, or 0.05. For example, if a measurement made with
a metric ruler is 5.6 cm and the ruler has a precision of 0.1 cm, then the tolerance
interval in this measurement is 5.6
0.05 cm, or from 5.55 cm to 5.65 cm. Any
measurements within this range are "tolerated" or perceived as correct.
2. Absolute Error and Relative Error:
Error in measurement may be represented by the actual amount of error, or by a ratio

comparing the error to the size of the measurement.
The absolute error of the measurement shows how large the error actually is, while the relative
error of the measurement shows how large the error is in relation to the correct value.
Absolute errors do not always give an indication of how important the error may be. If you are
measuring a football field and the absolute error is 1 cm, the error is virtually irrelevant. But, if
you are measuring a small machine part (< 3cm), an absolute error of 1 cm is very significant.
While both situations show an absolute error of 1 cm., the relevance of the error is very
different. For this reason, it is more useful to express error as a relative error. We will be
working with relative error.
Absolute Error:
Absolute error is simply the amount of physical error in a measurement.
For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004 m is an absolute error.
Absolute error is positive.The absolute error is the difference between the measured value and
the actual value. (The absolute error will have the same unit label as the measured quantity.)
Relative Error:
Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the accepted measurement.
The relative error expresses the "relative size of the error" of the measurement in relation to the
measurement itself.
Percent of Error or Percentage Error:

Error in measurement may also be expressed as a percent of error. The percent of error is
found by multiplying the relative error by 100%.
We must understand that an error in basic quantities propagate through mathematical formula
leading to compounding of errors and misrepresentation of quantities
The error is communicated in different mathematical operations as detailed below:
(i) For x = (a b), x = ( a + b)
(ii) For x = a * b , x/x = ( a/a + b/b)
(iii) For x = a/b , x/x = ( a/a + b/b)
(iv) For x= anb m /cp, x/x = ( na/a +m b/b + pc/c)
General Rule:
Let
Taking log on both sides
log Z = p*log A + q*log B - r*log C
Differentiating we get
then maximum fractional error in Z is given by
Some Examples :
Example(1)
Let y=ab.
Then max. permissible error (m.p.e.) in y is obtained as
In y=In a + In b
y / y a / a b / b
or
y ya / a b / b
here a is the least count of the instrument with which a is measured, similarly
b is the least count of the instrument with which b is measured and y is the mean value of the function obtained in
the lab.
Hence the experimental value of y = mean y y .
Example(2)
The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T 2 L / g . Measured value of L is 20.0 cm known to 1
mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the pendulum is found to be 90 s using a wrist watch of 1 s resolution.
What is the accuracy in the determination of g?
Solution :
As
L
g
T 2
T 2 4 2
L
g
or
g = 42(L/T2)
g
L
T
100
100 2
100
g
L
T
Now L=20.0cm, L =0.1cm, T for 100 oscillation = 90sec , T =1 sec
g
0 .1
1
100
100 2 100
g
20.0
90
=0.5+2.22=2.72%=3%
Example(3)
Find the relative error in Z, if Z=A4 B1/3 / CD3/2
Solution . In relative error in Z is
Z
A 1 B C 3 D
4

Z
A 3 B
C 2 D
Example(4)
A physical quantity X is given by X
a 2b 3
. If the percentage errors of measurement in a,b,c and d are 4%, 2%,
c d
3% and 1% respectively, then calculate the percentage error in X.

Solution Given X
a 2b3
c d
The percentage error in X is given by
100
X
a
b
c 1 d
2
100 3 100
100
X
a
b
c 2 d
=2x4% + 3x2% + 3% + 1/2x1%

Diameter of the wire causes maximum error in the value of
Example(5)
The specific resistance
of a thin wire of radius r cm, resistance R
and length L cm given by
If r=0.26 0.02 cm, R=32 1 and L= 78 0.01 cm, find the percentage error in
Solution The percentage error in specific resistance is given by
r 2 R
L
r R L
100 2
100
R
L
r
2 0.02 1 0.01
=
100
32 78
0.26
=[0.15 + 0.03 + 0.0001]x100
=0.1801x100 = 0.18x100 = 18%
Example (6)
If two resistors of resistance R1 = (4 0.5) and R2 = (16 0.5) are connected (i) in series and (ii) in parallel;
find the equivalent resistance in each case with limits of percentage error.
Solution
(i) The equivalent resistance of the series combination,
R R1 R2 ( 4 0.5) (16 0.5)

= (20 1) or 20 0.5
(ii) the equivalent resistance of parallel combination,
R1 R2
4 16
3.2
R1 R2 4 16
1
1
1
From
, we get
R' R1 R2
R ' R1 R2
R'2 R 21 R 2 2
R
R
R' ( R'2 ) 2 1 ( R'2 ) 2 2
R1
R 2
R'
3.2
3.2
=
0.5
0.5
4
16
=0.34
Here
R' (3.2 0.4) 3.2 10.625%
Example(8)
y a sin ln y ln a ln sin
y / y a / a (cot )
Hence will be in radians.
Example(9)
sin( A m ) / 2 / sin( A / 2)
In ln{( A m )2} ln[sin( A / 2)]
Or / cot{A m ) 2}{A m )2} {cot( A / 2)}{( A / 2)}
Here ( A / 2) = ( m / 2) = least count (in radians) of the spectromenter used for measuring A and m
For
Example(10)
For Lees method K= [msd/A( 2 1 )]{d /dt} 2
To calculate maximum permissible error express
(d /dt) 2 i.e. the slope of the cooling curve at temperature
As ( 2 1 )/(t2-t1)so that K= [msd ( 2 1 )]( 2
Now, taking log and differentiating one gets
2
1 ) /(t 2 t1 )
K / K m / m s / s d / d ( 2 1 ) A / A ( 2 '1 ) /( 2 '1 ) (t 2 t1 ) /(t 2 t1 )

For maximum permissible error , all the signs in the numerator become positive . Here
of 1 small division on the temperature axis of the graph.
(t 2 t1 ) = value of 1 small division on the time axis of the graph.
Use
( 2 '1 ) = value
( 2 '1 ) and (t 2 t1 ) as the respective value of the intervals used for calculating the slope.
Example(11)
For Carey Fosters bridge
RA / l Rr 2 / R / R 2r / r l / l (1)
Determine R using the graph and then R may be taken equal to the value of one small division on the resistance
axis of the graph (preferable use this approach).
Otherwise, use R X (l 2 l1 ) giving
R / R {X ( )(l2 l1 ) (l2 l1 )} /{ X (l2 l1 )} .(2)

Here X is the resistance from the resistance box hence X 0
Again is determined in the lab using the slope from the graph hence to obtain , use the same approach as for
( 2 '1 ) / (t 2 t1 ) in example 4 and take X = value of 1 small division on resistance axis and 1 = value of
1 small division on (l2 l1 ) axis.
Use this in (2) R / R and to get R / R and put that in (1) to get / .
R1 R2
4 16
3.2
R1 R2 4 16
1
1
1
From
, we get
R' R1 R2
R ' R1 R2
R'2 R 21 R 2 2
R'
R1
R
( R' 2 ) 2 2
2
R1
R 2
2
2
3.2
3.2
=
0.5
0.5
4
16
R' ( R'2 )
=0.34
Here
R' (3.2 0.4) 3.2 10.625%
Ways to Improve Accuracy in Measurement

1. Make the measurement with an instrument that has the highest level of precision. The smaller
the unit, or fraction of a unit, on the measuring device, the more precisely the device can
measure. The precision of a measuring instrument is determined by the smallest unit to which it
can measure.
2. Know your tools. Apply correct techniques when using the measuring instrument and reading
the value measured. Avoid the error called "parallax" -- always take readings by looking straight
down (or ahead) at the measuring device. Looking at the measuring device from a left or right
angle will give an incorrect value.
3. Repeat the same measure several times to get a good average value.
4. Measure under controlled conditions. If the object you are measuring could change size
depending upon climatic conditions (swell or shrink), be sure to measure it under the same
conditions each time. This may apply to your measuring instruments as well
5.Always use a LARGE triangle for finding the slope.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Significant Figures in a measured or observed value is the number of reliable digits plus the first
uncertain digit. The significant figures are normally those digits in a measured quantity which
are known reliably plus one additional digit that is uncertain.
Rules to identify the significant figures
i. All non-zero digits are significant. Powers of ten are not counted in significant figures.
For example 1.7x105 has 2 significant figures.
ii. In a number with a decimal, Zeroes appearing to the left of a digit are not counted in
significant figures. For example 0.002 has only one significant figure in it.
iii. In a number with a decimal, the number of zeroes at the end is counted in significant
figures. For example 1.700 has 4 significant figures.
iv. Shifting the position of the decimal does not change the number of significant
figures. For example 2.340 and 234.0 have 4 significant figures.
v. All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant, no matter where the
decimal place is, if at all. For example, 203.4 cm has 4 significant digits, 2.05 has 3
significant digits.
vi. The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant.
Thus 125 m=12500cm=125000 mm has three significant figures.
vii. Changing the units do not change the number of significant figures.
*In addition or subtraction, the result should be reported to the same number of decimal places as
that of the number with minimum number of decimal places.
*In multiplication or division, the result should be reported to the same number of significant
figures as that of the number with minimum of significant figures.
Experiment No. 1
Magnetic Field (Helmholtz Coils)
Aim
1. To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coil carrying current
and calculate the diameter of the coil.
2. To study the principle of super imposition of magnetic field.
Apparatus required:
IC regulated constant current source, digital gauss meter, two coils, movable magnetic field sensor.
Theory:
According to Bio Savarts law a current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. Magnetic
field at a point (P) fig.(1) from the current element is given by:
. (1)
Fig.(1)
This law when applied to the case of a circular current carrying coil gives the intensity of magnetic field
(B) at a point P lying on the axis of coil as follows:
B=
.(
..(2)
). /
Where,
n= number of turns in the coil,
a= radius of coil
I= current flowing in the coil , = permeability of free space= 4 *10-7 NA-2

= distance of point P from centre of coil
The units of B are Tesla or Wb/m2
The direction of the magnetic intensity at P is along OP (O being center of the coil) produced if the
current flows through the coil in the anti-clock-wise direction as seen from P. If the direction of the
current is clockwise the field at P is along PO.
The value of the magnetic intensity is maximum at the centre O of the coil and is given by
B=
Tesla
as 1 Tesla= 104 Gauss
B=
Gauss
(3)
If we move away from O towards the right or left, the intensity of the magnetic field decreases. A graph
showing the relation between the intensity of the magnetic field B and the distance r is given in Fig. 2.
The curve is first concave towards O but the curvature becomes less and less, quickly changes sign at P
and Q and afterwards becomes convex towards O.
It can be shown that the points of inflexion P or Q (where the curvature changes its sign) lie at distances
( ) from the centre. Hence the distance between P and Q is equal to the radius of the coil.
If two such identical coils are placed coaxially, then depending on the relative sense of current flow in
them, the two fields add or subtract (vector sum of two fields) to give the resultant magnetic field at any
point on the axis (principle of superposition).
Helmholtz coils consists of a pair of identical coils (same no. of turns, radius) placed coaxially and
separated by a distance equal to the radius of either coil. Such a pair produces an almost uniform
magnetic field between the coils if the current through them is same and in the same sense such that two
fields add. The resultant magnetic field at an axial point S at a distance ( ) from coil 1 is given by
=
[
(
+
).
] .(4)
{
) )}
Procedure
(i)
Connect the Sensor Cable (3-pin) to the sensor socket and Coil Cable (4-pin) to the coils socket.
(ii) Switch 'ON' the main's power.

