Coursework 1;

The Advantages & Disadvantages of Using

Structural Steel in Construction

Christopher Evans
URN 6018449

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

Structural steelwork, primarily mild steel, has been used in construction for over
150 years, since the development and patenting of the Bessimer process, by Henry
Bessimer in 1855(1). The further development of tungsten steel by Robert Mushet in
1868(1), stainless steel by Henry Brearly in 1916(1), and much more recently
weathering steels have enhanced the attractiveness of steelwork to the construction
industry. The pedigree of structural steelwork is well established and today is used in
all aspects of construction and civil engineering. Structural steelwork has deservingly
become an important and versatile material at the disposal of todays structural
engineers due to its many and varied advantages.
However, structural steelwork has some notable disadvantages, which although
not insurmountable must be considered carefully by structural engineers when
designing, detailing and specifying steelwork. Whenever steelwork is to be used in
construction, the relevant advantages and disadvantages should be considered on
balance to allow a reasoned comparison with other construction materials such as
concrete, timber, masonry and composite materials.
The advantages and disadvantages of using steelwork can broadly be thought of
with regards to the following; economic, flexibility, health & safety, Quality Assurance
/ Quality Control, environmental and social considerations. These shall be considered
hereafter, albeit briefly, as in themselves could be the focus of greater explanation
and consideration.
Steelwork can provide many economic advantages and benefits, as steel the
structural material has an excellent strength to weight ratio, excellent tensile
resistance, combined with good compressive, bending and shear resistance. Steel
can be formed into several different grades of strength and ductility, which can
potentially bring cost savings to a project. These properties mean relatively
lightweight and slender structures can be created, with steel forming both beams and
columns, chosen from sections and material properties which best suit the design
conditions. Often steelwork is the only viable material where large span, open plan or
unsupported roof structures are required, e.g. shopping centres and distribution
warehouses, where the minimisation of internal columns and maximisation of floor
areas is essential. In the same vein, steelwork is often employed in the construction
of transfer structures, or transfer beams, where high point loads are required to be
resisted.
A benefit of such lightweight structures is to reduce the reaction loads on
foundations, so leading to smaller and shallower foundations. As such, less
excavations or piling arisings are created and so foundations are more economical.
This is of particular use where the ground is known to be contaminated, such that
excavated spoil would incur landfill tax, or require remediation; or where ground
conditions are known to be poor and have limited bearing capacity. This ability to
construct smaller foundations allows for greater utilisation of the site boundaries;
either allowing the use of a smaller building footprint so maximising the use of the
remaining, or maximising the building footprint to coincide with a confined site
boundary.
Steelwork structures by their nature are often formed from standard structural
sections such as beams, columns, channels, angles and tubes, which are mass
produced in rolling mills. This process itself leads to economy in manufacture, and
provides a relatively stable and constant source of sections available. These sections
are provided with well defined member and material properties which are provided for
designers by the steel manufacturers. This information leads to increased speed and
therefore economy in design, and facilitates speedier and therefore more economic
fabrication.

