IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VEHICULAR TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 63, NO.

3, MARCH 2014

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Control Strategies for Wide Output Voltage

Range LLC Resonant DCDC Converters
in Battery Chargers
Fariborz Musavi, Senior Member, IEEE, Marian Craciun, Member, IEEE,
Deepak S. Gautam, Student Member, IEEE, and Wilson Eberle, Member, IEEE

AbstractIn this paper, a control strategy is presented for a

high-performance capacitively loaded loop (LLC) multiresonant
dcdc converter in a two-stage smart charger for neighborhood
electric vehicle (NEV) applications. It addresses several aspects
and limitations of LLC resonant dcdc converters in battery
charging applications, such as very wide output voltage range
while keeping the efficiency maximized, implementation of the
current mode control at the secondary side, and optimization of
burst mode operation for current regulation at very low output
voltage. The proposed control scheme minimizes both low- and
high-frequency current ripples on the battery while maintaining
stability of the dcdc converter, thus maximizing battery life without penalizing the volume of the charger. Experimental results are
presented for a prototype unit converting 390 V from the input
dc link to an output voltage range of 372 V dc at 650 W. The
prototype achieves a peak efficiency value of 96%.
Index TermsBattery charger, burst mode operation, control
stability, resonant converter.

I. I NTRODUCTION

EIGHBORHOOD electric vehicles (NEVs) are propelled

by an electric motor that is supplied with power from
a rechargeable battery [1], [2]. Currently, the performance
characteristics required for many electric vehicle (EV) applications far exceed the storage capabilities of conventional battery
systems. However, battery technology is improving, and as
this transition occurs, charging of these batteries becomes very
complicated due to the high voltages and currents involved
in the system and the sophisticated charging algorithms [3].
Quick charging of high-capacity battery packs causes increased
disturbances in the ac utility power system, thereby increasing
the need for efficient low-distortion smart chargers. The accepted charger power architecture includes an acdc converter
Manuscript received May 15, 2013; revised August 20, 2013; accepted
September 17, 2013. Date of publication January 29, 2014; date of current version March 14, 2014. This is a revised version of the paper that was presented
at the IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition 2013 in
Long Beach, CA, USA. This work was supported and sponsored by Delta-Q
Technologies Corporation. The review of this paper was coordinated by
Dr. C. C. Mi.
F. Musavi, M. Craciun, and D. S. Gautam are with Delta-Q Technologies
Corporation, Burnaby, BC V5G 3H3, Canada (e-mail: FMusavi@delta-q.com;
MCraciun@delta-q.com; DGautam@delta-q.com).
W. Eberle is with the School of Engineering, The University of British
Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, BC V1V 1V7, Canada (e-mail: Wilson.
eberle@ubc.ca).
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TVT.2013.2283158

Fig. 1. Typical battery charging power architecture.

with power factor correction (PFC) [4], followed by an isolated

dcdc converter, as shown in Fig. 1 [5].
This architecture virtually eliminates both the low- and
high-frequency current ripples on the battery, thus maximizing battery life without penalizing the volume of the charger
circuit. The front-end acdc PFC converter is a conventional
CCM boost topology [6], [7]. The following dcdc section
is a half-bridge multiresonant capacitively loaded loop (LLC)
converter. The half-bridge resonant LLC converter is widely
used in telecommunication industries for its high efficiency at
the resonant frequency and its ability to regulate the output
voltage during the hold-up time, where the output voltage is
constant and the input voltage might drop significantly [8][11].
However, its application for battery charging impacts the
design criteria significantly to address the following.
A. Uncontrolled Area Operation
The output voltage requirement for a battery charger is drastically different and challenging compared with telecommunication applications. Fig. 2 shows a simplified battery charging
profile for a 48-V system. As it indicates, the battery voltage,
at the dcdc converter output, can vary from as low as 36 V
and to as high as 72 V. In addition, in the case of severely
discharged batteries, it is required to control current down to
almost 0 A when the voltage is below about 50% of maximum
output voltage in the Un-controlled Area in Fig. 3, where the
LLC output V I plane is shown [12].
B. Beat Frequency Quadratic Pole Phenomenon
Beat frequency quadratic pole phenomenon is a special characteristic for resonant converters [13][15]. The frequency-tooutput transfer function of the LLC resonant converter contains
a quadratic pole, as shown in [13] and [16]. Both the damping
factor Q and of the quadratic pole vary with the converter
operating condition. This term could introduce either a pair

