Atomic & Nuclear

Structure
Elementary Nuclear Physics
PG-111

Lecture by: Dr. Zahra Ali

Atoms
Ordinary matter is composed of atoms. An atom
consists of a tiny nucleus made up of protons and
neutrons, on the order of 20,000 times smaller than the
size of the atom. The outer part of the atom consists of
a number of electrons equal to the number of protons,
making the normal atom electrically neutral.

Evolution of Theory for Matter

Democritus
400 B.C.

Aristotle
350 B.C.

John
Dalton
1808

J.J.
Thomson
1897

Hantaro
Nagaoka
1904

Models of Atom
Thomsons plum pudding model
Rutherfords model - the first
planetary model
Bohrs model
Paulis exclusion principle (1925)
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The Rutherford Atomic Model - 1911

Rutherford Scattering

Distance Of Closest Approach

Rutherfords ingredients:

q1q2
;
2
4 0 r
1

q1q2
PE
4 0 r

Newtonian Mechanics (F = ma)

Coulomb Interaction=> Distance of closest approach
Coulomb repulsion between the a -particle (2+) and the Au nucleus (79+)
Let initial KE of a = PE at closest approach distance r.
KE (a) = 6 MeV

Therefore, r = 3.8x10-14 m = 38 fm = 38 fermi

Distance of closest approach

The faster an alpha particle is travelling, i.e. the more energy it has,
the closer it can get to the nucleus before being repelled away.

PE
Stops here

Distance of closest
approach

For any given initial energy, we can calculate how close the alpha
particle can get to the nucleus.
We call this the distance of closest approach.

Atomic Spectra

typical emission spectra

Hydrogen

Helium

Mercury
400nm
700nm

gas discharge
tube

Emission line spectra (from thin, hot gas or vapor)

spectrum tube contains rarified gas or vapor through
which a high voltage is discharged
prism

collimating slit

emission spectra
vs.
absorption spectra

screen or film

Failures of Classical Atomic Model

Unstable model, since an accelerated charge radiates i.e. will emit
light and therefore lose E

classical mechanics did not work for the planetary model - it

violated classical laws of electromagnetism

considerable problems with atomic spectra

Bohr Model 1913

A countable number of stationary
states exist. (electrons in a
selection of allowed orbit radii)
EM radiation emitted when
electron jumps/transitions between
states

h E2 E1

Classical rules apply to stationary

states, but not during transitions
between states.
Angular momentum occurs in
integer multiples of h/2.
i.e. mvr = n hence quantized.

n=1
n=2
n=3

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Quantized Energy States

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Hydrogen spectral series:

Patterns in the Spectra

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Balmer

10 0

10 00

1
1
R 2 2 n 3,4,5,
n
n
2
1

10 000

(visible light)

R 0.01097 nm 1
Lyman
Paschen
Brackett
Pfund

n
1

n
1

n
1

1
1
R 2 2 n 2,3,4,
n
1
1
1
R 2 2 n 4,5,6,
n
3
1
1
R 2 2 n 5,6,7,
n
4
1
1
R 2 2 n 6,7,8,
n
5

(UV)
(IR)
(IR)
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(IR)

Energy Transfer Mechanisms

Excitation of the Atom
When a sufficient amount of energy is transferred to the atom,
causing an electron to jump from the lower to higher energy
levels, the atom is said to be excited.

Ionization of the Atom

When a sufficient amount of energy is transferred to the atom,
causing an electron to be removed from the electric field of the
nucleus, the is said to be ionized, and the negative electron
together with the remaining positively charged atom, is called
the ion pair.

Excitation and ionization are the main mechanisms

through which energy is transferred from radiation to
matter

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Problem with Bohrs model and classical

mechanics
Could only predict correctly the energy levels of H.
The dual behavior of light (particle and wave) could
not be explained by classical mechanics
The approach of Bohr of mixing classical mechanic
with quantizing certain variables was suddenly
heavily used

other accurate predictions were made with new

semi-classical or relativistic models
Prelude to Quantum Mechanics

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Pauli principle: No two electrons in an atom

can be in the same state
Quantization came naturally out of quantum mechanics
Four quantum numbers fully described the electron energy
levels
Principal quantum number : n
Describes the orbital shells
n=1, 2 and 3 for K, L and M shells respectively

Corresponds to Bohrs angular momentum quantization

Azimuthal quantum number: l

Explains fine structure in spectrum (elliptic orbit)
l = 0, 1, 2, , n

Magnetic quantum number: m

Explains splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field - Zeeman Effect
m = [-l, l]

Intrinsic spin (angular momentum) of electron: s

s = [-1/2, ]

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Neutron Chadwiick-1932.
The mystery particle (Y) has ~ proton mass but no charge

The Neutron

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Nuclear Terminology
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, and
also the number of electrons in a neutral atom
Nucleon: proton (Z) or neutron (N)
Nuclide: nucleus uniquely specified by the values of N & Z
Mass number (A) is the total number of nucleons in a nucleus (A=Z+N)
Isotopes: nuclides with the same protons (Z) e.g. 235U and 238U
Isotones: nuclides with the same neutrons (N) e.g. 2H (d) and 3He
Isobars: nuclides with the same A
Atomic mass unit (u): one-twelfth of the mass of a neutral atom of 12C (six
protons, six neutrons, and six electrons). 1 u = 1.66 x 1027 kg = 931.5 MeV/c2
Atomic mass is the mass of a neutral atom and includes the masses of
protons, neutrons, and electrons as well as all the binding energy.
Nuclear mass is the mass of the nucleus and includes the masses of the
protons and neutrons as well as the nuclear binding energy, but does not
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include the mass of the atomic electrons or electronic binding energy.
Radioisotopes: members of a family of unstable nuclides with a common
value of Z

Nuclear Notation
atomic mass = A
atomic number = Z = number of protons (+) = number of
electrons ()
AZ = number of neutrons (no charge) = N
e.g. 238U.
A = 238 and U has Z = 92 protons. Therefore, 146 neutrons.

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Nuclear Units
SI units are fine for macroscopic objects like footballs but are
very inconvenient for nuclei and particles therefore nuclear units
are used as:

Energy: 1 eV = energy gained by electron in being

accelerated by 1V.

Mass: MeV/c2 (or GeV/c2)

1 MeV/c2 = 1.78X10-30 kg. 1 GeV/c2 = 1.78X10-27 kg.
Or use Atomic Mass Unit defined by mass of 12C= 12 u

Momentum: MeV/c (or GeV/c)

1 eV/c = e/c kg m s-1

Cross sections:
1 barn =10-28 m2

Length: fermi (fm)

1 fm = 10-15 m.

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Nuclear Units
Nuclear energies are very high compared to atomic processes,
and need larger units

Nuclear sizes are quite small and need smaller units

Nuclear masses are measured in terms of atomic mass units

(amu, u) with the carbon-12 nucleus defined as having a mass
of exactly 12 amu. It is also common practice to quote the rest
mass energy E = mc2 as if it were the mass. The conversion to
amu is:
1amu = 1.6605 x 10-27 kg = 931.5 MeV/c2

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Constituents of Atoms
The electrons, protons and neutrons which make up an atom
have definite charges and masses.

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Constituents of Atoms
While the charges and masses are precisely known, the sizing is
not. Our best information about the proton and neutron indicates
that they are constituent particles. However we can attribute to
them a radius of about
1.2 x 10-15 meters = 1.2 fm

The electron is a fundamental particle which is apparently not

made out of any constituent particles.

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THE END
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