MSc in Structural Engineering Module SE1M81; Steel Building Design

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

In terms of fabrication, steelwork facilitates the use of off-site preparation, which
can assist in reducing wastage and re-working on site. Off-site fabrication allows the
controlled application of fire and corrosion protection systems, and allows the
fabrication of special sections, e.g. welded end plate connections, plate girders,
curved / bent steel sections to be carried out in controlled conditions. It also allows
sections to be inspected at source, prior to transportation to site. In fabrication shops,
advancements in technology such as laser guided cutting and automated welding
can be employed leading to further economy in the fabrication process. By ensuring
work is undertaken off-site, when the steel is transported to site the structure, it can
be erected with the maximum efficiency, so leading to a more economic construction
programme.
By maximising the construction programme, earlier completion and possession of
the structure can often be achieved, leading to lower finance costs. With recent
developments in pre-fabricated walling systems, the external envelope of steelwork
structures can often be made weather-proof earlier, allowing internal trades to be
employed earlier in the construction programme. With better integration of trades
being a distinct possibility, multiple operations can be performed together reducing
the critical path and maximising efficiency of the build. This is best put into practice
where early contractor involvement is implemented to allow expert advice and
planning techniques to be employed and make use of the Contractors expertise in
construction.
Steelwork obviously has economic disadvantages, which should be considered
when initially preparing scheme designs and deciding on the appropriate construction
material. The main disadvantage of steel is the initial financial commitment required
from the funder, e.g. Client / Contractor / Financial Institution, depending on the
contractual arrangement in place. These monies are required to initially purchase
and procure the steelwork, and to allow the appointment of a fabricator. For the
funder to commit funds generally requires a design freeze, whereby changes to the
buildings layout, orientation, faade, structure etc cannot be tolerated without
additional costs & delays being borne. In the last several years steelwork has
suffered from increased demand from China and the Indian sub-continent. This has
driven up steel prices as there is currently only limited supply capacity on the world
market. However, the price of steel per tonne has recently levelled off and looks to be
relatively stable.
Another disadvantage is that the average steelwork structure can take up to 14
weeks from placing an order with a fabricator to delivery on site. For simpler
structures this could be reduced to around 8 weeks, and for more complicated
structures could rise to 20+ weeks. This often compounds the financial commitment
of the funder as once an order has been placed, a contractual agreement is created.
Any changes during the fabrication process will lead to a variation in this contract,
for which the fabricator shall be entitled to compensation, either in terms of additional
time or monies. Often it is impossible to ensure a complete design freeze, either due
to changes requested by the Client / Funder, delays in releasing the information to
the fabricator or lack of detail in the design and other general unforeseen
circumstances. Often this leads to steelwork structures costing more than originally
estimated, though generally the cost benefits outweigh the cost burdens.
Steelwork is most readily and cost effectively available in standard sections, such
as beams, columns, channels, angles and tubes etc. If non-standard sections are
required, e.g. to suit depth or width restrictions, or where the strength of standard
sections is insufficient, these can be fabricated, though these are obviously more
expensive to procure and will have a longer lead in time. If such sections are used,
there is often a reduction in design stress allowed for, to counter the fact the

MSc in Structural Engineering Module SE1M81; Steel Building Design

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

sections are welded, rather than rolled. Additionally, these sections are often formed
from sections of steel plate, which exceed 16mm(4) in order to increase section
modulii and inertias, and thus suffer a further reduction in design strength. This is
required as it is often difficult to ensure the uniformity of ductility and strength of thick
plates. As the design strengths are reduced, these fabricated sections often lead to
heavier elements and structures than if formed from standard sections.
Steelwork as a material has two distinct advantages brought about by its physical
nature and chemical composition, namely the need for corrosion and fire protection.
Steel by its nature is primarily formed from iron, which oxidizes with oxygen and
forms Ferric Oxide (rust) which embrittles the steel and leads to a loss of strength.
The rate of oxidization is often dependent on the atmospheric environment to which
the material is exposed. For example, unprotected steelwork will corrode much more
quickly in a saline coastal environment than in a dry rural environment(11).
Additionally, in urban areas which are subject to industrial / exhaust gases, such as
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide and sulphur dioxide, the rate of corrosion will be
accelerated by the attack of weak acids (carbonic, nitric and sulphuric), formed
through dilution of these gases with rainwater.
However, much research has been undertaken on the effects of steelwork
corrosion(11) and several methods of protection are now available, such as
galvanizing, paint protection systems (off-site), and encasement in e.g. masonry /
concrete (on site). These methods work by effectively removing the pathway between
the corrosive and the steel. It is suggested galvanizing steel can lead to a design life
of around 50 ~ 60(2) years before reapplication is required, paint systems can provide
around 10 ~ 25(11) years dependant on the system chosen and the exposure
conditions. Specific guidance is available from Corus and suppliers such as Akzo
Nobel and Leighs Paints. Encasement in masonry / concrete should normally
provide around 60+ years protection, and with the provision for cathodic protection
could possibly be double this.
Steel as with most metals, is susceptible to the effects of heat and therefore the
effects of fire. Heat is indeed the instrument needed to make steel malleable, such
that is can be rolled and formed into defined sections. Steel when heated, expands
and elongates, which at normal operating temperatures, say between 0C ~ 30C in
the UK, equates to around +/-1mm / 6m length of section (4). This is not normally a
significant issue, as normal steel to steel connections can tolerate around +/-2mm(4)
tolerance in expansion / contraction. However, in structures where section sizes
exceed this, or where large / long structures are to be formed, the accumulative
effects of this thermal movement can lead to significant thermal stresses occurring in
the structure, generally occurring as tensile / compressive forces. In order to relieve
these forces, engineers often introduce movement joints into the structure, such that
each individual section of structure is required to be independently stabilised. In real
terms this does not incur significant costs or delay, if designed and detailed correctly.
If not, this could potentially lead to overstressing and failure of members, cracking
and / or damage of external faades and cladding systems, and loss of weather-tight
construction, which could in time could lead to considerable expense to repair and
correct.
More significantly, steel which is subjected to the effects of much higher
temperatures, e.g. during fires, is normally a more overriding consideration in the UK.
In a typical office fire for example, temperatures can easily reach in excess of
1000C. As steel is known to lose strength as temperatures rise above 250C and
undergo significant loss of strength at around 550C(3), with residual strength being
60% of that at 20C(3), fire protection systems / products are almost always required.

