C.C.H.S.

MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS
EXPERIMENT No.

CODE- E-10/OPTICS/B-1

CLASS-XII
Date-..

Aim- To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.
Apparatus- An optical bench, three uprights, a mirror holder, a concave mirror, two needle, a metre scale and a
knitting needle
Ray Diagram

Formula Used- The focal length f of a concave mirror is related to the object distance u and image distance v by the
formula

1 1 1
= +
f u v

(mirror formula)

or f =

uv
u+ v

, For a concave mirror both object distance u and

image distance v are negative. Hence focal length is also negative.

ObservationsStep-1 To determine rough focal length.
Rough focal length of the concave mirror = cm
Step-2 Table for finding u, v , 1/u , 1/v
Sl.No
.

Position of upright with

Concav
e mirror
P (cm)

Object
needle O
(cm)

Image
needle I
(cm)

Observed distance
PO = u
(cm)

PI = v
(cm)

1/u
(cm-1 )

1/v
(cm-1 )

f=

uv
u+ v

(cm)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Mean focal length of concave mirror f = cm
Calculations 1.

f=

uv
u+ v

= . cm

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

Similarly, make calculations of focal length f for other observations and take the mean of all the focal lengths.
2. From the graph between u and v : Plot graph between
u (cm) and v (cm) by choosing appropriate scales along
X/ -axis and Y/ axis as shown in Fig. The graph comes out to be
a rectangular hyperbola. Draw the right bisector OQ of the
angle < X/ O Y/ meeting the graph at Q.
From Q, draw QA and QB perpendiculars on X/ and Y/ -axes
respectively.
From the graph of Fig. , we have OA = .. cm, and
OB = .. cm.
Therefore
f = OA/2 = .. cm and OB/2= cm.
Mean
focal length, f = .. cm.

3. From the graph between 1/u and 1/v : Plot graph between
1/u (cm) and 1/v (cm) by choosing appropriate scales along
X/ -axis and Y/ axis as shown in Fig. The graph comes out to be
a straight line equally inclined with X/ -axis and Y/ axis,
making equal intercepts on both the axes. From graph of the
Fig., we have
OA = .. cm-1 , and OB = .. cm-1 ,
Therefore f = 1/OA = .. cm and 1/OB = cm.
Mean focal length, f = .. cm.

Result
1. The focal length of the concave mirror by using mirror formula f =

uv
u+ v

= . cm

2. The focal length of the concave mirror as determined from graph between u and v is . . .cm.
3. The focal length of the concave mirror as determined from graph between 1/u and 1/v is cm.
Precautions
1.. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the image needle I and inverted image of the object needle O.
2.. To locate the position of the image, the eye should be at least 30 crn from the needle.
3. The object needle and image needle should be distinguished by putting a paper flag on the object needle O. They
should not be interchanged for different set of observations.
4. The mirror should be handled properly so that it may not break or its polish spoiled.

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

CODE- E-20/Semiconductor/B-11

EXPERIMENT No.

Date-..

Aim- To study the characteristic of a common n-p-n or p-n-p transistor and to find out the values of current and
voltage gains.
Apparatus- A n-p-n transistor, a 3volt battery, or a power supply (0- 3 V) , a milliammeter (range 0 to 50 mA), a
rnicro ammeter (range 0 to 500 A), two one-way key or switch. Two high resistances, connecting wires and a piece
of sand paper.
Circuit Diagram

| |
V BE
IB

Formula used (i) input resistance, Ri =

| |
| | =
V CE
IC

(ii) output resistance, R0 =

(iii) Current gain, =

(iv) Voltage gain, AV =

IC
IB

R0
Ri

I B=constant

V CE =constant

1
I C / V CE

1
I B / V BE
=

1
slpoe of input characteritics

1
slpoe of output characteritics

slope of transfer characteristics

V CE =constant

= current gain x resistance gain

Observations
Step-1. To determine least counts of various instruments
Least count of voltmeter VBE = . V
Least count of voltmeter VCE = . V
Least count of microammeter IB = .A
Least count of milliammeter IC = mA
Step-2. Table for input characteristics
S.No. Base - emitter
Base current (IB) in (A) for
voltage ( VBE )
in (volt)
VCE = 2 V
VCE = 4 V
1.
2.
3.
4.