(iii) Turn the current adjusting knob anti-clockwise to the minimum position; so that the
current is reduce to 0.
(iv) Keep the sensor pointer at -70mm and adjust the zero of Gaussmeter with 'ZERO ADJ.' knob.
(v)
Put the COIL knob to Position 1 so that the COIL 1 is connected to the current source. Adjust the current
to say 500 mA.
(vi) Note down the magnetic field from -70 mm to +250 mm at an interval of 5 mm along the axis of the coils
by shifting the position of sensor.
(vii) Fix the position of COIL 2 at a distance of 112 mm from the COIL 1 i.e. equal to the radius of the coils.
(viii) Put the coil knob to Position 2, so that COIL 2 is connected to current source. Keep the current same and
note down the magnetic field from -70 to +250 mm again at an interval of 5 mm.
(ix) Put the coil knob to Position 3, i.e. 'BOTH', COIL 1 & COIL 2 will be connected to the source. Now again
note down the readings.
Draw the graphs between distance and magnetic field due to COIL 1, COIL 2 and BOTH along the axis
of coils as shown in Fig. 3.
Observations :
No of Turns = 500
S.No.
Sensor position
(mm)
COIL 1
1
2
..
..
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
..
..
-15.0
-10.0
-5.0
0.0
5.0
10.0
13.6
13.8
13.9
14.0
13.9
13.9
Magnetic Field (Gauss)

COIL 2
BOTH COILS
4.0
4.3
4.6
4.9
5.2
5.6
17.6
18.2
18.5
18.9
19.2
19.5
..
Calculations & Results
1. The profile of magnetic field with distance along the axis of a circular coils carrying current is as
shown fig 3
2. Principal of super-imposition of magnetic field
(i)
It can be seen from the profile of magnetic field that when the current is flowing through
both the coil, magnetic field at any point is the sum of the magnetic field due to coils 1
and coil 2 i.e. when the current was flowing individually.
(ii)
Another important conclusion is that the magnetic field is very uniform over a large space
when the distance between between the two current carrying coils is equal to the radius of
the coils. This property is widely used in scientific and industrial applications.
3.
Calculation of radius of coil

=
4 10
2
Therefore,
a=
putting the values of n, I, & B radius of coil a can be found.

Precautions
1) Care should be taken that is no stray magnetic field or ferromagnetic material, such as keys,
screwdriver etc. near the setup , while performing the experiment
2) The radius of the coil is calculated from the centre of winding.
3) The Zero of the Gauss meter should be adjusted each time before beginning the experiment
and verified after completion of experiment by reducing the current in both the COILS to zero.
4) In order to avoid the interference of each magnetic field the axis of coils should be East -West.
West
East
Experiment No. 2
Stefans Constant
AIM :
To determine the Stefans constant using Diode EZ- 81
Apparatus Used :
Complete Experimental set-up, diode EZ-81, Ammeter, Voltmeter.
In the experiment we use a commercially available vacuum diode EZ-81 which has a cylindrical cathode
made of nickle. Closely fitted inside the cathode sleeve is the tungsten heater filament. On the outer
surface of the Nickle sleeve, a coating of BaO and SrO mixture is formed form which thermionic
emission takes place.
Theory:
If the power losses due to conduction and convection are neglected then power (P) radiated by a hot
surface definitely depends on the temperature of the surface according to the relation:
P
(where T is the temperature of the body in Kelvin )
P = X
.(1)
Or,
log P = log X + n log T
.....(2)
Where X is a constant which depends upon the properties of the material used as follows:
X = E*S*
...(3)
Where E is emissivity of the material of cathode surely less than unity because radiation is not from an
ideal black body.
S is surface area of cathode = 2
(r is the radius of cylindrical cathode & the length of
cathode)
is Stefans constant which does not depend on material used.
Cathode is heated by passing electric current through the tungsten heater filament .Temperature of the
filament can be determined using known resistance (R), temperature(T) relationship for tungsten. Since
the cathode sleeve and the heater filament are in close physical contact, we can take the temperature of
the cathode to be the same as that of the filament.
Thus the operating temperature of the filament can be determined from measurement of the electrical
resistance of the filament. When filament and so the cathode is heated due to thermionic emission
electrons are emitted which move towards anode filament current and voltage can be measured. Therefore
power radiated and hence resistance can be found out as:
P = Vf*If watts
RT =
ohms
Once the resistance is calculated it is convenient to use a graph drawn T vs (RT/R300) for determination
of filament temperature . This graph can be drawn using data of Table (1) available for ready reference
for a tungsten filament.
Table 1
(RT /R300 vs T for Tungsten)
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
RT /R300
To K
1
4
6
8
10
300
920
1300
1645
1990
Applying Stefans law to the heated cylindrical cathode we can determine stefans constant from the
knowledge of the surface area and the emissivity of the cahode which is less than unity in this case,
because the radiation is not from an ideal black body.
Method :
1. Put the voltmeter range switch at 1.2V position and the voltage control knob ( Marked control VF)
at minimum i.e. at the extreme left position.
2. Connect the set-up to the mains and switch ON.

3. Apply some filament voltage Vf say 0.2 , 0.4 , 0.6 ..... 5V to the filament and measure the
corresponding filament current If in the ameter provided after steady state condition.
NOTE: For steady state condition the time difference between each reading of Vf should be about
20 to 30 sec. min.
4. Make table -2 as shown below.

Observations:
Constants for diode EZ-81(Vacuum tube)
1. R300
=
0.6
2. Emissivity
=
0.24
3. Radius of cathode r =
0.12*10-2m
4. Length of cathode l =
3.12*10-2m
5. Surface area(S)
=
2.42*10-4m-2
S.No
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Table - 2
Filament
Voltage Vf
Current If
(volts)
(Amp)
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.
RT = V f/ If
(ohms)
P= Vf/ If
(watts)
RT/R300
=RT/0.6
ToK
(from.graph1)
Log T
4.5
5.0
Calculation
1. Calculate RT for each value of Vf
as RT = Vf/If.
2. Calculate power P = Vf/ If.
3. Plot a graph between T oK and RT/R300 with the help of table 1 as shown in graph(1).
4. Calculate RT/0.6 (As R300 = 0.6 for EZ - 81) and then measure the value of ToK for each
calculated values of RT/0.6) from graph (1).
5. Calculate log T and log P and Plot a graph between log P and log T (graph 2) . calculate the curve
slope nas n
log P
log T
6. Also note log P as some value of log T from graph(2) log P vs log T and then calculate the value
of Stefans constant using the equation (2) & equation (3).
Log P
Graph (1)
Graph (2)
Result:
1. The measured value of Stefans constant =
wm-2k-4.
2. The standard value of Stefans constant = 5.67 x 10 -8 wm-2k-4
3. From graph log P Vs log T for the diode EZ 81, the slop of the straight line graph is found to be
4 thus verifying Stefans constant within experimental errors.
Precautions:
1. In taking reading between Vf and If every reading should be taking after getting steady state.
2. In plotting the graph between log P and log T the experimental point at the lower end of
temperature state lies out side the straight line graph, since correction due to heat power loss are
neglected. At high temperature these losses are not negligible and so in fig(b) the straight line is
drawn through such points.
3. The slope of the curve should be measured as accurate as possible.
Experiment No. 3
Four Probe Method
Aim:
Study the temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor (Four probe method)
and to
determine band gap of experimental material (Ge).
Apparatus Required:
Four probe apparatus, sample (a Ge crystal in form of a chip), oven, thermometer (260 o ) constant power
supply, oven power supply, panel meters for measurement of current and voltage.
Principle :
Ohm's law:
If physical conditions (like temperature, mechanical stress) remains unchanged, then
potential difference across two ends of a conductor is proportional to current flowing through it
=
The constant of proportionality, R, is called resistance of the conductor
Resistivity: At a constant temperature, the resistance, R, of a conductor is (i) proportional to its length
and (ii) inversely proportional to its area of cross-section,
R =
The constant of proportionality, , is called resistivity of material of the conductor. Resistivity of a
material is equal to the resistance offered by a wire of this material of unit length and unit cross-sectional
area. Unit of resistance is ohm (), and unit of resistivity is ohm-meter ( -m )
Four probe method The 4-point probe set up (Fig.I & Fig.II) consists of four equally spaced tungsten
metal tips with finite radius. Each tip is supported by springs on the end to minimize sample damage
during probing. The four metal tips are part of an auto-mechanical stage which travels up and down
during measurements. A high impedance current source is used to supply current through the outer two
probes, a voltmeter measures the voltage across the inner two probes to determine the sample resistivity.
Typical probe spacings ~ 2 mm These inner probes draw no current because of the high input impedance
voltmeter in the circuit. Thus unwanted voltage drop (I R drop) at point B and point C caused by contact
resistance between probes and the sample is eliminated from the potential measurements. Since these
contact resistances are very sensitive to pressure and to surface condition (such as oxidation of either
surface.
Fig.I Schematic diagram of a Four Probe

Apparatus
Resistivity of Germanium (semiconductor) crystals or slices: In order to use this four probe method in
germanium crystals or slices it is necessary to assume that: The resistivity of the material is uniform in
the area of measurement and a non conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the crystal is in
contact with an insulator. The derivation of equations given below are involved. For each case it is
assumed that the probes are equally spaced (spacing =S).
Case I. Resistivity Measurements on a Large Sample
We assume that the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample are semi infinite in lateral dimensions. For bulk
samples where the sample thickness, W >> S , the probe spacing, we assume a spherical protrusion of
current emanating from the outer probe tips. The resistivity is computed to be
=
where
V = floating potential difference between the inner probes, unit: volt
=current through the outer pair of probes, unit: ampere
S = spacing between point probes, unit: meter
0 = resistivity, unit: ohm meter
Case II. Resistivity Measurements on a Thin Slice-Nonconducting Bottom Surface
For the case of a nonconducting bottom on a slice the resistivity is computed from
=
( )
( ) can be calculated from graph (1) or from Table(1) given below :
Table 1
S.No.
W/S
G7(W/S)
S.No.
W/S
G7(W/S)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
0.100
0.141
0.200
0.330
0.500
13.863
9.704
9.631
4.159
2.780
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
1.000
1.414
2.000
3.333
5.000
1.504
1.223
1.094
1.0228
1.0070
Temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor: Intrinsic semi-conduction The process in

which thermally or optically excited electrons contribute to the conduction is called intrinsic semiconduction. In the absence of photonic excitation, intrinsic semi-conduction takes place at temperatures
above 0 K as sufficient thermal agitation is required to transfer electrons from the valence band to the
conduction band. Conductivity for intrinsic semi-conduction The total electrical conductivity is the sum
of the conductivities of the valence and conduction band carriers, which are holes and electrons,
respectively. It can be expressed as
= e(nee + nhh)
(1)
where
ne , e are the electron's concentration and mobility,
and
nh , h are the hole's concentration and mobility, respectively.
Drift mobility determines the average drift velocity in the presence of an applied external field. It also
depends on the temperature. The mobility is a quantity that directly relates the drift velocity vd of charge
carriers to the applied electric field E across the material, i.e.,
= vd/ E .
(2)
In the intrinsic region the number of electrons is equal to the number of holes, ne=nh=ni , so Equation (1)
implies that,
= e (e + h)
(3)
The electron density (electrons/volume) in the conduction band is obtained by integrating (density of
statesprobability of occupancy of states) from the bottom to top of the conduction band. The detailed
calculations reveal that
=
exp (
Where N is a contant substituting
(4)
in eq (3)
exp (
=e (e + h)
(5)
This shows that conductivity depends on temperature it decreases exponentially with decrease in
temperature.
Temperature dependence of resistivity
(
(6)
(
Or,
= exp (
(7)
Where A is a constant Taking Log

ln =
(8)
or
log
(9)
where C is a constant . Rewriting eq (9)

log
Therefore, if a graph is plotted log vs (
)
) it should be a straight line and band gap Eg can be
determined from its slope as follows :
1. Slope =
2. band gap
Eg =2.3026*2*kB*slope eV, (Take Boltzman constant kB=8.617*10-5 eVK-1 )
Method:
(1) The settings of 4-point probes on the semiconductor chip is a delicate process. So first understand
well the working of the apparatus. The semiconductor chip and probe set is costly.
(2) Note the values of probe spacing (S) and the thickness (W) of the semiconductor chip. Note the
type of semiconductor (germanium or something else).
(3) Make the circuit as shown in Fig.I. Put the sample in the oven (normally already placed by lab
instructor) at room temperature.
(4) Pass a milliampere range current (say 5 mA) in the sample using constant current power supply.
(5) The reading of the current through the sample is measured using milliammeter provided for this
purpose. The voltage is measured by a high impedance millivoltmeter connected to the inner
probes. The readings can be taken alternately on digital meter provided for this purpose.
(6) Note temperature of sample (oven) using thermometer inserted in the oven for this purpose.
(7) The oven temperature is increased a little, and its temperature noted after reaching steady state.
Again the constant current reading (advised to be kept the same) and the corresponding voltage
readings are taken.
(8) Repeat the procedure for different temperatures. Note the data in the observation table.
(9) For each temperature, calculate the resistivity by using the relation.
( )
Graph 1
(10)Compute l and 10 3 / T and write it in the observation table.