MSc in Structural Engineering Module SE1M81; Steel Building Design

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

If the steel is not protected, the sections will progressively lose strength as the
temperature rises, leading to loss of strength and stability, ultimately leading to failure
of the element and collapse of the structure.
The most common methods of protecting steelwork members in a fire are to use
an intumescent paint / foam, encasement in fire resistant boarding / blanket, or
encasement in concrete. All of these systems can lead to additional expense,
through the instruction of professionals to design and specify fire protection systems,
the cost of purchasing, applying and maintaining the chosen system. An alternative
to the use of fire protection systems is to employ the principle of fire engineering,
which simply put allows for the reduction in strength of elements during a fire and
provides for the loss of strength by using heavier / stiffer sections.
In contrast to the effects of increasing temperature on steel members, the effects
of decreasing temperature can also be detrimental. When normal mild steel is
subjected to temperatures below say 5C, there is significant reduction in ductility
which can lead to failure of sections is subject to relatively minor blows. To counter
this more, specialist steel grades have been developed which can maintain ductility
to temperatures down to around -25C, though obviously these are available at
additional costs and with longer lead in times than say S275 steel(4).
One of the notable advantages of steelwork structures are they are able to be
easily modified, extended, renovated and strengthened as required. Often steelwork
structures are honest in their appearance and section sizes and therefore section
properties can be easily ascertained. There is substantial information pertaining to
historical sections(13) and design strengths of steel, which for other materials such as
masonry and concrete is lacking and only evident from intrusive investigation and
physical testing.
Steelwork structures can often provide flexibility which other materials and forms
of construction cannot. The sheer choice of sizes, shapes and strengths of steel
sections available, plus the option to fabricate non-standard sections, provides the
engineer with a multitude of options. The sections are available to be cut to length,
cranked, bent, tapered and shaped into a variety of forms. Where non standard
sections are required, e.g. to suit restricted floor depths, or to provide increased
bending or shear strength, special sections can be fabricated such as in the case of
plate girders or box girders. The development of Castellated beams has been
expanded upon by the introduction of systems such as Fabsec (fabricated sections
with openings), and Westok (cellular beams with openings). These sections provide
the designer the flexibility to integrate services within the floor zones, so reducing
depth of construction zones and more efficiently use the restricted construction
zones.
Recent advances in information technology, such as the development of
integrated computer aided draughting (CAD), analysis and design packages can now
be linked through to automated computer aided manufacturing (CAM) systems. This
has significantly increased the speed, in which designs and detailed engineering
drawings can be prepared, the accuracy and efficiency of fabrication using laser
cutting jigs. However, the greatest advantage is the increased flexibility which allows
the Client, Architect and Engineer to introduce significant changes without unduly
affecting the programme.
The steelwork industry has a pedigree of research and development which has led
to steelwork structures being some of the most flexible in the world. Floor systems
such as composite steel and concrete floors, especially systems such as Omnia