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Fig. 2. Simplified adaptive four-step leadacid battery charging profile.

Fig. 4.
FHA.

Typical dc transfer ratio of an LLC dc-to-dc converter obtained using

Fig. 5.

Simplified secondary side current mode control.

of complex poles or two real poles affecting the power stage

dynamics. When it results in complex poles, the frequency is
approximately given by the difference between the switching
and the resonant tank frequencies; therefore, it is called beat
frequency double pole, as shown in Fig. 4. It is of particular
importance for a battery charger as the operating conditions and
load models vary widely, requiring current or voltage regulation
in any point of the highlighted area in Fig. 3 with constant
voltage or/and constant resistance load. To compensate for the
additional phase lag, it is required to reduce the bandwidth of
the control loop. As a consequence, a voltage mode converter
will have a slow transient and poor rejection of the line frequency ripple that needs to be addressed.

side or the secondary side [13], [15], [17][19]. Primary side

control requires isolation of feedback control signal, which
is usually accomplished by using an optocoupler. The main
disadvantages of using an optocoupler would be significant
variation of the control loop gain due to optocouplers poor
current transfer ratio initial tolerance, reduced bandwidth, and
degradation with the temperature and aging. To compensate for
these variations, a larger gain margin, and in some cases phase
margin, in control loop design is mandatory. Secondary side
control removes optocouplers limitations, enabling more repeatable performance. One implementation is shown in Fig. 5,
where the gating signals are transferred to the primary side.
However, the disadvantage is now sensing the input bus voltage
across the isolation barrier for brownout and undervoltage
protection of the dc-to-dc stage.

C. Secondary Side Current Mode Control

II. B URST M ODE O PERATION (N O L OAD , S HORT C IRCUIT )

In a battery charger, it is desired to control the charge rate,

which is in fact the charger current. In addition, rejecting the
low-frequency ripple on the dc link bus is required. This means
reducing the transconductance of the dcdc converter. In addition, to satisfy these conditions, a current mode control with
high current loop gain at twice the line frequency is desired.
Current mode control can be implemented either in the primary

Burst mode operation [20] can be used for depleted batteries

that require operation of the LLC converter in the uncontrolled
area of the V I plane, as shown in Fig. 3. This method is
used solely to revive neglected batteries. In this region, the
charger voltage is below 1.5 V/cell (36 V) and the switching
frequency has reached its maximum value (500 kHz). At this
point of operation, the converter is switched to ON/OFF mode

Fig. 3. LLC output V I plane with uncontrolled area.

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Fig. 8. Depleted battery conditioning. Ch1 = battery voltage 5 V/div. Ch2 =

battery current 2 A/div. Ch4 = ILr 2 A/div.
Fig. 6. Startup soft switching consideration. Ch1 = MOSFET gate drive
5 V/div. Ch2 = battery current 2 A/div. Ch3 = half-bridge node voltage
50 V/div. Ch4 = ILr 2 A/div.

Fig. 9. (Top) FFVOT operation concept. (Bottom) Transition from FFVOT to

continuous operation mode.