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

5.
6.
7.
8.
Step-3. Table for output characteristics
S.No.

Collector - emitter
voltage ( VCE )
in (volt)

Collector current (IC) in (A) for

IB = 10 A

IB = 20 A

IB = 30 A

IB = 40 A

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Step-4. Table for transfer characteristics
S.No.

Base current
( IB )
in (A)

Base current (IC) in (mA) for

VCE = 2 V

VCE = 4 V

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Calculations
1. Input Resistance Ri (from input characteristics) :
selecting suitable scales, plot VBE along X-axis and IB
Y-axis for a constant value of VCE. On the same graph
plot another curve for the next (constant) value of V CE.
are input characteristics as shown in Fig. From a
P on the input characteristics, calculate the input
resistance as follows.
Ri =

| |
V BE
IB

V CE =constant

AC
BC

By
along
sheet,
These
point

= ..

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

2. Output Resistance Ro (from output

By selecting suitable scales, plot VCE along X-axis and
for a constant value of IB. On the same graph sheet, plot
curve for the other (constant) value of IB. These are
characteristics as shown in Fig. From a point P on
characteristics, calculate the output resistance as
follows.

| |
V CE
IC

Ro =

I B=constant

AC
BC

| |
IC
IB

V CE =constant

4. Voltage gain, AV =

BC
AC

R0
Ri

characteristics) :
IC along Y-axis
another
output
the output

= ..

3. Current Gain (from transfer characteristics) : By

suitable scales, plot a graph between base current I B along
collector current IC along Y-axis. This graph represents
transfer characteristics as shown in Fig. From the
calculate current gain as follows :
Current Gain,
=

CLASS-XII

selecting
X-axis and
graph,

= ..

= .

Resultl. Thc input, output and transfer characteristics are shown in the adjoining graphs.
2. The current gain and voltage gain of the given transistor are . and ...........
Precautions
I . All the measuring instruments for current and voltage should be of proper range.
2. Batteries should be connected carefully with proper polarities, keeping in mind whether the given transistor is p-n-p
or n-p-n.
3. Before switching on the power supplies, the sliders R1 and R2 of the potentiometer should be set at the minimum
values.
4. Never exceed the ratings for the currents given in the transistor manual.

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR
CODE- E-7/Elect/A-7

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

EXPERIMENT No. .

CLASS-XII
Date-

Aim- To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into an ammeter of desired range
and to verify the same.
Apparatus- A Weston type galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit), a manganin or constantan wire,
screw gauge, a battery, a one-way key, a rheostat, a milli-ammeter of 50 mA range, connecting wires and sand paper.
Circuit Diagram (for Verification)

Formula used- (i) A galvanometer of resistance G and figure of merit k or current for full scale deflection I g (=Nk)
can be converted into an ammeter of range 0-I ampere by connecting shunt resistance S in parallel with it. The value
of shunt S is given by S = (

Ig
I I g

)G=

G
I
Ig

( )

G
n1

, where n = I = conversion ratio

g

(ii) The length ( l ) of the wire to be used as shunt can be calculated using the relation S =

r2 S

l
2
r

or l =

, where r is the radius of the given wire and is its specific resistance or resistivity.

ObservationsStep l. To determine shunt resistance S

Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = ..
Figure of merit, k = .........A/div
Total number of divisions on either side of zero, N = ..
Current required for full scale deflection, Ig = Nk = .. A
Required range of the converted ammeter, I = .. ...... A
Range of conversion, n = I/Ig =
The value of shunt to be connected, S =

G
n1

= ..

Step 2. Determination of length of the wire (to be used as shunt S)

Pitch of screw gauge = . .. .. . . . .cm
No. of divisions on circular scale = ..

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR
Least count =

pitch
No . of divisionon C . S .

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

= cm.

No. of divisions on C. S.
Zeto error. e = .........cm
Zero correction. c = - e =.......cm.
Table for diameter of the wire
S.No.
1.
2.
3.

Main scale
reading
a (cm)

Circular scale
reading n

Fraction to be added
b = n x (L.C.)

