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Chemical En#ineerin9 Science, Vol. 52, No. 15, pp. 2471-2482, 1997
( 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
P I I : S0009-2509(97)00066-3
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1. INTRODUCTION
Let us first sketch the contacting regimes encountered
when a bed of solids is fluidized by gas at progressively higher velocities. Because contacting differs in
these contacting regimes, different reactor models
must be used for predicting reactor behavior; see
Fig. 1.
This paper deals with circulating solids reactors,
These contain very fine particles which are fluidized at
a rather high gas velocity, are blown out of the bed
and reactor, and have to be replaced by fresh solids.
We call these circulating fluidized beds (CFB).
We must first find what contacting regime is involved, and then deal with the reactor and its conversion equations.
2. CHARACTERIZATIONOF PARTICLES
The equivalent spherical particle diameter is defined as
diameter of a sphere
dsph =
(~_)1/3
=
(1)
qSsdsCr
ds~r
dp ~q52dscr
3. GAS/SOLIDCONTACTINGREGIMES
For given particles (dp and ps) and given superficial
gas velocity through the bed (Uo), we first need to find
what contacting regime is involved--packed bed,
bubbling fluidized bed (BFB), or circulating fluidized
bed (CFB), with its subregimes--turbulent fluidized,
fast fluidized, or pneumatic transport. To do this first
evaluate the dimensionless measures of particle size
and gas velocity. These are defined as
(2)
=
dp = ~b~dsph.
(3)
For fine particles we evaluate the size by screen analysis, which gives dscr. Unfortunately, there is no general
:Corresponding author.
d V p~(p~ - pg)g],/3
Y
#(p~ - pg)g
(7)
.
(8)
2471
2472
-~Xmt
~, 1~;,~4~:
~@I
r:!.":-~-+?-:~.%:,~1
-'"
I:'.'..:."-.::.:<f::.~ ;.-;1<
",
- - ~
]
:, :":'~.::.,~ ..".'~.. ;;
Very low
gas velocity
I.I
_~_.,~.._._.,,-.~ ,,
",~ I~':,':,'~:~
/~
condibons
fluidizing..
with solids
present in the
freeboard
Bed at
minimum
Fixedbed
Turbulent or fast
fluidized
~~i'~..':~,~
Uo = Umt
~ t
Slugging occurs in narrower or
small beds, or in beds with
closely spaced internals
-- -.'~--~1
~
here
..
.......
"h f (
"
"-:"
so,i<
.':~,~:~.?~.~
.
~:-:.'..
5y
circulation
s,stom
A
very high
gas velocity
Fig. l. Gas/solid contacting regimes depend on the gas velocity and bed geometry.
dimensionless form is
f 18
0.591 ] - 1
u* = L ~
+ -(d*)
- '/2]
(9)
~mf
~s
3.2. T e r m i n a l velocity, ut
Individual particles are blown out of the bed when
the gas velocity exceeds what is called the terminal
velocity, ut. Haider and Levenspiel (1989) give this
'
'
'
I18
2.335 - 1.744~b,] -1
"'* = ~
I''"I
'
'
'
I'
(-d})~
"'I
'
~:
Sandqike
(11)
(10)
0.5
-
Difficult to
fluidize. Solids
clump, and rise
C "////////\. . . . . ,'!
Cohesive'//////////.
Aeratabl
as slugs. Gas
channels.
,
0.1
10
iI i'','
SO
100
,,
I ,,,,I
500
,
1ooo
(~tm)
Very large
exploding
bubbles. Low
bed voidage.
Liable to spout.
2473
10
"k
10-1
10-2
10-3
10
102
102
10
(a)
.Q
"o
o
t~
0.2
0,4
0.6
2474
"' [~"~::":::.":;':
[i.,;:.,...,,:.,:;.;.
I
i,i
"
"
"
l',:~..,'.'i-.~.,,:.l
, ~:-'
k ' ,;'~
~.~' i~'' ~
":..
V:,".~.~,|'~(~'t~,~
'iI
n~,~ ~;~'.',,~.","::.";:":i:]n~v~ I~~,...'.',~. n~,rs [, ~-~ !,~q n~,~r [:i
,::s,
~."
Il
...........
. ~i~
,~
,.,.~
'''.