Fig. 7. Shutdown battery current consideration. Ch1 = half-bridge node voltage 100 V/div. Ch2 = battery current 2 A/div. Ch4 = ILr 2A/div.

while operating at fixed frequency fsw_ max . To reduce components stresses during repetitive ONOFF operation, several
precautions have to be considered.
1) Selecting half-bridge topology with split resonant capacitor, as shown in Fig. 5, will ensure that the capacitors are
already charged at the dc steady-state level prior to start
switching, reducing the startup inrush currents.
2) Shorter duration of the first gate drive pulse at startup ensures soft switching condition of the MOSFET switches
at power ON and allows fast transition to steady-state
values of the resonant inductor current. As shown in
Fig. 6, the resonant current reaches steady state in few
switching cycles avoiding high peak current transitions.
3) Energy stored in resonant tank creates minor battery
current tail after gate pulses are stopped, as shown
in Fig. 7, limiting choice of maximum burst frequency
and/or maximum burst duty cycle.

Fig. 10. (Top) VFFOT operation concept. (Bottom) Transition from VFFOT
to FFVOT.

Battery manufacturers recommend less than C/20 (i.e.,

5-A RMS for a 100-Ah battery) low-frequency ripple current
(line frequency or double-line frequency) to minimize heat
generation while charging. Tests performed on valve-regulated
leadacid batteries for uninterruptible power systems with three
times the recommended ripple current have demonstrated that
the heating effect is minimal (< 1 F) with less than 3% impact
on battery life [21], [22]. The life and capacity of EV batteries
depend on several factors such as cycle count, charge mode,
maintenance, temperature, and age.
Among these factors, the charge mode has a significant
impact on battery life and capacity. EV batteries should be
charged with current and voltage levels with low ripple.

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Fig. 11. Flowchart of battery charging control.

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Depleted batteries can be conditioned in burst mode with low

RMS ripple current, as demonstrated in Fig. 8 showing 1.9-A
RMS when charging at 1.5 ADC with 8 kHz/30% duty cycle
burst mode.
A. FFVOT
As the name of the control method implies, operation in
the uncontrolled area occurs by varying the ON time and
keeping the frequency constant. The converter hardware sets
the maximum burst frequency, capable of supporting up to a
maximum frequency of 30 kHz with no limit on minimum burst
frequency. The choice of the burst frequency is based on the
digital hardware limitations and battery ripple current tolerance
given by battery manufacturer.
Fig. 9 shows the fixed frequency variable on-time (FFVOT)
operation concept. Moreover, when the battery voltage is in the
normal range and the duty cycle is very large (e.g., 98%), the
LLC controller is enabled, thereby reverting the converter to
normal (low ripple) operation.
B. VFFOT
In addition to battery ripple current tolerance, battery manufacturers provide the minimum duty cycle for pulsed-current
charging. Accordingly, the FFVOT control strategy enables operation at low output current ripple and high ON/OFF frequency
with a minimum ON duration.
If in FFVOT, once the charger reaches the minimum ON
duration limit, the frequency must begin to reduce and the
converter enters variable frequency fixed on-time (VFFOT).
This is the burst frequency, not the switching frequency of the
converter, as the converter switching frequency is kept constant
at this point to fsw_ max . The purpose of switching the control
strategy from FFVOT to VFFOT is to maintain the charge
current at very low value. Fig. 10 shows the VFFOT operation
concept and the transition from VFFOT to FFVOT modes.
C. Control Principle and Implementation
An example method of battery charging control is provided
in Fig. 11.
At the beginning, the battery charger detects if the battery
voltage is less than 1.5 V/cell. If the battery voltage is equal
to or more than 1.5 V/cell, the dc-to-dc can achieve charge
rate regulation in the continuous operating area; therefore,
continuous operation mode will be enabled.
If the battery voltage is less than 1.5 V/cell, the VFFOT
mode of operation is enabled. In this mode of operation, the
battery is charged with a current pulse of duration tMIN and
amplitude less than ISC , charge regulation being achieved by
means of changing the repetition rate of the current pulses fON .
Then, the battery current is measured, and the average value is
compared with the reference current IREF from the charging
algorithm. If the averaged battery current is less than IREF , the
pulse repetition frequency fON is increased by a f increment
and the resulting new repetition frequency is compared to the
current pulse duration. The result of these comparisons decides
if the process is repeated or if the operation mode is changed
to FFVOT mode. If a new value IREF is received from the