(11) Plot a graph between l
and 103 / T . It is a straight line. Find its slope.
(12) Calculate the band gap using formula
Eg =2.3026*2*kB*slope (eV)
Use Boltzman constant kB= 8.617*10 -5 eVK-1
( kB = 1.3806*10 (-23) JK-1 and 1eV=1.6*10 (-19) J )
Observations:
1. Semiconductor chip material = Germanium
2. Spacing (distance) between the probes, S = .. mm = .......... m.
3. Thickness of the sample, W = ............. mm = ............m.
Table 2: Voltage across the inner probes for a constant current at different sample temperatures
Current ( I ) = mA
S.No.
Temperature T
(K)
Voltage across
inner probes
(mV)
Resistivit

(calculated)
(ohm-cm)
1
2
3
Calculations:
1. For the given sample ( ) = ..
2. The correction factor G7 (W /S) = ...... (from table1 or graph 1)
3. Calculation of T (K-1) , (ohm-m) and
=
4. The graph between
( )
and log
) is plotted as shown in graph ( 2 )
5. Slope of the straight line is

6. Energy band gap
Eg =2.3026*2*kB*slope (in eV)
Log
)
(calculated)
Graph 2
Variation of log with
Result:
1. The temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductor (germanium) chip is as shown in
the graph (2) . The resistivity increases exponentially with the increase in T. That is as at low
temperatures resistivity is more and at high temperatures the resistivity is less.
2. The energy band gap for the given semiconductor (germanium) is =
eV.
Precautions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.

All the four probes should be collinear.
The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the semiconductor chip is brittle.
The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high impedance millivoltmeter.
Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by manufacturer of the probes and chip.
Experiment No. 4
Quincke's method
Aim:
To determine the mass susceptibility of paramagnetic solution by Quincke's method .
Apparatus used :
Quincke's tube fitted on stand, Electromagnet capable of producing magnetic field of about 10 K gauss
with power supply, Gaussmeter, Travelling microscope and experimental solutions.
Principle:
Faraday divided the magnetic materials into three classes:
[a] Diamagnetic Substances: These substances when placed in a magnetic field are feebly magnetized
in a direction opposite to that of the magnetizing field. All closed shell materials are diamagnetic.
[b] Paramagnetic Substances:
These substances when placed in a magnetic field are feebly magnetized in the direction of the
magnetizing field. Platinum, Aluminium , manganese , copper sulfate, solution of iron and nickel salts etc
are some of the examples of such substances.
[c] Ferromagnetic Substances: These substances when placed in a magnetic field are strongly
magnetized in the direction of the magnetizing field iron, nickel , cobalt and their alloys are some of the
examples of such substances.
Magnetic Susceptibility
The magnetic susceptibility (read as " chi ") of a material is a measure of the ease with which a
specimen of that material can be magnetized by a given magnetic intensity. It is defined as the ratio of
the magnetization M produced due to the magnetic intensity H i.e.

M
H
(1)
Here magnetization M is the magnetic moment per unit volume and the , v is known as the "Volume
susceptibility ". Note that the volume susceptibility is a dimensionless quantity (irrespective of the system
of units used). Let us denote it as
v for specifying it as the volume susceptibility. Equation (1) may also
be expressed as
v
0 M
B
.(2)
.)
where B = 0 H is the magnetic induction corresponding to the magnetic intensity H in vacuum
If N be the number of atoms/volume and as the effective magnetic moment of each of these along B,
then
M = N
. .......(3)
Theory:
MEASUREMENT OF SUSCEPTIBILITY:
When a solution of paramagnetic substance of ferromagnetic substance taken in a tube is placed between
the poles of a magnet , there is a rise of liquid level . A measurement of this rise in level of the solution in
the tube enables us to determine the susceptibility of the substances.
We know that the potential energy Ei of an atom of magnetic moment i, when placed in a magnetic field
of strength B (in weber/ m2 or tesla), is given by
Ei = iB = B ..
(4)
where is the effective magnetic moment along the direction of the magnetic field B i.e. Energy of unit
volume of a substance with N atoms per unit volume and ja as the effective magnetic moment , along B,
for each of the atoms will be
E =(N )B=MB
An inhomogeneous field exerts an additional force on the magnetic moments. The direction and
magnitude of this force depends on the relative orientation between the magnetic field and the magnetic
dipole. In order to minimize the energy for the system to be in equilibrium, a magnetic dipole, which is
oriented parallel to the magnetic field moves in the direction of increasing field strength. While
antiparallel dipole moves towards lower field strength. A dipole, which is perpendicular to the field,
doesn't move
The force F on the unit volume of the substance, placed in an inhomogeneous magnetic field is
F = - dE/dx = - M(dB/dx)
(5)
and using equation (2) we get the force per unit volume
F=(
i.e. force on the volume V of the substance is

F=
.V
..(6)
From ,fig. (1) let O be a section where the field is negligible and let be the vertical coordinate of O.
The force on the element
of volume a on the liquid at O is from equation (6)
dF =
(a
Where a is the area of cross-section of the narrow limb.

The force on the entire liquid above the point O is therefore
F=
B1
v a B1 2
1
dB 2
1
dB
v a
dx
v aB12 ..(7)
2 r
dx
20
2 0 0
where B1 is the field intensity at the upper level

And the force F on the liquid above the point O due to the gravitational field is
F = mg = (ah) g
...........(8)
where is the density of the liquid
In equilibrium the two forces are equal and opposite thus from equation (7) and (8)
1
F
v B1 2 a hg a ..(9)
20
h
B12
This is the volume susceptibility and is dimensionless.
This volume susceptibility divided by density gives the mass susceptibility of the solution
h
m v 2 0 g 2 m 3 / kg ..(10)
B1
v =2 0 g.
0 4 * 107 Vs/Am
g is in m/s2 ,
h is in meters,
B1 is in W/m2
Figure 1
Procedure:
The experimental solution is placed in a Quincke's tube consisting of a wide and narrow limb. The wide
limb is placed outside the field and the narrow limb inside the magnetic field provided by an
electromagnet as shown in Fig. [1 ] . The field varies rapidly along the vertical direction due to the
wedging of the pole pieces. Thus the force given by eq.(5) below on the specimen will be vertical.
1. Put the tube on stand and fix it with clamp.
2. Insert (he narrow limb of the quincke's tube vertically between the pole pieces of (he electromagnet
such that the meniscus is in the central region of the uniform magnetic field or in the centre of the poles
and the wide limb is placed outside the field as shown in fig. (1).
3. Illuminate the meniscus level with an ordinary bulb and view it with a travelling microscope . Adjust
the horizontal cross wire of the eye piece of microscope on the meniscus and note this reading of the
microscope. It will be the initial position of the meniscus . Record this reading in table as shown below.
4. Switch ON the electromagnet power supply and adjust the current say at 0.2 amp , Bring the cross wire
again on the meniscus and also record this reading in table by suitably adjusting the microsope.
5. Increase the power supply current in steps of 0.2 amp i.e. say 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 ....and note the corresponding
position of the level of the liquid . Note all these readings in table.
6. Repeat the experiment for different concentration of the solution .
7. Finally put the magnetic field sensor b/w pole pieces. Switch on gauss meter and read the magnetic
field corresponding to each value of current & note it in the table.
Observation Table:
S.No
Power supply
current I
(Amp)
Initial position of
the meniscus
h1(cm)
Final position
h2(cm)
Rise in
height h
=(h1-h2)cm
Mag.Field
B1 Kgauss
(Kgauss)2
1.
2.
3.
4.
..
..
..
Calculations :
2
Plot a graph (graph1) each for different concentrations between B1 magnetic field in kgauss along Xaxis and h change in height in cm along Y-axis, which gives a straight line
h
AB
2
B1 OB
cm/(kgauss)2 and convert it in m/T2
Now put above in equation (10) and calculate the mass susceptibility as
m 2 0 g
h
B12
Similarly calculate the value of mass susceptibility for other concentration of the solution and make table
as shown below for the results.
Result :
The table shows the mass susceptibility of the given solution for different concentration.
S.No.
Concentration of the solution
Mass susceptibility
m
1
2
50%
100%
Graph 1
Precautions :
1.
2.
3.
4.
Adjust the microscope to get clearer picture of meniscus.