MSc in Structural Engineering Module SE1M81; Steel Building Design

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

and SLIMFLOR provide the designer the flexibility to create long span floors, whilst
providing a temporary working platform / permanent formwork, whilst providing
robustness and tying of the structure. Recent advances in connection systems such
as QUICKON allow the designer with the ability to pre-fabricate steel to steel
connections off-site and simply slot into position on-site.
The development of steelwork as a construction material was instrumental in the
development of high rise construction, allowing ever taller and more slender
structures to be formed, primarily due to the excellent strength to weight ratio. As
new techniques for forming high-rise structures have been developed, e.g. outrigger
trusses, bundled cores and cellular tubes, steelwork structures have become ever
taller. More importantly than this is the flexibility these structures provide Architects
and engineers to produce spaces and environments which are ever more interesting
and expressive. For example, the Eden Project, the Swiss Re building and the
Millennium Dome are all examples of structures which simply could not have been
constructed but for the flexibility of steel.
The main inflexibility of steelwork however is its lack of flexibility in the
procurement phase of construction. As previously stated, once the design has been
frozen, there is often a long lead in time between placing the order to the steel
arriving on site for erection. Once an order has been placed, it is often difficult and
expensive to make anything other than minor changes to a design, without further
delay and financial penalty.
Another inflexibility of steel is its intolerance to error, either in the design, detailing
or fabrication process. If sections are found to be delivered to site too long, or too
short, they are often unable to be used, especially if they are delivered with prefabricated cleat / end plate connections. In this case, it is almost certain, the sections
will be returned to the fabricators for re-shaping or replacement. This again can lead
to additional expense and delays to the construction programme. Often steelwork is
delivered to site pre-coated with fire / corrosion protection systems such as paint or
galvanizing. These systems can often become damaged in transit or erection and are
often required to be touched up when delivered to site, leading to additional expense
and time delays depending on how carefully the sections have been handled in
transit and erection.
Steelwork structures provide a number of health and safety benefits which make it
an attractive material when considering risks to health and safety. Steelwork as a
material benefits from over 100 years of extensive technical research and practical
use. Information and knowledge is available from an extensive range of sources,
such as universities, learned institutions such as the Institution of Structural
Engineers (IStructE) and Institution of Civil engineers (ICE); steel manufacturers
such as Corus and Arcelor, and from trade bodies such as the Steel Construction
Institute (SCI) and British Constructional Steel Association BCSA). Information
provided from such bodies allows engineers to design and specify steelwork with
confidence, as the behaviour of steel and steelwork structures is well understood.
Industry best practice guides produced by the BCSA(12,13) for example, provide
designers, specifiers and builders with the tools to plan and undertake the erection
and construction of steelwork structures safely. As steelwork is inherently prefabricated off-site, work can be undertaken in controlled conditions, reducing the
need for hot cutting, machining, spray painting and welding on site, so reducing the
number of trades working in close proximity on site. The use of mobile elevated
working platforms (MEWPs) allow steelwork erectors to work from a safe temporary
working platform independent of the steelwork frame being erected. Often steelwork