Observed diameter d0 = a + b

a
b
a
b
a
b

Mean observed diameter, d0 = cm

Mean corrected diameter, d = d0 + c = cm
Mean corrected radius, r = d/2 = cm
Specific resistance of material of the wire, = ohm cm
( manganin = 44 x 10-6 ohm cm and constantan = 49 x 10-6 ohm cm)
The required length of the wire,

l =

r S

= . cm.

Step 3. Verification (for checking the accuracy of the converted ammeter)

Range of conversion of the ammeter, I = ....... A
Total number of divisions on either side of zero, N = ..
Least count of the converted ammeter, k/ = I/N = .. A/div
Table for verification
Sl.No
Galvanometer reading
.
Deflection
Current
() (division) I/ =k/
1.
2.
3.
4.

Ammeter
reading I (A)

Error (I - I/)
(A)

% Error

I I
I

) x100

ResultAs the difference (I I/) is very small, therefore , the galvanometer is properly converted into ammeter of the
range.
Precautions
l. The diameter of the wire (to be used as shunt) should be measured accurately.
2. Length of the shunt wire should be neither too large or too small.
3. The length of the wire should be 2 cm more than the calculated value l . The shunt wire should be connected
carefully across the galvanometer terminals such that exactly length l (i. e., the marked points) of the wire should
just come out of the terminals of the galvanometer.
4. The different parts of the shunt wire should not touch each other.
5. The ammeter used for verification should preferably of the same range as the range of the converted of ammeter.
6. Any zero error in the galvanometer or ammeter should be eliminated or taken into account properly.

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

CODE- E-9/Elect/A-9

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

EXPERIMENT No. .

Date-

Aim- To find the frequency of the a.c. mains with a sonometer and an electromagnet.
Apparatus- A sonometer (with soft iron wire), an electromagnet, a step-down transformer, 1/2 kg hanger, 1/2 kg
slotted weights, clamp, iron stand, a physical balance, weight box and fractional weights.
Diagram

Formula used- The frequency of a.c. mains using sonometer is given by =

f
2

1
4l

T
m

where f = fundamental frequency of vibration of wire, l = length of sonometer wire in between the knife edges at
resonance , T = tension in the wire , m = mass per unit length of the sonometer wire
Observations
Step l. To find mass/length of wire
Length of the wire, L = ......... cm
Mass of this length L, M/ = ......... g
Mass per unit length, m = M//L ... g/cm
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 980 cm/s2
Mass of the hanger = ......... kg
Step 2. Table for finding frequency of a.c. mains
Sl.
No
.

Load
(including
mass of
hanger) M (kg)

Tension in wire
T = M x 1000 x 980
(dyne)

Resonant length

l (cm)

Frequency of a.c. mains

=
(Hz)

Increasing

Decreasing

1
4l

T
m

Mean

1.
2.
3.
4.

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

5.
Mean frequency of a.c. mains = Hz
Standard frequency of a.c. mains = 50 Hz
Percentage error =

valuecalculated value
( Standard Standard
) x 100
value

=%

For each set of observations, calculate the frequency of a.c. mains . Find the mean of these values.
Result- The frequency of a.c. mains using sonometer and electromagnet is . Hz.
Precautions
I . The wire should be made up of iron (or some other magnetic material) and should be free from kinks.
2. The lower end of the electromagnet should be held slightly above (say 0.5 cm or 1 cm) the sonometer wire and in
the middle of vibrating portion PQ of the wire.
3. The position of maximum vibration should be adjusted carefully first by increasing distance between knife edges
and then decreasing distance between them.
4. The pulley should be frictionless.
5. While calculating tension T in the wire, the weight of the hanger should also be included alongwith the slotted
weights.
6. The knife edges should be sharp and height of the wooden bridges should be sufficient so as to support the wire.
Sources of Errors
l. The sonometer wire may not have uniform cross-sectional area.
2. The pulley may not be frictionless. Hence, tension in the wire will be different from the load suspended.
3. The frequency of the a.c. mains may not be stable.

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

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C.C.H.S. MANSAROVAR

PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

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PHYSICS PRACTICALS

CLASS-XII

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CLASS-XII

pg. 14