Use lamp and magnifying glass while taking readings.
Let the liquid rise and become steady before taking readings of meniscus.
Draw best fit straight line while plotting rise in liquid level vs B12.
Experiment No. 5
B H curve
Aim :
To study B-H curve and to find out the values of coercivity, retentivity and saturation magnetisation of
experimental material. (commercial Nickel).
Apparatus Used :
Set up for B-H curve, experimental material (commercial Nickel), CRO, connecting leads.
Theory
Introduction
A precise knowledge of various magnetic parameters of ferromagnetic substances and the ability to
determine them accurately are important aspects of magnetic studies. These not only have academic
significance but are also indispensible for both the manufacturers and users of magnetic materials.
The characteristics which are usually used to define the quality of the substance are coercivity, retentivity,
saturation magnetisation and hysteresis loss. Furthermore, the understanding of the behaviour of these
substances and improvement in their quality demand that the number of magnetic phases present in a
system is also known.
A B-H curve plots the changes in a magnetic circuit's flux density as the magnetic field strength is
gradually increased. The resulting shape indicates how the flux density increases due to the gradual
alignment of the magnetic domains (atoms, that behave like tiny magnets) within the magnetic circuit
material. When all the domains have aligned, the B-H curve reaches a plateau and the magnetic circuit is
said to be saturated. At this point, any further increase in magnetic field strength has no further effect on
the flux density. Different magnetic materials, such as iron, steel, etc., have B-H curves with different
slopes and points at which saturation occurs.
After reaching saturation, a reduction in the magnetic field strength results in a reduction in the flux
density. However, the resulting curve does not quite match the original curve, but 'lags behind' it. This
effect is called hysteresis, which is from the Greek, meaning to 'lag behind'.
When the magnetic field strength reaches zero, the resulting curve indicates that the flux density has not,
itself, reached zero. The value of flux density remaining is termed the remanence (or residual
magnetism or retentivity) of the magnetic material. 'Soft' magnetic materials, used in the manufacture of
transformer cores, etc., will have a very small remanence; whereas 'hard' magnetic materials, used in the
manufacture of permanent magnets, will have a very high remanence. In order to remove any remanence,
the magnetic field strength requires to be reversed (by reversing the direction of the current in the coil)
and increased in the opposite direction. The amount of 'negative' magnetic field strength necessary to
completely
remove
the
remanence
is
called
coercivity.
If we continue to increase the negative magnetic field strength, the magnetic material will again reach
saturation in the opposite direction, and the new curve will be a mirror image of the original curve. The
complete B-H curve is then usually described as a hysteresis loop. The area contained within a hysteresis
loop indicates the energy required to perform the 'magnetise-demagnetise'_process.
'Soft' magnetic materials require relatively little energy to become magnetised and demagnetised and, so
have 'narrow' hysteresis loops , whereas 'hard' magnetic materials require a great deal of energy
and
have
'wide'
hysteresis
loops.
So, B-H Curves and Hysteresis Loops are a valuable tools for comparing the characteristics and
behaviour of different magnetic materials, in order to select them for an appropriate applications..
Design Principle
When a cylindrical sample is placed coaxially in a periodically varying magnetic field (say by the
solenoid) the magnetisation in the sample also undergoes a periodic variation. This variation can be
picked up by a pickup coil which is placed coaxially with the sample. Normally, the pickup coil is wound
near the central part of the sample so that the demagnetisation factors involved are ballistic rather than the
magnetometric.
For the uniform field H a produced, the effective field H acting in the cylindrical sample will be
H = Ha - NM
where M is the magnetisation, or
H Ha
NJ
0
where N is the normalized demagnetisation factor including 4 and J is the magnetic polarization
defined by
B 0 H J
with magnetic induction B = H and
B = 0(H+M)
B = 0 ( H + )
J=( )
Based on these eqs. an electronic circuit may be designed to give the values of J and H and hence the
Hysterisis loop (J-H loop).

Jr
Js
..(1)
G0 0 g x e y r
A
g y s N 4
Ac
............................................................(2)
G0 0 g x e y s
A
g y s N 4
Ac
....................................................(3)
where
1
g x g y n 0 Ac
G0
(4)
equations (1), (2) and (3) define the magnetic quantities coercivity (Hc ), retentivity( ) and saturation
magnetization( ) in terms of electrical signals ex and ey respectively.
Method
Calibration
When an empty pickup coil is placed in the solenoid field, the signal will only be due to the flux
linking with coil area on CRO it will be only a horizontal straight line representing the magnetic field Ha.
Thus without a sample in the pickup coil a good horizontal straight line is a proof of complete
cancellation of signals at the input. From unknown values of Ha and the corresponding magnitude of ex,
we can determine G0 and hence calibrate the instrument. The dimensions of a given sample define the
values of demagnetisation factor and the area ratio pertaining to the pickup coil. The demagnetisation
factor can be obtained from the appendix(MISSING). These values are adjusted with the value of 10 turn
helipots provided for this purpose. The value of the area ratio can be adjusted upto three decimal places
whereas that of N upto four (Zero to 0.1 max). The sample is now placed in the pickup coil.
Since eddy currents are present in conducting ferromagnetic materials, the resulting J-H loop has
a small loop in the saturation portion due to difference in phases for the forward paths. Moreover, these
plots do not show horizontal lines at saturation and hence their shapes can't be employed as a criterion to
adjust the values of demagnetisation factor.
The values of loop width, intercept on the J-axis and saturation position are determined in terms
of volts for different applied fields. Plots of these against magnetic field are then used to extract the value
of coercivity, retentivity and saturation magnetic polarization. The first corresponds to the intercept of the
width against currents straight line on the Y-axis and it is essentially the measure of the width under no
shielding effects. On the other hand, the remaining two parameters are derived from asymptotic
extensions of the corresponding plots because these refer to the situation when shielding effects are
insignificant. Caution is necessary in making the straight line fit for loop widths as a function of current
data as the points for small values of magnetic current have somewhat lower magnitudes. This is due to
the fact that incomplete saturation produces lower coercivity values in the material. The geometrically
obtained values of potentials are, in turn, used to find the corresponding magnetic parameters through
equations (1), (2) and (3). If the area for a particular sample is so small that loop does not exhibit
observable width, the signal ex can be enhanced by multiplying ( =
) and ( = N) by a suitable
factor and adjusting the two helipots accordingly. The ultimate value of the intercept can be normalised
by the same factor to give the correct value of coercivity.
Observations
For this experiment
diameter of the pickup coil=3.21mm
gx=100; gy=1
Sample :Commercial Nickel
Length of sample: 39mm
Diameter of sample: 1.17mm
Therefore,
Area ratio
As
0.133
Ac
Demagnetisation factor (N)= 0.0029(Appendix)

Calibration
Settings: without sample
1. Set Oscilloscope at D.C. (AC/DC knob: AC if up(or out), DC if down(or in))
2. Keep CRO in XY mode pressing the XY knob. Time base EXT in hysteresis loop tracer(see fig).
H Bal., Phase and DC Bal. adjusted for horizontal straight line in the centre. Demagnetisation at
zero and area ratio 0.40 at magnetic field 200gauss(rms).
ex= 64mm, or
ey= 7.0 V (if read by applying on Y input of CRO)
For Area ratio 1
ex= 160mm, or
ey= 17.5V
200
1.25gauss / mm
160
G0(peak to peak) = 1.25*22 = 3.53gauss/mm
also ,
200
G 0 ( rms)
11.43gauss / volt
17.5
G0(peak to peak)=11.43*22 = 32.23gauss/volt
From Eq. (3) G0 (rms)
By adjusting N and
As
as given above the J-H loop width is too small. Thus both are adjusted to three
Ac
times i.e. 0.399 and 0.0087 respectively.
3. Now place the sample and vary the magnetic field in steps. Note down the corresponding loop
width (for determining coercivity), loop height (for determining retentivity) and saturation.
(a) Table to determine Coercivity
S No.
Magnetic Field (rms)

(Gauss)
2*Loop Width
(mm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
30
62
94
138
179
226
266
302
336
7.0
9.0
11.0
12.5
14.0
15.5
16.75
18.0
18.75
(b) Table to determine Saturation magnetization

S No.

(Gauss)
Tip to Tip height

(mV)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
30
62
94
138
179
226
266
302
336
205
370
400
420
430
440
445
450
450
S No.

(Gauss)
2*Intercept
(mV)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
30
62
94
138
179
226
266
302
336
170
260
265
270
270
275
275
275
275
(c) Table to determine Retentivity
From the graphs [fig (4) and (5)]

Loop width = 2.9mm (after dividing by the multiplying factor 3)
2* Intercept = 280mV
Tip to tip height = 457.5mV
Calculations:
For the given sample
Demagnetising Factor N = 0.0029 (given)
Actual area ratio
As
0.133 (given)
Ac
Set magnetic field at a value close to 200 gauss. (This is r.m.s value of B).
Choose a convenient magnification factor = 3 (say for this case)
set demagnetising Factor N=0; (Actual demagnetising Factor * magnification factor; 0.0029*3= 0.0087)
set area ratio 0.4; ( area ratio Ar= Actual Area ratio* magnification factor; 0.133*3=0.399)
Now with these values as fixed take measurements
read ex using x input of CRO eg. let ex= 64mm
read ey using y input of CRO eg. let ey= 7V

ex for Area ratio of 1= 64/0.4 = 160mm
ey for Area .ratio of 1= 7/0.4 = 17.5V
from this G0(rms) = (Brms)/ex for Ar=1 = 200/160 = 1.25gauss/mm
or
G0 peak to peak = 1.25 * = 3.53 gauss/mm
similarly,
G0(rms) (in gauss/v) = (Brms)/ey for Ar=1 = 200/17.5 = 11.43gauss/V
G0 peak to peak = 11.43 x = 32.23 gauss/V
Observations with sample:
(a) For Coercivity
find extrapolated loop width
loop width= (Y intercept)/(multiplication factor used) = 8.7mm/3 = 2.9 mm
Since e x 1 loopwidth 1 2.9 1.45mm
G0 e x
3.53 1.45
Hc
39.3Oersted
As
0.133 0.0029
N
Ac
(b) For Saturation magnetisation

s
from equation (1)
Bc
4
(ey)s=1/2 * tip to tip height = 457.5/2=228.75mV

G0 0 g x e y s
B
s c
4
A
g y s N 4
Ac
from equation(2)
32.23 1 100 0.229

452 gauss
1 0.133 0.0029 12.56
(c ) For Retentivity
read intercept in V from graph= 280 mV
(ey)r=1/2 * (2* Intercept)=1/2 * 280=140mV
G 0 0 g x e y r
J
r r
4
A
g y s N 4
Ac
from equation(3)
32.23 1 100 0.140
276 gauss
1 0.133 0.0029 12 .56
Note: the above observation and calculation are given as a typical example. Test results of individual unit
are supplied with the unit separately.
Questions:
1.Explain the difference in J-H loop of hard and soft iron samples?
2.Why the loop width graph was extrapolated to zero magnetic field?
3.Why the asymptotes were drawn for finding Js and Jr ?
Experiment No. 6
e/m Experiment (Magnetron Method)
Object:
To determine e/m (Specific Charge) for an electron by magnetron method.
Apparatus Used:
e/m apparatus consisting of power supply fitted with voltmeter and ammeter to read anode
voltage (in volts), anode current (micro amp), solenoid power supply fitted with ammeter to read solenoid
current(amp) ,magnetron valve with base and connecting wires, solenoid fitted with suitable wooden base.
Description:
A magnetron is a thermionic valve with cylindrical coaxial anode and cathode. Electrons emitted by the
cathode travel radially to the anode (see Figure 1), however in the presence of an axial magnetic field (by
placing it inside a solenoid) the electron paths become curved. At a critical value of the magnetic field,
the electron paths just touch the anode. Any further increase in magnetic field strength will result in the
electrons not reaching the anode so the anode current falls to zero. Measurement of this critical field can
be used to determine e/m.
Theory:
Magnetron arrangement consists of a cathode in form of a wire fitted at the axis of a cylindrical
anode of radius Ra. Anode is maintained at a (+)ve potential V w.r.t cathode so that an electric field
exists radially. A magnetic field parallel to the axis of cathode (filament) is superposed upon the electric
field by placing the magnetron inside a solenoid such that its axis is coincident with solenoid axis. The
strength of the magnetic field may be varied by controlling the solenoid current Ic .
Let us assume the electrons emit from the cathode with zero initial velocity and begin to
accelerate towards the anode due to (+) ve potential. The velocity acquired by electron (mass m, charge
e) is given by relation
=
=
..................................................(1)
) ........................................................(2)
Magnetic Field(B) does not change the speed of an electron however modifies the trajectory of an
electron depending on the magnitude of B. Following conditions may arise:
(a) B=0
electrons will move radially outwards and strike anode
(b) B<Bc
path of electrons will be curved although will strike anode
(c) B=Bc
path of electrons will be tangential to anode (circular)
(d) B>Bc
path of electrons will be highly curved and they will not reach anode
If the anode current(Ia) is studied as a function of solenoid current(Is), it will be unaffected for value of Is
if Is<Ic whereas for values of Is, Is>Ic anode current(Ia) should practically reduce to zero. Thus Ic can be
determined graphically by noting the point of intersection of tangents (1) & (2).
Tangent(1): drawn at region when anode current is constant

Tangent(2): drawn when anode current practically reduces to zero.
Bc can then be calculated as
=
(3)
4
Where
Ic =Critical value of solenoid current for cut-off (in amp)