MSc in Structural Engineering Module SE1M81; Steel Building Design

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

structures are used conjunction with composite concrete floors or pre-cast concrete
slabs, which themselves provide a safe temporary working platform once installed,
reducing the need for scaffolding or temporary works, further reducing to number of
trades on site at any one time.
Modern steelwork structures are inherently safe by design, as they invariably are
designed to limit state principles, i.e. the basis that the steel is never allowed to
reach its yield strength so preventing failure. In the UK, as in most countries, design
codes allow for deviation in material strengths (m) due to the manufacturing process,
together with a factor of safety (f) applied to the designn loads, to based on the
probability of their being exceeded. For example in the UK(4), a f of 1.4 for dead
static loads, whereas for imposed movable it equates to 1.6. As the dead loads
based on the self weight of the structure, the cladding and permanent fixtures etc are
well defined, f is lower than that for the more uncertain imposed loads.
Additionally as steelwork structures are normally designed to behave within the
elastic region(4), i.e. where the deformations and deflections of elements &
structures are recoverable, there is often further redundancy in design, with the
sections often able to undergo further plastic deformations, subject to section shape
and characteristics. Such elastic design provides an additional factor of safety with
the design stress normally being around 70% of the Ultimate Tensile Strength of the
section, referred to as the Yield Strength; the Yield Strength being defined as the
point where plastic rupture occurs. This redundant capacity and inherent ductility of
steelwork is of great use when considering structures subject to earthquake effects,
where the loading on the structure may be much greater than in the normal operating
condition.
Steelwork structures can be easily designed to provide structural redundancy
against the effects of damage and progressive collapse, by the provision of tie
members and connections designed to resist the tensile forces(4) created during
collapse / blast / impact. As steelwork structures are most efficiently designed,
detailed and constructed on regular rectilinear grids, floor beams are normally
adequate to act as ties in tension. By strengthening beam to column connections,
simple, efficient and effective tying of the structure can be achieved.
Steelwork structures do suffer from some potential disadvantages with respect to
health and safety which engineers are not always aware of. Steelwork structures and
more critically, individual sections can be subject to fatigue and necking if subjected
to repetitive or cyclic loading. Under such loading conditions, steel can lose ductility
and become embrittled, leading to a weakening of the cellular structure and lowering
of the Ultimate Tensile Strength. This situation can be countered by design, through
isolating vibrating equipment and specifying more ductile steel grades, together with
a limitation on the number of cycles, or allowing for replacement of sections at
timescales to ensure failure does not occur.
Often historical structures have little or no record information on the method and
form of construction used. Increasingly such buildings, e.g. former textile mills are
being converted to residential accommodation. Even in the case of more recent
structures, if they pre-date the introduction of the Construction Design &
Management (CDM) Regulations in 1994, there may be a distinct lack of record
drawings and design information. In such circumstances, the designer should be
mindful the strength of the steelwork may have become compromised by the effects
of corrosion, the design grades of steel may be of lower quality than expected and
the forms of construction may not be as robust as required of modern day structures.
This is almost certainly the case with respects to the tying and stability of historical
steelwork structures. In such situations it is often prudent to err on the side of caution