Fig. 12. Implementation of FFVOT and VFFOT modes in battery V I plane.

charging algorithm, it is compared with the old value. If the

new IREF value is less than the old one, the process is restarted.
If the new IREF value is more or equal to the old value, the
measured battery voltage is compared with 1.5 V/cell. If the
battery voltage is less than 1.5 V/cell, the process is repeated; if
the battery voltage is more or equal to 1.5 V/cell, the operation
mode is changed to continuous operation mode.
While operating in VFFOT mode, the battery current pulse
duration tON is compared with the pulse repetition period. (The
period is the inverse function of the pulse repetition frequency,
i.e., 1/fON .) If the pulse duration is more than half of the
repetition period, the operation mode is changed to FFVOT.
In FFVOT mode of operation, the battery is charged with a
current pulse of an amplitude less than ISC at a fixed repetition
frequency fPWM with variable duration tON , charge regulation
being achieved by means of changing the current pulse duration
tON . Then, the battery current is measured, and the average
value is compared with the reference current IREF from the
charging algorithm. If the averaged battery current is less than
IREF , the pulse duration tON is increased by a t increment
and the resulting new pulse duration is compared with 98%
of the pulse repetition period. The result of these comparisons
decides if the process is repeated or if the operation mode is
changed to continuous operation mode. If a new value IREF is
received from the charging algorithm, it is compared with the
old value. If the new IREF value is less than the old one, the
process is restarted. If the new IREF value is more or equal to
the old value, the measured battery voltage is compared with
1.5 V/cell. If the battery voltage is less than 1.5 V/cell, the
process is repeated; if the battery voltage is more or equal
to 1.5 V/cell, the operation mode is changed to continuous
operation mode. Fig. 12 shows the area of implementation of
FFVOT and VFFOT modes in uncontrolled leadacid battery
V I plane. In addition, Fig. 13 shows the area of implementation of FFVOT and VFFOT modes in battery charging profile.
III. C ONTROL S TABILITY C ONSIDERATION
To address beat frequency and verify the stability of the
system, both current and voltage plant stability must be verified
in the extreme operating conditions using the previous plant
modeling. Fig. 14 shows the block diagram representation of

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Fig. 13. Implementation of FFVOT and VFFOT modes in battery charging

profile.

Fig. 14. Block diagram representation of the system with an inner current
loop and an outer voltage loop.

Fig. 16. Compensated current plant transfer function phase and magnitude at
Vo = 72 V and FL (resistive and battery loads).

Fig. 17. Closed current loop (voltage plant transfer function) phase and
magnitude at Vo = 72 V and FL (resistive and battery loads).

Fig. 15. Plant transfer function phase and magnitude at Vo = 48 V and

Vo = 72 V.

Fig. 18. Compensated voltage plant transfer function phase and magnitude at
Vo = 72 V and FL (resistive load and battery loads).

the system with an inner current loop and an outer voltage

loop. Fig. 15 shows the uncompensated plant phase and gain
frequency responses Pi (s) at full load, i.e., 48- and 72-V outputs. The beat frequencies could be observed at 10 and 20 kHz
for 72 and 48 V, respectively. The closed-loop crossover frequency must be placed at least one octave below the beat
frequencies due to excessive phase shift.
An overall compensated current loop phase and gain at Vo =
72 V and FL Pi (s) Ci (s) for resistive and battery loads is
shown in Fig. 16. It can be observed that, with battery, the gain
is increased to 25 dB, which will provide line frequency current
ripple rejection.
The closed looped compensated current plant is the uncompensated plant (power stage) for the voltage loop, as shown