N= number of turns per meter of the solenoid
/
( / )
L=length of the Solenoid (0.3m)

Rs=Radius of the Solenoid (0.065/2)m
Figure 1
In a magnetron arrangement an electron basically moves under simultaneous mutually perpendicular
electrical and magnetic fields in a circular path and for the moment of grazing anode the radius of the
circular path is exactly equal to half the anode radius. Required centripetal force is provided by force due to
magnetic field
=
(4)

=
As
/2
............................................................. (5)
=2 /
Substituting value of from eq. (1) we get
=
Or
=( )
C/Kg (6)
Therefore a graph plotted V vs Bc2 will be a straight line and by determining its slope we can calculate the
e/m as follows
=
..(7)
Procedure
1. Connect the diode valve and solenoid with the e/m apparatus through the cable and patch chords.(refer
Fig.2 and Fig.3).
2. Put the valve well within the solenoid symmetrically along with the cable.
3. Switch on the e/m apparatus and set the solenoid current to zero (i.e. B=0). Apply a constant anode
potential V (say 2 volt) wait for 2 minutes and note the corresponding anode current in the microammeter provided on the front panel keeping the solenoid current at zero.
4. Apply some current Is (say 0.2 amp.) in the solenoid with the constant current source built- in the e/m
apparatus and note the corresponding anode current (IaA.) at fixed anode potential V (say 2 volt).
Increase the solenoid current gradually say to 0.4,0.6. Amp and so on and note the corresponding
anode current in micro-ammeter. Note these readings in table as shown ahead. Take at least 10-12
readings for each set.
5. Repeat the experiment for different anode potentials say 3 volt, 4 volt etc. Note all the readings in the
table given below.
6. Plot a graph between anode current Ia amp and solenoid current Is amp for each fixed value of anode
potential as shown in Fig.4. The intersection of the tangent to the sloping curve with the steady Ia value
gives the critical solenoid current Ic corresponding to Bc. Calculate Bc for each value of anode potential
using equation (3).
7. Plot a graph between anode potential V and Bc2 and from the slope of this calculate e/m using
equation(7).
Observations and Tabulations:
(a) Constants for Solenoid:
1. Length of Solenoid
2. Diameter of Solenoid(2Rs)
(L)
(Ds)
= 0.3m
= 0.065m
3. Total number of turns in solenoid (N)

(b) Constant for Anode:
Radius of Anode
TABLE 1:
S.No.
Solenoid Current
(Is) amp
(Ra) = 0.3cm
Anode Potential (V) in Volts
3.0 Volts
4.0 Volts
Ia (amp)
Ia (amp)
2.0 Volts
Ia (amp)
5.0 Volts
Ia (amp)
1
2
3
4
5
6
TABLE 2:
S.No
Anode
potentialV
(Volts)
Critical anode
current Ic
(from graph)
( Amp)
Critical mag.
Field Bc.
=
(Weber/m2)
Bc2
(Weber/m2)2
V/ Bc2
Volt/(Weber/m2)2
Calculations
(i)
(ii)
Plot a graph V vs Bc2. It will be a straight line find the slope of this line. Then find
=
C/kg.
e/m
Coul/Kg
Result :
The experimentally observed and standard values of e/m are as follows
1. e/m (Experimental from calculation) =
2. e/m (Experimental from graph)=
3. e/m (standard)= 1.7589x10 11C/Kg.
Calculate maximum permissible error.
Precautions :
1. The readings should be taken with utmost care.
2. Graph should be plotted smoothly and the tangents should be drawn at appropriate positions.
3. Stray electric and magnetic field must be eliminated.
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
FranckHertz experiment
Aim:
To determine the first excitation potential of gas (Argon) by Franck-Hertz experiment.
Apparatus:
Tetrode tube filled with experimental Argon gas, filament, power supply three variable voltage sources,
nanoammeter.
Experimental Set-up
The experimental set up involves a tube containing low pressure experimental gas fitted with four
electrodes: an electron-emitting cathode (K), a mesh grid (G1)for minimizing space charge effects, a
mesh grid (G2) for acceleration, and an anode(A). The anode was held at a slightly negative electrical
potential relative to the grid G2 (although positive compared to the cathode), so that electrons had to have
at least a corresponding amount of kinetic energy to reach it after passing the grid and thereby making the
dips in the plate current more prominent. Instruments were fitted to measure the current passing between
the electrodes, and to adjust the potential difference (voltage) between the cathode (negative electrode)
and the accelerating grids Fig(1).
Figure 1
Principle:
The FranckHertz experiment is an experiment that provides support for the Bohr model of the atom, a
precursor to quantum mechanics. In 1914, the German physicists James Franck and Gustav Ludwig
Hertz sought to experimentally probe the energy levels of the atom. The FranckHertz experiment
elegantly supports Niels Bohr's model of the atom, with electrons orbiting the nucleus with specific,
discrete energies. Franck and Hertz were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1925 for this work.
The FranckHertz experiment confirms Bohr's quantized model of the atom by demonstrating that atoms
could indeed only absorb (and be excited by) specific amounts of energy (quanta).
With the help of thermionic emission, electrons are emitted by a heated cathode, and then accelerated
towards a grid which is at a positive potential, relative to the cathode. The collecting plate is at a lower
potential and is negative with respect to mesh grid. If electrons have sufficient energy on reaching the
grid, some will pass through the grid, and reach collecting plate, and it will be measured as current by the
ammeter.
As long as the electron collision is elastic, the electrons will not lose energy on colliding with gas
molecules in tube. As the accelerating potential increases, the current also increases. But as the
accelerating potential reaches a particular value, (4.9eV for mercury, 11.8eV for argon,19eV for neon),
each electron posses that much of potential and now the collision become inelastic. As a result, the energy
level of electron bound to the atom is raised. Now the electron almost loses its energy, and current
drops, indicating the sharp onset of a new phenomenon which takes enough energy away from the
electrons that they cannot reach the collector. This drop is attributed to inelastic collisions between the
accelerated electrons and atomic electrons in the mercury atoms. The values of accelerating voltage where
the current drops gives a measure of the energy necessary to force an electron to an excited state and is
known as excitation potential. The sudden onset suggests that the argon electrons cannot accept energy
until it reaches the threshold for elevating them to an excited state. Drops in the collected current occur at
multiples of 12.1Volts since an accelerated electron which has say 12.1V of energy removed in a collision
can be re-accelerated to produce other such collisions at multiples of 12.1V. This experiment is in strong
confirmation of the idea of quantized atomic energy levels.
Procedure
Before the power is switched ON make sure all the control knobs are at their minimum position
and Current Multiplier knob at 10-7position.
Switch ON the power.
Turn the manual- Auto Switch to manual and check that the Scanning Voltage Knob is at its
minimum position.
Turn Voltage Display Selector to VG1K and adjust the VG1K knob until voltmeter reads 1.5V.
Turn Voltage display selector to VG 2 A and adjust the VG 2 A knob until the voltmeter reads 7.5V.
When you have finished the steps listed above, you are ready to do the experiment.
Rotate VG 2K knob and observe the variation of plate current with the increase of VG 2K . The current
reading would show maxima and minima periodically . The magnitude of maxima could be adjusted
suitably by adjusting the filament voltage and the value of Current Multiplier. Now take the systematic
readings, VG 2K vs. Plate current(Ip). For better resolution, the reading may be taken at an interval of 1V
(1/2 division). Plot the graph with output current on Y-axis and accelerating voltage VG 2 K at X-axis.
Observation Table :
Filament voltage
: 2.6V (minimum position)
VG1K
: 1.5V
VG 2 A
: 7.5V
S No.
Aceeleration Potential VG2K

(Volts)
Plate Current Ip
(nanoAmperes)
1.
2.
3.
..
..
..
Results:
Graph with output current on Y-axis and accelerating voltage VG 2K at X-axis is plotted which shows
series of dips in current at approximately 12.1 volt increments (fig 2).
At low potential differencesup to 12.1 volts when the tube contained argon vapourthe current
through the tube increased steadily with increasing potential difference. The higher voltage increased
the electric field in the tube and electrons were drawn more forcefully towards and through the
accelerating grid.
At 12.1 volts the current drops sharply, almost back to zero.
The current increases steadily once again if the voltage is increased further, until 24.2 volts is reached
(exactly 12.1+12.1 volts).
At 24.2 volts a similar sharp drop is observed.
Interpretation of results
Franck and Hertz were able to explain their experiment in terms of elastic and inelastic collisions. At low
potentials, the accelerated electrons acquired only a modest amount of kinetic energy. When they
encountered mercury atoms in the tube, they participated in purely elastic collisions. This is due to the
prediction of quantum mechanics that an atom can absorb no energy until the collision energy exceeds
that required to lift an electron into a higher energy state.
With purely elastic collisions, the total amount of kinetic energy in the system remains the same. Since
electrons are over one thousand times less massive than even the lightest atoms, this meant that the
electrons held on to the vast majority of that kinetic energy. Higher potentials served to drive more
electrons through the grid to the anode and increase the observed current, until the accelerating potential
reached say 12.1 volts.
The lowest energy electronic excitation a argon atom can participate in requires say 12.1 V. When the
accelerating potential reached say 12.1 volts, each free electron possessed exactly say 12.1 V of kinetic
energy (above its rest energy at that temperature) when it reached the grid. Consequently, a collision
between a mercury atom and a free electron at that point could be inelastic: that is, a free electron's kinetic
energy could be converted into potential energy by raising the energy level of an electron bound to a
argon atom: this is called exciting the argon atom. With the loss of all its acquired kinetic energy in this
way, the free electron can no longer overcome the slight negative potential at the ground electrode, and
the measured current drops sharply.
As the voltage is increased, electrons will participate in one inelastic collision, lose their say 12.1 V, but
then continue to be accelerated. In this manner, the current rises again after the accelerating potential
exceeds say 12.1 V. At say 24.2V (2*12.1V), the situation changes again. There, each electron now has
just enough energy to participate in two inelastic collisions, excite two argon atoms, and then be left with
no kinetic energy. Once again, the observed current drops. At intervals of say 12.1 volts this process will
repeat; each time the electrons will undergo one additional inelastic collision.
Precautions:
During the experiment(manual), when the voltage is over 60V, please pay attention to the output
current indicator, if the ammeter reading increase suddenly, decrease the voltage at once to avoid
the damage of the tube.
If you want to change the value of VG1K , VG 2 A and Filament Voltage during experiment, please
first adjust the value of VG 2K to Zero.
Whenever the filament voltage is changed, please allow 2-3 minutes for its stabilisation .
When the Frank-Hertz Tube is already in the socket, please make sure the following before the
power is switched ON or OFF, to avoid damage to the tube.
Manual Auto switch is on Manual and Scanning and Filament Voltage knob at its minimum
position (rotate it anticlockwise) and current multiplier knob at 10 -7.
Experiment No. 8
Malus law
AIM :
To determine the relation ship between the intensity of the transmitted light through two polarizers and
the angle , of the axes of the two polarizers and to verify Malus Law.
Apparatus Used :
A diode laser, a polarizer-analyzer pair, photo detector, detector output measuring unit (micro ammeter),
dial fitted to the polarizer and an optical bench.
Theory:
The light coming from the Sun, candle light, and light emitted by a bulb is an ordinary light and is known
to be un-polarized. In an un-polarized light electric and magnetic field vectors vibrate in all possible
directions perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.
Unpolarised light can be represented as shown in fig. 1(a). The unpolarised light can be considered to be
composed of two linear orthogonal polarization states with complete incoherence.
When unpolarized light is incident on an ideal polarizer, the intensity of the transmitted light is one-half
of the incident light. Also if the polarizer is rotated w.r.t. incident light there is no change in the irradiance
of the transmitted light i.e. its intensity remains half of the incident light.
Polarization
Certain transparent materials such as Nicol, Tourmaline are capable of filtering and allowing light waves
having vibrations in only one plane. Such materials are called Polaroids. This filtering is possible due the
structure of the material that is having its cells arranged in a straight line manner only in one direction
(parallel to the pass axis of polarizer) which is represented in fig. 1(b) & fig. 1(c).
This phenomenon of filtering and producing light waves having vibrations confined to one particular
direction is called polarization. Polarization is a property of a material by which light waves are filtered
and made directional.
Figure 1(a)
Figure 1(b)
Figure 1(c)
Maluss Law
When light falls on a polarizer, the transmitted light gets polarized. The polarized light falling on another
Polaroid, called analyzer, transmits light depending on the orientation of its axis with the polarizer. The
intensity of light transmitted through the analyzer is given by Malus law. The law describes how the
intensity of light transmitted by the analyzer varies with the angle that its plane of transmission makes
with that of the polarizer. The law can be stated in words as follows:
The intensity of the transmitted light varies as the square of the cosine of the angle between
the two planes of transmission.
Figure 2
If Ao is the amplitude of the incident light and At is amplitude of the light transmitted through the
analyzer; which in inclined at an angle with the polarizer then (fig 2 & 3),
At= Ao Cos 1
As
Intensity (amplitude)2
It = At2 = Ao2 Cos2 = Io Cos2 ..2
Where It is the intensity of the light transmitted through the analyzer; and Io is the intensity of the incident
plane polarized light.
Consider the two extreme cases illustrated by this equation:
If is zero, the second polarizer (analyser) is aligned with the first polarizer, and the value of
cos2 is one. Thus the intensity transmitted by the second filter is equal to the light intensity that
passes through the first filter. This case will allow maximum intensity to pass through.
If is 90, the second polarizer (analyser ) is oriented perpendicular to the plane of polarization
2
of the first filter, and the cos (90) gives zero. Thus no light is transmitted through the second filter.
This case will allow minimum (zero) intensity to pass through.
The light intensity cannot be measured directly. The light energy is converted into electrical energy using
photo detectors such as a photo cell or light dependent resistor (LDR). In such photo detectors the current
produced is directly proportional to the light intensity.
It current
It = K *current
The constant K appearing here is nothing but the conversion efficiency of photo detector. Using this
concept Maluss law (equations 1 and 2) is verified in this experiment. The angles are noted
experimentally from the dial fitted to the Polaroids.
Figure 3
Experimental Procedure
Set up the laser, photodiode, the polarizer and analyser as shown in Figure 4 to test Maluss Law.
Make sure the polarizer and analyser are normal to the laser beam and that the beam passes through
a good portion of the polarizers look for minimal scattering, etc.
When the laser is going through polarizer, analyser and then into a detector make sure polarizer and
analyser transmission axes are parallel. That way you can work with an offset from 0 o. To do this,
keep the polarizer fixed and rotate the analyser until you observe a maximum in transmission. Note
down maximum current Imax . At this point the pass axes of polarizer and analyser are parallel.
Rotate the analyzer in 10o increments from 0o to 360o . Take readings of the intensity at each angle.
The intensity of light beam that passes through polarizer and analyser was measured by the light
sensor. The rotary motion sensor measures the angle that was obtained from rotating the second
analyzer relative to the first polarizer.
In each case the current is noted and tabulated in Table-1.
Plot a graph taking the current Iexpt along Y-axis and angle of rotation of analyzer on the X-axis.
From the graph the cosine nature of the curve is clearly evident, validating the Malus law.
Cos , Cos2, Itheo are calculated and presented in Table-1. Plot two more graphs showing the
variation of Iexpt vs Cos2 and Iexpt vs Itheo
The slope of straight line in graph Iexpt vs Itheo is calculated. Slope 1
Figure :4
OBSERVATIONS
Maximum Current when both the polarizers have their axes parallel Imax=..
S.No.
Angle between
axes of polarizers
(degrees)
Cos
Cos
Intensity (in terms of