MSc in Structural Engineering Module SE1M81; Steel Building Design

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

and make conservative assumptions with regards to the quality of steelwork, capacity
of sections and connections. Caution should also be used where steelwork has been
installed with protective coatings / finishes as this could be obscuring damage and
corrosion.
Steelwork structures which are to be subject to the elements are often prepared
with a galvanized coating to provide enhanced protection against corrosion and
weathering. Whilst this is beneficial from a health and safety perspective as it
provides longer protection than say painting and so reduces the need for reapplication, it can hold potentially dangerous risks to health and safety. Galvanizing
has been found to cause / contribute to the phenomena of Liquid Metal Assisted
Cracking; the phenomena where some steelwork sections which have been
galvanized exhibit cracking which could impair and seriously endanger their structural
adequacy. The phenomena of LMAC is not yet fully understood and is subject to
ongoing research and investigation. However, the BCSA( has provided interim
guidance(12) which essentially calls for all galvanised steel, other than of minimal
structural importance (e.g. lintels etc) to be visually inspected and where cracks are
found to be subject to Non Destructive Testing (NDT) to determine crack widths to
allow assessment of the risk of fracture to be made. The cost benefits of galvanised
steel over say aluminium or stainless steel are still sufficient to ensure its continued
use.
Steelwork structures provide Quality Assurance (QA) / Quality Control (QC)
advantages which other material such as concrete, timber and masonry do not. The
main advantage is that steelwork is by its nature a manufactured product, which is
formed into plate, sections, bars, wires etc. The basic product of steel is produced in
accordance with the International Standards Organisation ISO 9000 suite of
standards, providing the purchaser, designer and specifier with the assurance the
product meets pre-determined quality control criteria, within defined manufacturing
tolerances. Together with additional standards such as BS EN 10025(5) & BS EN
10113(6) which define the required material standards; the specified material, such as
S275 JO steel is known to have constant material and performance characteristics.
Standard rolled sections and products are controlled by standards, e.g. BS 4(7) for
rolled sections, which again impose rolling tolerances to be achieved, providing the
designer / specifier with confidence of repetitive quality and conformity.
Conversely, the main disadvantage of steelwork structures is the possibility poor
quality steelwork could be used, either intentionally to save money, or unintentionally
if quality / test certificates have been falsified. However, this is thankfully rare and
much of the steel used in construction is sourced from multi-national steel suppliers
who confirm to international quality and conformance standards.
Steel surprisingly can provide several environmental advantages. For example, as
manufacture and fabrication are completed off-site, the environmental impact on the
site locale, e.g. noise, air and water pollution are reduced. As such works can be
completed in controlled conditions, safeguards can be implemented to reduce their
impact. By using air filtration systems, exhaust gases and dust can be prevented
from entering the atmosphere, and wastewater can be treated at source prior to
discharge into the sewage system.
As steelwork structures are largely formed from pre-fabricated sections and
elements, there is very little wastage, and that which occurs can be recycled.
Although there are large amounts of energy expended in producing steelwork and
the process uses coal and iron ore which must be mined, there is a move to using
electric furnaces which can recycle scrap metal into new materials, such a reinforcing
bars and wire.

MSc in Structural Engineering Module SE1M81; Steel Building Design

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

The main environmental disadvantage of steelwork, save for the need to mine and
exploit natural resources, is the fact that steelwork structures possess low thermal
mass. In essence, the structures themselves are inefficient to run as they require
large amounts of energy for heating and cooling. This can be improved by the use of
exposed soffit concrete slabs, sun shades to reduce solar glare, and insulated panel
sandwich cladding systems, though it can be argued the aesthetics of structures are
often compromised. Often, the sandwich panels which are used to improve the
thermal efficiency of steel structures themselves harbour environmental problems.
The foam insulating material is often non bio-degradable, toxic if burnt and unable to
be extracted from the panels when demolished. However, recent advances by
manufacturers such as Kingspan have led to more the development of
environmentally friendly foam fillers.
Steelwork structures have some unusual and exciting social advantages. In the
past lightweight steelwork structures have suffered from a lack of mass and so have
been susceptible to vibration. Recent developments by the SCI has led to the
production of publications P076(14) and P331(15), now provide engineers with the
tools to design relatively light, slender floor structures whilst adequately considering
the natural frequency and vibration of floors
Conversely, if engineers get it wrong then the vibration and excitation of structures
can lead to embarrassing failures, such as the Millennium Bridge (aka Arups
wobbly bridge). Steelwork structures are often feted for their lightweight construction,
but this can lead to a notable disadvantage also. The lack of mass can often lead to
low sound-proofing, which is often compounded by the use of thin composite /
cellular floor systems. Again, this can be overcome provided the correct guidance is
followed, for example the Building Regulations Part E(8), which provides guidance on
acceptable floor constructions to attenuate sound transmission between adjoined
dwellings. Similar guidance can be found in Building Bulletin 93(10) for schools and
HTM2045(9) for hospitals.
On balance, steelwork is an amazingly versatile, economic and useful material,
and has facilitated the construction of ever taller, longer and more aesthetically
pleasing structures. Steelwork structures have a myriad of advantages which make
them very appealing to todays Architects and engineers. Steelwork structures are
increasingly replacing more traditional forms of construction, such as load-bearing
masonry and reinforced concrete. In fact, for structures such as schools and
hospitals, where concrete was once the only choice, steelwork is becoming more
preferred solution due to recent advances in technology.
Steel and steel structures do however have some major disadvantages which can
befall an unsuspecting designer. Steelwork, nor any other material should be used
simply on a whim, or because the designer is comfortable working with it, or is blind
to other materials which may be better suited to the task at hand. However, it is the
Authors opinion, that provided the negative aspects of steel are taken into account of
in all aspects of the design, detailing, fabrication and construction process, the
advantages of steelwork often far outweigh the disadvantages.
With the seemingly exhaustive demand for steel it would appear societys love
affair with steel shows no sign of abating in the near future. It is likely steel will
continue to push the boundary of Architecture and structural engineering. Assuming
the technological advances which have occurred in the last 100 years continue at the
same pace, it is possible structures of the future will only be limited by the
imagination of their designers.