in Fig. 17. The compensated voltage loop transfer function is

given in Fig. 18 at 72-V output and full load.
However, the battery will reduce the gain of the voltage loop,
as shown in Fig. 18. In addition, it is observed that the cutoff
frequency drops by two decades (from 1.5 kHz to 16 Hz).
IV. S IMULATION AND E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS
A prototype of the half-bridge LLC multiresonant converter
was built to provide a proof-of-concept and verify the analytical
work presented in this paper. Fig. 19 shows a picture of the LLC
dcdc multiresonant converter prototype. Table I provides the
design criteria for the prototype LLC converter. In Table II, the
key components used in the prototype converter are given.

MUSAVI et al.: CONTROL STRATEGIES FOR LLC RESONANT DCDC CONVERTERS IN BATTERY CHARGERS

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Fig. 19. Prototype of LLC dcdc converter.

TABLE I
D ESIGN S PECIFICATIONS

Fig. 20. Measured efficiency versus output power for Vo = 48 V, Vo = 60 V,

and Vo = 72 V.

TABLE II
C OMPONENTS U SED IN THE P ROTOTYPE C ONVERTER

The measured efficiency values of the converter as a function

of load are given in Fig. 20 at output voltages of 48, 60, and
72 V. This clearly shows that the efficiency is kept almost
constant and independent of output voltage at full load. These
measurements were taken with the output relay, common mode
electromagnetic interference inductor, and output fuse in the
circuit.
Simulation and experimental waveforms of the resonant tank
current, resonant capacitor voltage, and voltage across bottom
MOSFET Q2 are provided in Figs. 21 and 22 at Vin = 390 V
and Po = 650 W. The waveforms in Fig. 21 are given at close
the unity gain resonant frequency fsw = 211 kHz and output

Fig. 21. ILr , VCr , and VQ2 for Vo = 48 V, Po = 650 W; Ch1 = VQ2
100 V/div. Ch2 = VCr 100 V/div. Ch4 = ILr 2A/div. (a) Simulation results.
(b) Experimental results.

voltage Vo = 48 V. The waveforms in Fig. 22 are given at

fsw = 152 kHz and an output voltage of Vo = 72 V.
Fig. 23 provides example waveforms of transition from
FFVOT control to continuous operation mode. Fig. 24 shows
example waveforms of the FFVOT control strategy. Fig. 25
shows example waveforms of the VFFOT control strategy.
Note that the overshoot shown in the current waveforms is
due to the small impedance of the battery simulator. Real-life
depleted batteries will have higher internal resistance; hence,

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Fig. 24. FFVOT control strategy: fPWM = 1 kHz, Don = 60%, Io = 5 A,

and Vo = 5 V.

Fig. 22. ILr , VCr , and VQ2 for Vo = 72 V, Po = 650 W; Ch1 = VQ2
100 V/div. Ch2 = VCr 100 V/div. Ch4 = ILr 2A/div. (a) Simulation results.
(b) Experimental results.

Fig. 25. VFFOT control strategy: fBurst = 31 kHz, VBATT = 3 V,

on duration = 1 resonant cycle, and IBATT = 1.3 A.

implementation of the current mode control at the secondary

side. The proposed control scheme minimizes both low- and
high-frequency current ripples on the battery while maintaining
stability of the dcdc converter, thus maximizing battery life
without penalizing the volume of the charger. Experimental
results are presented for a prototype unit converting 390 V from
the input dc link to an output voltage range of 372 V dc at
650 W. The prototype achieves a peak efficiency value of 96%.
Fig. 23. Transition from FFVOT control to continuous operation mode:
Don = 98%, Io = 7 A, and Vo = 20 V.

a lossy damper was not deemed necessary for this mode of

operation, and the waveforms looked more like those in Fig. 8.
V. C ONCLUSION
A control strategy has been presented for a high-performance
LLC multiresonant dcdc converter in a two-stage smart
charger for NEV applications. It addresses several aspects
and limitations of LLC resonant dcdc converters in battery
charging applications, such as very wide output voltage range
while keeping the efficiency maximized, the beat frequency
double pole at frequencies close to resonant frequency, and the