current Iexpt read
in
)
(
)
Current Itheo
Itheo= Imax * Cos2
(
)
1.
2.
3.
4.
..
..
..
..
..
RESULTS
Experimental results representing the light intensity versus the angle () and the cos2 are shown in
figure 5 and 6, respectively. The shape of the graph of the intensity versus the angle is sinusoidal.
This was obtained by positioning both polarizers at the same angle, (zero degree), and then rotating
analyzer from 0 to 360. The maximum and minimum light intensity corresponds to 0 and 180,
90 and 270, respectively.
We have demonstrated the Malus law of polarization of light. The experimental results agreed well
with the predicted relationship between the polarization direction of light and the intensity of that
light transmitted through a second polarizer.
Figure 5
Figure 6
DISCUSSION
The current (proportional to light intensity), noted for different angles of rotation of the analyzer,
follows a cosine curve for 360 o of rotation, indicating the validity of equation-2. The experimentally
measured current (Iexpt) and (Itheo) that calculated using equation Itheo = Imax Cos2 agree within the
limits of the experimental error.
The relative intensity of the light emerging from analyzer is maximum at 0 and 180 and it attains
minimum value at 90 and 270. In between it varies as a Cosine function as indicated by the graph.
The light intensity Iexpt versus Cos2 curve is a straight line, as expected, with unit slope indicating the
correctness of the Maluss law.
Precautions:
1. Analyzer and Polarizer should be at same horizontal level.
2. Analyzer must be rotated by small angles (5o). Changing values abruptly may cause errors.
3. Experiment should be performed in dark room.
4. Photo detector is a very sensitive device. It should be adjusted well (at appropriate height) to
receive maximum current.
Figure 7
Experiment No. 9
Single Slit Diffraction
Aim:
To measure the intensity distribution due to single slit and to measure the width of central
maxima and slit width (d).
Apparatus :
Optical bench, He-Ne Laser, screen with slits, photo cell, micro ammeter
Theory:
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT:
Light travels in a straight line. However, when light passes through a small hole, there is a
certain amount of spreading of light. Similarly, when light passes by an obstacle, it appears to
bend around the edges of the obstacle and enters its geometrical shadow.
The phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of small obstacles or apertures and its
consequent spreading into the regions of geometrical shadow is called diffraction of light.
The effect of diffraction is more pronounced if the size of the aperture or the obstacle is of the
6
order of the wavelength of the light. As the wavelength of visible light ( 10 m) is much
smaller than the size of the objects around us, the diffraction of light is not easily seen. But sound
waves have large wavelength so they get easily diffracted by the objects around us.
A source S of monochromatic light is placed at the focus of a convex lens L1. A parallel beam of
light and hence a plane wave front WW gets incident on a narrow rectangular slit AB of width d.
The incident wave front disturbs all parts of the slit AB simultaneously. According to Huygens
theory all parts of the slit AB will become source of secondary wavelets, which all start in same
phase. These wavelets spread out in all directions, thus causing diffraction of light after it
emerges through slit AB. Suppose the diffraction pattern is focused by a convex lens L2 on a
screen placed in its focal plane.
Central Maxima:
All the secondary wavelets going straight across the slit AB are focused at
the central point O of the screen. The wavelets from any two corresponding points of the two
halves of the slit reach the point O in the same phase, they add constructively to produce a central
bright fringe.
Calculation of path difference : Suppose the secondary wavelets diffracted at an angle are
focused at point P. The secondary wavelets start from different parts of the slit in same phase but
they reach point P in different phases. The path difference (p) b/w the wavelets from A & B will
be
p = BP-AP = BN = AB sin = d sin
Positions of minima : Let the point P be so located on the screen that the path difference =
and the angle be
. Then from the above equation, we get
d sin =
we can divide the slit AB into two halves AC & CB. Then the path difference b/w the wavelets
from A & C will be /2 . Similarly corresponding to every point in the upper half AC, there is
a point in the lower half CB for which the path difference is /2. Hence they interfere
destructively so as to produce a minimum.
Thus the condition for first minima is
d sin =
similarly the condition for second minima is
d sin = 2
Hence the condition for nth minima can be written as
d sin =
The directions of n th minima on either side of central maximum are given by

Angle
sin
= .
(1)
d
is called half angular width of central maximum.
Angular width of central maximum
2
d
If D is the distance of the screen from the single slit, then the linear width of central maximum
will be
0 D * 2
2D.
................................2
d
Intensity of secondary maxima decreases with the order of the maximum. The reason is that the
intensity of the central maximum is due to the constructive interference of wavelets from all parts
of the contribution of wavelets form one third part of the slit (wavelets from remaining two parts
interfere destructively), the second secondary maximum is due to the contribution of wavelets
from the one fifth part only (the remaining four interfere destructively) and so on. Hence the
intensity of secondary maximum decreases with the increase in the order n of the maximum.
Set-up and Procedure

1. Switch on the laser source about 15 minutes before the experiment is due to start . This ensures
that the intensity of light from the laser source is constant.
2. Allow the laser beam to fall on a slit formed in the screen provided. The photo cell is secured to a
mount and is kept as far behind the slit as possible.
3. Try to observe the diffraction pattern by putting a screen (paper) in front of photo detector. After
getting diffraction pattern on the screen (paper) remove it.
4. Adjust the position of photo cell to obtain maximum current & keep on recording the current
with the position of photo detector on either side. The intensity distribution of the diffraction
pattern is measured with the help of a photo detector connected to a micro-ammeter.
5. Measure the distance b/w slit & photo detector
6. Plot a graph (position of detector) vs (current). It will be of shape shown in fig(3). Now measure
the distance ( ) b/w two first minima on either side of central maxima from graph. This is the
width of central maxima . Now calculate width of slit using eq (2).
Observation table
Wave length He-Ne laser =632.8nm
Table : 1
S.No.
Position of the
detector (cm)
Current in ammeter
( amp)
1.
2.
3.
..
..
..
..
Table : 2
S.No.
Distance between two

first minimum on either
side of central maxima
(
) (from graph)
Distance
between the
screen & slit
(D in cm)
Slit width
(microns)
d=
2 D
The above experiment could be repeated for second order (m=2, i.e., second minimum) also.
Result:
The intensity distribution due to diffraction at a single slit was studied.
The width of central maxima =mm
The width of the single slit is..microns.
Precautions
1. The laser beam should not penetrate into eyes as this may damage the eyes permanently.
2. The photo detector should be as away from the slit as possible.
3. The laser should be operated at a constant voltage 220V obtained from a stabilizer. This avoids the
flickering of the laser beam.
4. Laser should be started at least 15 minutes before starting the experiment.
5. Vernier Scale should be rotated slowly.
Experiment No. 10
Plancks Constant
Aim:
To determine Planck's Constant 'h' by measuring radiation in a fixed spectral range.
Apparatus used:
The complete experimental arrangement as shown in figure (1a) and (1b) consists of filament bulb, its
power supply (0-12 V DC), a solar cell fitted on mini optical bench, one Ammeter ( 0- 2 A) and one
voltmeter (0-10 V) to read filament current and voltage, one digital D.C. Micro-ammeter (0-200 A.).
Theory:
Experiment aims at measuring radiation from a black body at different temperatures. All objects emit
radiation above absolute zero. A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that
hits it. Therefore it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black.
It also emits a definite amount of energy at each wavelength for a particular temperature. The black body
radiation curve shows that the black body does radiate energy at every wavelength. At each temperature
the black body emits a standard amount of energy. This is represented by the area under the curve.
Graph drawn below shows how the black body radiation curves change at various temperatures.
These all have their peak wavelengths in the infra-red part of the spectrum as they are at a lower
temperature.
As the temperature increases, the peak wavelength emitted by the black body decreases.
As temperature increases, the total energy emitted increases, because the total area under the curve
increases.
The relationship is not linear as the area does not increase in even steps. The rate of increase of area
and therefore energy increases as temperature increases.
Figure 1
In 1900, the German Physicist Max Planck suggested that an atom can absorb or reemit energy only in
discrete bundles (quanta). If the energy of these quanta is proportional to the radiation frequency, then at
large frequencies the energy would similarly become large; this put an effective cap on the highfrequency radiancy. Using this reinterpretation of the nature of energy, Planck found the following
equation for the radiancy:
1}
= Wavelength (m)
c = Speed of light (3*108 m/sec)
h = Planck's constant (6.626 * 10 -34 Js)
P=Power (per m area per m wavelength )