.,.
.....
;,
.',
'.'.-.
' "
region
Dense
;:~
v,:
l:.
.:
.': ....
"r
U"
r
"
.
~,
"
"
"
bubbling bed
fa = 0.4 ~ 0.6
turbulent bed
fa = 0.06 ~ 0.2
pneumatic transport
fa = 0.01 ~ 0.06.
"
ul
L'.~
".
h~
"
"
..;,
i!i:;i!
~-':
. ~
.~...
~.~
,~.
.,'
~i'": , ' ~ "-,. - ~ ; ~ ' , : , ~ ; ;:~# /
~
,',:.,.
,.,..,,.:., , :.
Dense
lower
region
,:: .:
I.
""
:: :. ,.- ...:
".'"'"
""
,':I
dp2 = (K1 + K z ) p 2
-
....
..---
(12)
.t,C~,
:~'-'.~
u 2 dz--~
dp3
- u3 ~ z r = K2P2 - K i p 3 .
2475
'-
/:::F
.-
..I
.i
. . . .
"
:'...-'.,
.- ..,
...%.-
transport saturation
capacity
~--~'~x
upper lean
region, h
n~
[\
exit value
I ~
] X
z~
.i
" ~
,--.n-
constant fraction
[V
of sohds
' rag,on,
"7
f* rex
fd
Uo
Fig. 7. The exponential decay model accounts for the distribution of solids in the vessel when the solids are
in throughflow.
Solving these equations Kunii and Levenspiel
(1991, p. 184) show the following
(1
(17)
--
gwall
) (1
--
6).
exit stream is
2-4 s-1
auo = ~5 s -1
(15)
L7 s -1
f * is independent of Uo
~< 0.02 for Geldart A solids
Gs
(16)
(19)
fex = f * + (fd - f * ) e x p ( - a H t ) .
(20)
Ht = ! ln (19c~Z-~_
f'~ - f*
f , / .~
(21)
Ha = Ht -- HI.
(22)
(18)
(14) or (23)
f d z , = f * +.fdaH,--f~x
(24)
2476
f v , ~ _ f H ~ + f~Hd
H~
In Cao _fp,,gk'"Hp,,g
CAn
Uo
(25)
= Atp, H t f
Wd = A,p~H~f~
(26)
~=~+w~.
These equations relate u0, G~, and W. Thus, if you are
given a specific gas velocity and you want a specific
weight of solids in the reactor, these equations will tell
you what solid feed rate to use.
- r'j' = k'"CA
or
CAo
In Ca~
r-
1
lfb k'" +
1
1
P q
6BFBKbc
f~k'" +
1
(1/fiaFRK~) + 1/f~k'"
x -HBFB
u0
(30)
dCa
-- U o ~ -z =folugqr, h, gk'"Ca.
(fb + f + f)k'"HBFB
CAO
In - -
(28)
C.4ex
12o
Fixed
BFB
FF
CAex=CAd
CAex< CAd
CAex<C.Ad
~IBFB
CAex
!i :i:
Lean
--Tnd
C ~df
;..~ .ow
,...,,.r
,:': ~.'....,
%';
~
~t,I
muo
./~
Dense
;*7
. '~--';::~t.
:,
. .-.....:.
" r.~&-:
~~
(b)
i,t:.
t, :,~... "','
"."
i:~
CAO
CAO
(a)
(29)
A ~ R,
k'W,
uoAt
(c)
(d)
(31 )
k'"
OBFBKbc q f +
1
(k'"/JBwKc~ + 1/f~
2477
--=
H~-
CAex
(1-e
q~v~, -
bn~)
UO
A + +L
(32)
5.3. Fast fluidization
For fast fluidization we have distinctly different
expressions for conversion in the upper lean and
lower dense regions; see Fig. 8(c).
For the dense region the three zones of a BFB
collapse into two. Thus,
fb ~ f ~ ....