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Fariborz Musavi (S10M11SM12) received the
B.Sc. degree from Iran University of Science and
Technology, Tehran, Iran, in 1994; the M.Sc. degree
from Concordia University, Montreal, QC, Canada,
in 2001; and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering with emphasis in power electronics from
The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC,
Canada.
Since 2001, he has been with several hightechnology companies. Currently, he is with Delta-Q
Technologies Corporation, Burnaby, BC, where he
is a Manager of research and engineering and is engaged in research on the
simulation, analysis, and design of battery chargers for industrial and automotive applications. His current research interests include high-power highefficiency converter topologies, high-power-factor rectifiers, electric vehicles,
and sustainable and renewable energy sources.
Dr. Musavi is a Registered Professional Engineer in the Province of British
Columbia. He received the First Prize Paper Award from the IEEE Industry
Applications Society Industrial Power Converter Committee in 2011. He has
also won an award from the Power Source Manufacturers Association to
present papers at conferences.

1125

Marian Craciun (M00) received the B.Sc. degree

in electronics engineering from the Polytechnic Institute of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania.
He has more than 20 years of experience in developing telecommunication and industrial power
electronic products and sustaining engineering. His
industrial experience includes positions with Energorepairs RENEL and Asea Brown Boveri Ltd., in
Bucharest and with Argus Technologies Ltd. and
Alpha Technologies Ltd., in Burnaby, BC, Canada.
He is currently a Power Electronics R&D Engineer
with Delta-Q Technologies Corporation, Burnaby. His current research interests
include high-power high-efficiency converter topologies, high-power-factor
rectifiers, resonant converters, electric vehicles, and sustainable and renewable
energy sources.

Deepak S. Gautam (M09S11) received the B.E.

degree in electronics engineering from the University
of Mumbai, Mumbai, India, in 2000 and the M.A.Sc.
degree in electrical engineering from the University
of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada, in 2006. He is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering in the field of power electronics with The
University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC.
From 2000 to 2003, he was a Research and Development Engineer with the Power Conversion and
Control Division, Aplab Ltd., Mumbai, where he was
involved in the development of linear, switch-mode, and programmable power
supplies for industrial and telecommunication industries. Since 2007, he has
been a Power Electronics Engineer with Delta-Q Technologies Corporation,
Burnaby, BC, where his main responsibility is to develop high-frequency
switch-mode battery chargers for automotive and industrial applications. His
research interests are dcdc converters, acdc power factor correction converters, resonant converters, and feedback control circuits.
Mr. Gautam received the University of Victoria fellowship, the Andy
Farquharson Award for Excellence in Graduate Student Teaching, and the Best
Poster Presentation Award at the Applied Power Electronics Conference and
Exposition 2012 in Orlando, FL, USA. He also has won travel grants from the
Power Source Manufacturers Association and the IEEE Industry Application
and Power Electronics Societies to present papers at conferences.

Wilson Eberle (S98M07) received the B.Sc.,

M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees from Queens University,
Kingston, ON, Canada, in 2000, 2003, and 2008,
respectively.
His industrial experience includes positions with
Ford Motor Company, Windsor, ON, and with Astec
Advanced Power Systems, Nepean, ON. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the School of
Engineering, The University of British Columbia
Okanagan, Kelowna, BC, Canada. He is the author
or a coauthor of more than 50 technical papers
published in various conferences and IEEE journals. He is the holder of one
U.S. patent. His current research interests include high-efficiency high-powerdensity dcdc converters and acdc power factor correction circuits.
Dr. Eberle currently holds research grants from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Canada Foundation for Innovation,
the British Columbia Knowledge Development Fund, The University of British
Columbia, and the Kaiser Foundation for Higher Education.