k = Boltzmann Constant (1.38 * 10 -23 J/K)
T = Temperature (K)
For a black body at temperature 'T' the total radiations as well as the spectral distribution for this radiation
are functions of temperature T alone. The spectral distribution involves Planck's constant h.
1
8hc
hc
exp(
) 1 d .(1)
5
kT

hc
Working with visible light and temperature upto 2500 K, we have
1
kT
8hc
hc
E d 5 exp(
) d (2)
kT
E d
If the radiation is received through a filter on a photocell and galvanometer response is measured, we
get:
8hcA
B
hc
exp(
)d ...(3)
5
kT
Where A is a factor depending on geometry of the arrangement and sensitivity of the galvanometer and
B is a function of which includes (i) transmission characteristics of the filter ( ) and (ii) wavelength
wise response of the photocell (
). The integral has to cover all range of for which B is non zero.
If we have filter, which has, transmission characteristics schematically represented by figure 2 (a) and a
photovoltaic cell with response schematically represented in figure 2 (b) then the B function is given by
product of ordinates ( ) and (
) plotted against respective values of wavelength () in fig 2(c).
Figure 2(a)
Figure 2(b)
Figure 2(c)
However, if the filter has a narrow transmission band, one may drop the integral and reduce equation (3)
to ,
hc
) 0 .(4)
kT
Where 0 is some effective mean wavelength , 0 is the effective band width for transmitting them
8hcAC 0 exp(
through the filter and C 0 is a constant depending on 0 .

At two different temperatures, we get
hc 1 1
2
exp
( ) ..(5)
1
0 k T1 T2
Where the constant A, B and 0 all cancel out due to the simplifying assumptions made to go from
(3) to (4)
We note that unless the transmission band is narrow, the theory would not hold, further effective 0
is not just the center of transmission band of the filter, but it will be seriously affected by response curve
of the photocell. In the photo voltaic cell the shift usually will be towards longer wavelength. Even more
seriously, the term exp(
hc
) increases rapidly with increasing . For T = 2000 K, as we pass from
kT
= 5000 A to = 7000 A, this exponential term increases from exp(-3) to exp.(-2). This fact will
also place effective 0 on the higher side of the mean transmission wavelength of the filter as the
temperature(T) increases.
Within these limitations equation (5) gives
2.303 log 10
hc 1
.(6)
0 k T
Thus log vs 1/T graph should be a straight line from whose slope we may deduce h.
The experimental task reduces to measure for different temperatures of the filament keeping the
geometry and 0 constant.
METHOD:(a) To determine the value of Rg and Rt/Rg with the V-I characteristics of Bulb.
1. To find Rg the resistance of the filament bulb when it just starts glowing: Connect the set-up with
the mains and switch it ON. Apply filament current by the power supply control knob marked CONTROL
on the panel such that the filament just starts glowing. Note the corresponding filament current and
voltage and record these readings in table-I as shown below. Take at least three readings to the get the
better' value of R g.
2. To find Rt/Rg from the V-I characteristics of bulb: Further increase the filament current in steps of
0.1 amp. and note the corresponding values of filament voltage for each value of filament current. Record
all these readings in table-II as shown below.
3. Calculate Rt and Rt/ Rg for each value of filament current and voltage.
4. Adjust the filament bulb at some distance 'd' from the solar cell on mini optical bench.
(b) Observations of and to determine the value of Planck's constant 'h'
5. Increase the filament current to such extent that the digital microammeter reads some photo-current
say 2 A to 3 A . Note this value of filament current(I) and photocurrent( ) and record it in table- III as
shown below.
6. Increase the filament current in steps of 0.1 amp. As in previous case and note the corresponding
photo-current for each value of filament current. Record these readings in table- III.
7. Note the value of Rt/Rg for each value of filament current from table-II and record these readings in
table-III.
8. Note the corresponding temperatures for each value of Rt/ Rg from graph no I or table-IV for Rt /Rg vs
Temp T K for tungsten.
9. Calculate log and 1/T K.
10. Plot graph between log vs 1/TK and find the slope of the curve.
11. Repeat the experiment at different value of 'd' between the bulb and solar cell.
Observations:
TABLE: -1 For Rg, the resistance of the filament when it just starts glowing.
S.NO.
Filament Current I (Amp.)
Filament Voltage V(Volts)
Rg(Ohms)
1.
2.
3.
'Average Rg
(ohms)
TABLE: - II For V-I Characteristics of the Filament bulb

S .NO.
Filament Current I
(Amp.)
Filament Voltage V
(Volts)
Rt(Ohm)
Rt/Rg
1.
2.
3.
4.
Table-III For
For distance between the filament bulb and solar cell d = .. cm
Wavelength
= 6000A0
S.No.
Filament
Filament
current I voltage
Amp.
V volt
Corresponding
Rt/ Rg from
Table(II) .
PhotoCurrent
A
log
1.
2.
3.
Calculations:
From equation (6)
h 2.303
0 k log
*
c 1/ T
Where
0 = 6000A0 (mean wavelength of light)

k = 1.38 x 10-16 erg/deg. (Boltzmanns constant)
c = 3*10 8 meter/sec. (velocity of light)
TK (from graph)
Rt/ Rg vs TK
1 o 1
K
T
log
1
T
slope
Results:
1.
The experimentally observed values of Planck's constant h = ............erg-sec.
2.
h =6.626 x 10-34 J-s
The standard value of Planck's constant
The experimentally observed value of h is always with in 10 to 15% of the standard value.
Table -IV
Relation Between Rt/Rg and Temperature(T) oK for Tungsten Filament.
S.
No.
Temperature (K)
Rt/Rg
S. No.
Temperature
(K)
Rt/Rg
01.
0273
0.25
11.
1200
1.61
02.
0300
0.29
12.
1300
1.79
03.
0400
0.43
13.
1400
1.95
04.
0500
0.55
14.
1500
2.11
05.
0600
0.71
15.
1600
2.30
06.
0700
0,85
16.
1700
2.46
07.
0800
0.99
17.
1800
2.65
08.
0900
1.15
18.
1900
2.85
09.
1000
1.29
19.
2000
3.05
10.
1100
1.45
20.
2100
3.26
The above table is determined by the equation
Rt
1
(1 t t 2 )
Rg 3.95
Where and are given for Tungston and Rg is the resistance of the filament when it start just glowing
and t is the temperature in oC.
Graph 1
Graph 2
Experiment No. 11
Quarter Wave Plate
Aim:
To study the nature of polarization of laser light using photo cell and quarter wave plate.
Apparatus used:
He-Ne laser with built in power supply, Stand for laser , polarizer and analyzer . quarter wave plate, laser
detector (Photo device) with measuring devices (Digital Microammeter ). Screen and optical bench with
suitable uprights.
Principle :
POLARISATION
Observing various phenomenon exhibited by light De Broglie proposed that light has dual nature i.e.
sometimes it shows particle like nature (photo electric effect, Compton effect) and sometimes it exhibits
wave like nature (interference, diffraction and polarization). The phenomena of interference and
diffraction of light established the fact that light travels in form of waves, but does not indicate whether
the light waves are longitudinal or transverse. Only the phenomenon of polarization convincingly proves
that the light waves are transverse in nature.
An ordinary light is an electromagnetic wave in which electric and magnetic field vectors vibrate in all
possible directions perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
light. Such is known as unpolarised light and can be represented as shown in fig. 1(a). The unpolarised
light can be considered to be composed of two linear orthogonal polarization states with complete
incoherence. When such light is passed through a polarizer, vibrations of electric field vectors are allowed
only in one particular direction (parallel to the pass axis of polarizer) which is represented in fig. 1(b) &
fig. 1(c).
Polarization is the phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of electric field vectors of light wave in
one particular direction when it is passed through a polariser.
Polarisation state of a polarized light can be:
(a) Linear (is obtained by a linear polarizer e.g. Nicol prism, Tourmaline crystal)
(b) Elliptical (is obtained by a elliptical polarizer e.g. the combination of linear polarizer and Quarter
wave plate)
(c) Circular (a special case of elliptical polarization)
A linear polarizer has 100% transmission for linearly polarized light of a certain orientation and zero
transmission at an orientation orthogonal to it. When a beam of natural (unpolarized) light is incident on a
polarizer, the transmitted beam is linearly polarized with the direction of vibration parallel to the
transmission axis of the polarizer, but is of half the irradiance of the incident beam. Any rotation of the
polarizer change the orientation of the linearly polarized light but not its irradiance.
Figure 1(a)
Figure 1(b)
Figure 1(c)
Analysing a linearly polarized light

If a linearly polarized beam is incident on the polarizer (analyser), the irradiance of the transmitted beam
will vary with the rotation of the polarizer(analyser). And the irradiance of the transmitted beam varies as
the square of the cosine of the angle between the orientation of the incident linearly polarized light and
the transmission axis of the polarizer (analyser) i.e. intensity of transmitted light becomes twice maximum
and twice zero on one complete rotation. This is called the Malus Law, which plays an important role in
the modulation of light.
Producing & Analysing an elliptically polarized light

When a beam of plane polarized light is sent through a thin doubly refracting plate, it breaks up into two
coherent plane polarized components vibrating at right angles to each other with a certain phase
difference. The emergent light is the resultant of these two components and is in general ellipticallypolarized. The constants of the elliptical polarization i.e., the phase difference between the two
components and the ratio of the ellipse, depends upon the thickness and optical properties of the doubly
refracting plate used, and upon the angle which the plane of vibration of the incident light make with the
principal plane of the plate. The angle should be different from 0, /4 and /2, because angles 0 and /2
cause the emergent light plane polarized, while the angle /4 cause it circularly-polarized.
When the given ellipticallypolarized light is passed through an analyzer rotating about the direction of
light as axis, a variation in intensity is observed but the minimum intensity is not zero. The intensity is a
maximum when the principal section of the analyzer is parallel to the major axis of the elliptic vibration
and minimum when parallel to the minor axis. If the light transmitted through the rotating analyzer is
allowed to fall on Laser Detector (Photo devices) it will be converted into corresponding current. This
current will be measured by the suitable measuring device, micro-ammeter, of the light intensity for the
various orientations of the analyzer. From the suitable plot of the results, the ratio of the axis of the
elliptical vibration may be determined.
Figure (2)
Let the major and minor axes of the given elliptical vibration be along the coordinate axes OX and OY as
shown in Fig. (2). Let a and b be the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipse. Then the equation of
the ellipse will be
+
=1
Let be the angle between the major axis and the plane of transmission (A A) for the analyzer. The
amplitudes of the disturbances along OA due to components along OX and OY will be acos and bsin
respectively, with a phase difference of /2 between them. The intensity of the light transmitted by the
analyzer will therefore be
I = a2cos2 + b 2 sin2 +2(a cos )(b sin ) cos/2
I = a2 cos2 + b 2 sin 2
I = (a2- b2) cos2 + b2.(1)
And for
Hence, for = 0 0 and 1800 ; I = Imax = a2