I fore k"' +
(1/3a.vvKcw) 1/fwa,,k'"
I H d , FF
Uo
(33)
In CAd
C A ex
U0 a
inCa a/o:
and for the special case where r/d = 1 (very lean solids,
high gas velocity, pneumatic flow)
CAex
CAO
CAex
CAd
CAd
CAO
r/d = rh = 1
0.6 0.9
(34)
Kcw = 5-20 s- 1
ewall ~ ~mf ~--- 0.5-0.6.
fcore fwall
(35)
(36)
--
rld)e -bz'
(37)
CAO"
(40)
(41)
CAe x
6d. v r =
Cao
In - -
~- 0.01
CAex
X A . . . . . 11
and
(42)
bl0
b.
Finally, probably the most important value of models such as presented here is to be a guide for experimenters, and to suggest areas where research is
needed.
6. DESIGN PROBLEMS
A ~ R,
1 dNa
- - - k'CA,
W dt
2478
Example 2
Pneumatic Transport
(low solid flow)
(high solid flow)
z,m
Example 4
5
Bubbling
fluidized
~.?'.i
2
dense-
.z~ .'!
;::.';!
-.,.-
uo
.~.";,"':;~:
::,'-v
~" :.:;
.... "
N.
Kglm2"s
= 6 m/s
6 mls
1.5 m/s
0.375 m/s
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 9. Four design alternatives for reactors treating a given flow rate of reactant gas.
Po = 1.2 kg/m 3
Gas
This high gas velocity a n d small particle size suggests t h a t solids m a y be rapidly carried out of the
reactor, so we m a y need to use solid circulation. So let
us tentatively choose a solid circulation system with
a reactor of height H, = 6 m a n d with a solid circulation rate of G, = 100 kg/m 2 s. This design is s h o w n as
Fig. 9(a).
p = 1.8 x 10 -5 k g / m s
D = 4 x 10-5 m2/s
in the bed
shape is spherical
Porous
catlyst
solid:
Solution:
d [Po(Ps
a.
Pg)gl
e/
1/3
in the p o r o u s particle.
=
55
Vo = uoA .
hRT
.
p
40(8.314)300
.
.
1.3(101 325)
0.7574 m3/s.
10-6(1'2(1
--L2)9'8 ] '/3
(1.8 10-5)2
= 1.82
u~
U0
[
= 6
--
It(ps -- Po)g
(1'2)2
11/3
1.8 X 10-5(1000 -- 1.2) 9.8
= 12.08.
2479
Ut =
I 18
0.591 ] - 1
(~p,)2 + (d,)l/~-2j = 0.1703
[_
p.
= 0.1703 -
(1.2)2
= 0.084545 m/s.
CAo
ln--
Gs
100
ps(uo - u~)
1000(6 -- 0.084545)
= 0.0169.
CAex
I-(0.06)(2.0390) + (0.0318)(3.9610)] 10
= 0.4138.
Therefore,
CAex = 0.6611
CAO
or
X a , total
34%.
(7) Locate the dense and lean regions, from eq. (21),
Solution: Following the procedure of Example 1
we find
1 t/fa - - f * "~
Ht = - In 1 7 - - - ~ l
\fo~-f /
1 l n ( 0.06--0.01 ']
=0.~
\0.~9--~1
]
3.9610 m
Ha = 6 - 3.9610 = 2.0390 m.
so
XA
. . . . . . 11 =
42%.
O.O6 0,0169
0.5(3.9610)
= 0.0318.
(9) The weight of catalyst in the vessel, from
eq. (26),
Wa = Atp,Hafa
7~
= ~ (0.4) (1000)(2.0390)(0.06)
fa = 0.16
= 15.3737 kg
Wl = Atp~Hjf
m3
m 3 of solids
f * = 0.01 m3 of vessel'
during pneumatic
conveying
= ~ (0.4) z (1000)(3.9610)(0.0318)
4
= 15.8286 kg
Therefore Wtotal = 31.2 kg.
6 = 0.7
m 3 of core
m 3 of dense region
Kcw = 5 s- x.
2480
Solution:
find
we have a turbulent or fast fluidized bed with
qd = 0.72,
H d = 1.5m,
Wtot.l = 165 kg,
so
XA . . . . . . 11 =
82%.
Bubblingfluidized reactor
6.4. Example 4.
dp /k'"
55x10
M r = 6 ~ / D e ft
-6
6 /-~10
- / ~
M~ --
/~10
X/~
0.8 m ,
= 0.366.
31
42
165
643
f.:.,
#"
::"
~:,:
:-
'!. .