MSc in Structural Engineering Module SE1M81; Steel Building Design

Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

References:
The following sources have been referenced in this paper;
(1)

Anon, Steel [online]. Wikipedia 2006. Available from:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steel#History_of_iron_and_steelmaking
[Accessed 23 Sep 2006]

(2)

Anon, Atmospheric Corrosion Resistance [online], Galvanizers

Association. Available from: http://www.hdg.org.uk
[Accessed 23 Sep 2006]

(3)

Anon, Fire in Steel Framed Buildings [online], Corus Construction Centre.

Available from:
http://www.corusconstruction.com/en/design_and_innovation/structural_desig
n/fire
[Accessed 23 Sep 2006]

(4)

Anon, BS 5950 Structural Use of steelwork in building Part 1: Code of

practice for design of rolled and welded sections. British Standards Index,
2000.

(5)

Anon, BS EN 10025 Hot rolled products of non-alloy steels. British

Standards Index, 2004.

(6)

Anon, BS 10113 Hot rolled products in weldable fine grain structural

steels. British Standards Index, 1993.

(7)

Anon, BS 4 Structural steel sections: Specification for hot-rolled

sections. British Steel Index, 2005.

(8)

Department for Communities & Local Government (formerly ODPM),

Building Regulations Approved Document: Part E (Resistance to the
Passage of Sound). London: The Stationary Office, 2003.

(9)

Department of Health (DoH), Health Technical Memorandum 2045:

Acoustics, Design considerations

(10) Department for Education & Schools (DfES), Building Bulletin 93 Acoustic
Design of Schools A Design Guide. London: The Stationery Office, 2003.
(11) Corus Construction & Industrial, A Corrosion Protection Guide: For
Steelwork Exposed to Atmospheric Environments. Scunthorpe, 2000.
(12) British Constructional Steel Association (BCSA), Galvanizing Structural
Steelwork: An Approach to Management of Liquid Metal Assisted
Cracking (40/05). London, 2005.
(13) British Constructional Steel Association (BCSA), Historical Structural
Steelwork Handbook 4th Impression. London. BCSA, 1991.
(14) Wyatt T A, Design Guide on the Vibration of floors (P076). Steel
Construction Institute (SCI). Ascot, 1989.
(15) Hicks S J and Devine P J, Design Guide on Vibration of Floors in
Hospitals (P331). Steel Construction Institute. Ascot, 2004.

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Civil Engineering Division, School of Engineering, University of Surrey

Bibliography:
The following sources have been consulted, but not directly sourced in this paper;
1) Prof G A R Parke, Steel Building Design course notes. University of
Surrey. Guildford 2000.
2) Anon, Steel Designers Manual 6th Edition. Blackwell Publishing. Oxford,
2003.
3) British Constructional Steel Association (BCSA), The Merits of Steelwork.
London. Undated.

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