= 900 and 270 0 ; I = Imin= b2
.(2)
Thus during a complete duration of rotation of the analyzer the intensity of the transmitted light passes
through two maxima and two minima.
Eq. (1) shows that a graph of I A (Intensity of light) vs Cos2 will be a straight line, the slope of which
with the Cos2 axis will give (a2 - b2). Also, a2 can be found by observing the maximum intensity
equation (2). Hence b2 and the ratio a/b can obtained. The intensity I is measured in terms of current (by
the measuring device provided with this experiment).
INITIAL ADJUSTMENT OF THE EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

Put all the upright on the critical bench and mount polarizer, analyzer, quarter wave plate and
detector in suitable upright on the optical bench as shown in Fig (3). All the above items like polarizer
and analyzer and quarter wave plate can be rotated in their own planes about the axis of the light beam
and the positions of polarizer and analyzer can be read on the circular scales provided with them. Put the
laser on stand at one end of the optical bench as shown in Fig (3).
Align the laser beam with polarizer, analyzer, quarter wave plate and detector such that the light from
laser source is allowed to fall on the polarizer and then on quarter wave plate to make it elliptically
polarized. It is then transmitted through the analyzer P2, the intensity of transmission being different for
different orientation of P2. The transmitted light is received by the detector which converts it into a
current. This current is measured by the measuring device provided with the experimental set-up.
METHOD:
1. Put the screen between the analyzer and detector and switch ON the laser.
2. Arrange the screen to get the well focused spot of laser beam.
3. Adjust the polarizer P1 and quarter wave plate Q in relative such that by the rotation of analyzer P2
about the axis of light the intensity of the laser beam on screen varies between the maximum and
minimum but is never zero. This ensures that the light emerging from quarter wave plate is elliptically
polarized. In this position the adjustment of P1 and quarter wave plate is not disturbed for one set of
observations.
4. Switch 'ON' the-measuring device (Digital Microammeter) and adjust zero by zero adjust knob keeping
the screen between analyzer P2 and detector.
5. Remove the screen, adjust the pointer of the analyzer at zero degree on circular scale and note the
corresponding current in current meter.
6. Rotate the analyzer P2 in steps of 10 and note the corresponding current in current meter. This is
done until P2 is given a full rotation of 360. Make table as shown below.
7.(Optional) Repeat the experiment for different set of observation by altering the relative orientation of
quarter wave plate Q. Ensure that for each case the light emerging from quarter wave plate should be
elliptically polarized. Make table for different set of observations.
8. Plot a graph for intensity of light (I) vs () orientation of the analyzer on a polar graph with respect to
an arbitrarily chosen reference line. The intensity I are represented by the radius vectors and orientation
by the angle with respect to the reference line. The maximum value of the radius vector defines =0 (or
180) and the minimum value defines = 90 (or 270) in accordance to equation (2). The shape of the
curve obtained resembles the figure of eight as shown in fig (4).
Figure 4
OBSERVATION AND TABULATIONS:

Table-1
1. Initial readings of the current meter = 0.0
2. Relative orientation of P and Q =
S.No.
Orientation of
analyzer P2
1.
S.No.
Orientation of
analyzer P2
00
20
1900
2.
10 0
21
2000
3.
20 0
22
2100
180 0
37
19.
Intensity(in terms
of current)
IA
Intensity
IA
3600
Table-2
S.No
Orientation of
analyzer P2
Cos
Cos2
1.
2
3.
4.
5.
6.
7
8.
9.
10.
00
10 0
20 0
30 0
40 0
50 0
60 0
70 0
80 0
90 0
1.000
0.9848
0.9397
0.8660
0.7660
0.6428
0.5000
0.3420
0.1736
0.000
1.0000
0.9701
0.8831
0.7499
0.5866
0.4130
0.2500
0.1169
0.0301
0.0000
Intensity
current I
(Amp.)
1. Draw a graph between Intensity I vs Cos2 , which is a straight line as shown in fig(5)
From this graph, we have
b2 = Intercept
(a2 - b2) = slope of the line
a2= Imax =
(for =0, cos2=1.0000)
Then
And
Similarly, we can also obtain a/b for other set of observations.
RESULTS:
(1).
S.No.
Relative orientation of polarizer and a/b

quarter wave plate in degree
1.
2.
3.
(2).
The I vs cos2 plot and the ratio of a/b will be different for different sets of observations. If the
light emerging from quarter wave plate were circularly polarized then the intensity of light emerging from
rotating analyzer would have been no variation. If it were plane polarized then there would have been an
intensity variation with zero minimum. In this experiment the intensity of laser light varies between
maximum and minimum, but is not zero. This ensures that the light emerging from quarter wave plate is
elliptically polarized.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Take all necessary precaution about the laser.
2. The experiment should be carried out in the dark room.
3. The polarizer, analyzer and quarter wave plate should be clean.
4. All equipments should be connected with a well stabilized A.C. line (220 V and 50 Hz)
Figure (5)
Experiment No. 12
Brewsters Angle
Aim :
To determine the Brewsters angle for glass using a polarized monochromatic light source.
Apparatus Required:
He laser, dial fitted polarizer, photo detector, micro ammeter, rotational mount, glass plate, constant
power supply.
Principle:
When light moves between two media of differing refractive index (n), some of the light is reflected from
the surface of the denser material. Intensity of the reflected ray changes with the change in the incident
angle ( ) at the interface of two mediums. At one specific angle of incidence of light, only perpendicular
vibrations of electric field vectors are reflected whereas parallel vibrations are restricted or polarized. This
loss in light intensity is due to polarization by reflection and the angle of incidence for which there is no
reflected ray is called the Brewster's angle (also known as the Polarization angle). This phenomenon of
B
polarization by reflection is illustrated in the figure below.

Figure1. Polarization by reflection and Brewster's angle ( )
B
The fraction of the incident light that is reflected depends on both the angle of incidence and the
polarization direction of the incident light. The functions that describe the reflection of light polarized
parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence are called the Fresnel Equations. According to the
Fresnel Law when light moves from a medium of a given refractive index (n ) into a second medium with
1
refractive index (n ), both reflection and refraction of the light may occur. This can be explained with the
2
aid of a diagram, as shown in figure 2 below:
Figure2.
Illustration of Fresnels Law: the incident light ray PO strikes at point O the interface between
two media of refractive indexes n and n . Part of the ray is reflected as ray OQ and part refracted as ray
1
OS. The angles that the incident, reflected and refracted rays make to the normal of the interface are given
as , and , respectively.
The relationship between these angles is given by the law of reflection also called Snell's law:
n sin = n sin
1
At Brewsters angle, the reflected and refracted ray are perpendicular to each other (the angle of
90 indicates the reflected light is completely polarized parallel to the interface). Therefore the sum of
+ = 90 (Refer to figure 2).
Or = 90 - = 90 . Incorporating this fact into Snells Law and rearranging it, we get:
n sin =n cos
1
Which implies that,
tan
=n /n
2
This tangent angle in fact gives the value for Brewsters angle therefore on final rearrangements we get
the final equation to be :
B =
It is important to note that the perpendicular component of polarization is almost always reflected more
strongly than the parallel component (see figure 3). Figure 3 also shows that for one angle of incidence,
called Brewsters angle, none of the parallel polarization is reflected.
Figure3. Components of polarization, parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence

Natural light, which is randomly polarized as shown in figure 4, can be represented by
components of polarization parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence. If natural light is incident
on a dielectric surface, the Fresnel equations describe the reflection for each of the polarization
components. Thus, natural light is always at least partially polarized upon reflection.
Figure4. Polarization of natural light

PROCEDURE
Set up the system shown in fig(5). Be sure the glass reflecting material is vertical and
centered over the axis of rotation of the rotational stage. Glass reflecting material was setup
such that at 90 on the protractor, the incident ray (from a red He Laser source) hit the surface
perpendicularly so the reflected beam goes back into the laser aperture. Be sure that the
rotational stage reads 0 o at this point.
Darken the room as much as possible.
Adjust the laser so the output is horizontally polarized.
The protractor is then rotated to angle values less than 90 in an interval of 5 o. The reflected
ray is directed to a fiber optic light intensity sensor which measures the intensity of the
reflected light in terms of current. Record the current in microammeter . This alignment of the
incoming laser and the protractor ensures that the angle on the protractor equals the angle of
the incident ray, thus gives the value of the incidence angle (See figure 5). The angle range is
limited between 20 and 80 because of the expanse of the fiber optic light intensity sensor
holder.
Between the angles of 50o and 60o, measure the intensity of reflected beam in 2o increment.
You will notice that at a certain angle, Brewsters angle, there will be little or no reflected
light. Record this angle.
Figure5. Experimental Set up

Observation Table
S.No.
Angle ( o)
Current I (
1.
2.
3.
4.
..
..
..
Make a graph of reflected power (current) vs Figure (6).

Note Brewsters angle from your data calculate the index of refraction (refractive index) of the
material.
Result:
The graph plotted is in good agreement with the predicted values.
Brewsters angle for the material is .
The refractive index of material of glass is .
Figure 6
Precaution:
1. The laser beam should not penetrate into eyes as this may damage the eyes permanently.
2. The photo detector should be as away from the slit as possible.
3. The laser should be operated at a constant voltage 220V obtained from a stabilizer.
This avoids the flickering of the laser beam.
4. Laser should be started at least 15 minutes before starting the experiment.
5. Scale of vernier should be rotated slowly.
6. Room should be perfectly dark.

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PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

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List of Experiments for B. Tech. 1st Year Physics Laboratory

1. To determine the magnetic field of paired coils in Helmholtz arrangement.

To verify the Malus law using laser light.

9. To study the single slit diffraction by laser light.

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3. Equipment needs your care:

5.. Acceptable results with given apparatus:

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g. Results: Experimental value MPE; Standard value (Calculation of maximum possible

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Error in measurement may be represented by the actual amount of error, or by a ratio

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Absolute error is simply the amount of physical error in a measurement.

Percent of Error or Percentage Error:

log Z = p*log A + q*log B - r*log C

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then maximum fractional error in Z is given by

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A physical quantity X is given by X

3% and 1% respectively, then calculate the percentage error in X.

The percentage error in X is given by

=2x4% + 3x2% + 3% + 1/2x1%

of a thin wire of radius r cm, resistance R

and length L cm given by

R R1 R2 ( 4 0.5) (16 0.5)

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K / K m / m s / s d / d ( 2 1 ) A / A ( 2 '1 ) /( 2 '1 ) (t 2 t1 ) /(t 2 t1 )

R / R {X ( )(l2 l1 ) (l2 l1 )} /{ X (l2 l1 )} .(2)

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Ways to Improve Accuracy in Measurement

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I= current flowing in the coil , = permeability of free space= 4 *10-7 NA-2

as 1 Tesla= 104 Gauss

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(ii) Switch 'ON' the main's power.

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Magnetic Field (Gauss)

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Calculation of radius of coil

putting the values of n, I, & B radius of coil a can be found.

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2. Connect the set-up to the mains and switch ON.

4. Make table -2 as shown below.

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determine band gap of experimental material (Ge).

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Fig.I Schematic diagram of a Four Probe

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Temperature dependence of resistivity of a semiconductor: Intrinsic semi-conduction The process in

Where N is a contant substituting

Where A is a constant Taking Log

where C is a constant . Rewriting eq (9)

Therefore, if a graph is plotted log vs (

determined from its slope as follows :

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log Z = plog A + qlog B - r*log C

Eg =2.30262kBslope eV, (Take Boltzman constant kB=8.61710-5 eVK-1 )

Eg =2.30262kB*slope (in eV)