,
%':,
=,
q = 11%
11 =
61%.
Contact Conversion
efficiency
XA
~l = 1.00
TI = 1.00
TId = 0.72
r] = 0.11
34/.
43%
82*/,
61%
(i"
Q
~. ,-
10 . 6 m
.',,'
"....
UO = 0.375 m / s .
with
Xa . . . . . .
1
2
3
4
~.i
dp = 220
SO
~ = 0.4,
Wt=643kg
.,
spherical particles
Example
number W, kg
(9
0.16 m,
fb = 0.003,
era: = 0.6,
= 0.092.
Hmf =
db =
'
~ s.'.,-
?:.';:?
.'....
:3!..' i solid
gas
\
''
solid
solid
as
gas
v
~:-t.
ttg..
~,. i
e"
(~ ...~g
Pneumatic
Turbulent
v
Solids throughflow
Bubbling
I
No solids throughflow
Fig. 10. A wide range of conversions result from the four design alternatives. Fast fluidization turns out to
be best.
2481
Kcw
K1, K2
Mr
h
r~
r~'
Uo
ut
u*
V0
At
b
BFB
Ca
CFB
dp, d.... dsph
d*
Deft
fi,(i=b,c,e,
d, l, etc.)
f,
g
Gs
k'"
NOTATION
decay constant for solid fraction in
the lean region of a CFB; see
Fig. 6, m cross-sectional area of a CFB reactor, m 2
decay constant for gas/solid contact inefficiency in the lean region
of a CFB; see eq. (23), m bubbling fluidized bed
concentration of reactant A,
mol/m 3
circulating fluidized bed
measures of particle diameter; see
eqs (1)-(6), m
dimensionless measure of particle
diameter; see eq. (7)
diffusion coefficient of gas in the
porous catalyst, m 3 gas/m solid s
volume of solids in section i of
a slice of bed/volume of that slice
of bed, m 3 solid/m 3 reactor
solid fraction in gas stream in
pneumatic conveying conditions
acceleration due
to
gravity
(= 9.8 m/s 2)
mass velocity of solids through the
CFB, kg/m 2 of bed s
height of regions and of the
CFB, m
first-order reaction rate constant
based on unit mass of catalyst
solid, m 3 gas/kg cat s
first-order reaction rate constant
based on unit volume of catalyst
solid, m 3 gas/m 3 cat s
gas exchange coefficients between
bubble, cloud, and emulsion,
m 3 gas moving from one zone to
the other/m 3 of bubbles s
Xa
Z
Greek letters
wake volume/bubble volume, dimensionless
volume fraction of lean region, bubble or core,
in a section of reactor, dimensionless
ewan void fraction in the wall zone, dimensionless
p
viscosity of gas, kg/m s
q
efficiency of reactor when compared to plug
flow, kg/kg
p
density, kg/m 3
~bs
sphericity of solid particles; see eq. (2), dimensionless
Subscripts
b
c
core
d
f
g
l
bubble
cloud
in the core region of a CFB
dense region of a F F contactor
fluidized condition
gas phase
lean region of a CFB
mf
at minimum fluidizing conditions
s
solid
wall sliding down the wall of a CFB
REFERENCES
Ergun, S. (1952) Fluid flow through packed columns.
Chem. Engng Prog. 48, 89.
Furusaki, S., Kikuchi, T. and Miyauchi, T. (1976)
Axial distribution of reactivity inside a fluid bed
contactor. A.LCh.E.J. 22, 354-361.
Geldart, D. (1973) Types of gas fluidization. Powder
Technol. 7, 285-292.
Geldart, D. and Abrahamsen, A. R. (1978) Homogeneous fluidization of fine powders using various
gases and pressures. Powder Technol. 19, 133-136.
2482
Kunii, D. and Levenspiel, O. (1995) The vertical distribution of solids in circulating fluidized beds. In
Fluidization VIII, Tours, pp. 17-24.
Levenspiel, O. (1996a) The Chemical Reactor Omnibook, Chap. 25. OSU Bookstores, Corvallis, OR,
U.S.A.
Levenspiel, O. (1996b) The Chemical Reactor Omnibook, pp. 22.3 or 23.1. OSU Bookstores, Corvallis,
OR, U.S.A.