CHM 256 :

BASIC ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY

Nor Anashatul Afini..UiTM N.Sembilan

CHAPTER OUTLINE
4.1

4.2

4.3

Treatment
analysis

of

samples

prior

to

chemical

4.1.1 Techniques of sampling, drying and weighing of

samples.
4.1.2 Dissolution of samples inclusive of both dry and
wet methods.
4.1.3 Elimination of interferences.

Standards

4.2.1 Properties of primary and secondary standards.

4.2.2 Preparation of standard solutions : primary &
secondary
4.2.3 Calculations of required amount of
reagents/standards

Storage and dilution of stock solution.

Preparation of serial dilutions.
Chapter 4

Population
The group of things, items or units under investigation.

Sample
Obtained by collecting information only about some
members of a "population.

Sampling
Act of collecting sample to produce meaningful
information.

Chapter 4

What is the purpose of sampling?

The purpose of SAMPLING is to obtain a
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLES and
HOMOGENOUS of the whole sample that can
be taken to the laboratory for chemical analysis
and the results obtain will be ACCURATE.

Representative means that content of

analytical sample reflects content of bulk

sample.

Homogeneous means that the analytical

sample has the same content throughout the

analysis.
Chapter 4

Classification of Sampling
1. Base on method used for sampling
Sample Weight (mg)

Sample Volume (L)

Meso

>100

>100

Semi-micro

10 100

50 - 100

Micro

1 10

< 50

Ultra-micro

<1

2. Based constituents presents in a sample

Major

>1%

Minor

0.1 1 %

Trace

< 0.1 %

Ultratrace

in the range of few parts per million or less.

Chapter 4

A chemical analysis is usually performed on

only small portion of the material collected
to be characterized.
A. If the amount of material is very small
and it is not needed for further use, then
the entire samples may be used for
analysis.
B. The material to be sampled must either in
the form of solid, liquid or gas.
C. Sampling method depends on type of
sample solid, liquid or gas.

Chapter 4

Sampling
Deciding how to obtain a sample for analysis
depend on,
1.

The size of the bulk to be sampled.

2.

The physical state of the fraction to be

analyzed. (solid, liquid, gas)

3.

The chemistry of the material to be

assayed.

*Sampling techniques that that would destroy

or alter the identity or quantity of the
analyte are forbidden.
Chapter 4

Obtaining a representative
sample is the first step of
an analysis.
The gross sample is several small
portions of the sample. Sample
taken at random an assumed to
be as representative.

Gross sample that is reduced to a

sufficiently small size to be
handled is called the laboratory
sample.
An aliquot of this sample is taken
for the analysis sample.
Chapter 4

Sampling the bulk material

Identify the population from
which the sample is to be
obtained.

Collect a gross sample that

is truly representative of the
population being sampled.
Reduce the gross sample to
a laboratory sample that is
suitable for analysis.
Chapter 4

Sampling Solids

APR
2008

Inhomogeneity of the material, make

sampling of solids more difficult.

The easiest way to sample a material is

grab sample the sample taken at random
and assumed to be representative.

For reliable results, it is best to take 1/50

to 1/100 of the total bulk. The larger the
particle size, the larger the gross sample
should be.

The gross sample must be reduced in size to

obtain a laboratory sample.
Chapter 4

10

Method of Sampling Solids

Coning and Quartering

OCT
2006

This process is continued until the gross

sample is small enough to be transported to
the laboratory.

Chapter 4

11

There is specific techniques that can be used for

taking the samples. Using an example, explain how to
sample either a solid, liquids or gases sample (5m)

Sampling the solid

Using the method cone and quarter.
2. Divide a pile of material into quarter.
3. Take sample from each quarter of the pile and
crush these sample and form into smaller conical
pile.
4. Flatten the conical pile and cut into smaller equal
quarter.
5. Two opposite quarters are chosen at random.
6. Crush the quarter further.
7. The whole steps are repeated until the laboratory
samples are obtained.
Chapter 4
1.

12

Drying Solid Samples

The purpose of drying solid samples is to
ensure that the exact weight is obtained
during the QUANTITATIVE chemical
analysis.
If drying not done, the weight of sample is
reported as is basis.

How it is done?

Solid samples dried in oven at 105oC 110oC for

1-2 hours.
Plant and tissue samples dried by heating.
Chapter 4

13

Problems in drying of the solid

samples
1. Samples might decompose at high
temperature.
2. Some samples are sensitive to heat,
therefore drying can be carried out in a
dessicator.

Chapter 4

14

Sampling Liquids

Liquid samples are homogeneous and are much

easier to sample. If liquid samples are not
homogeneous and have only small quantity, they can
be shaken and sampled immediately.

The gross sample can be relatively small.

If water sample is taken from the river, then the

water samples is collected at the SURFACE,
MIDDLE and at the BOTTOM of the river bed.

If the liquid is in a large container, then the liquid

should be stirred first before the samples are
taken at the top, middle and at the bottom of
the container.
Chapter 4

15

Sampling Liquids
Sampling techniques will depend on the types
of liquid.
1.

Large volume of liquids (impossible to mix)

2.

Large stationary liquids (lakes, rivers)

3.

Biological fluids
A special
sampling
bottle or bag
is used to
collect liquid
samples.

Chapter 4

16

Sampling Gases
1. Grab sampling. An actual sample of air is
taken in a flask, bottle, bag or other
suitable container. Done over a period of
few seconds or up to 1-2 minutes.
2. Continuous or integrated sampling. Gases or
vapours are removed from the air over a
measured time-period and concentrated by
passage through a solid or liquid sorbent.
Examples
Rotary vane pump with open flows to 32 L/min,
locking flow valve, 10 feet tubing, and silencer for
quieter operations. Suitable for use with asbestos
cassettes, VersaTrap cassettes, and bioaerosol
impactors
Chapter 4

17

Sampling Gases
Tend to be homogeneous.
Large volume of samples is required
because of their low density.
Air analysis:
Use a `Hi-Vol sampler that is
containing filters to collect
particulates.
Liquid displacement method:
The sample must has little solubility
in the liquid and does not react
with the liquid.
Breath sample:
The subject could blow into
evacuated bag.

Chapter 4

18

Sample Storage
There is a time gap between when the
sample is taken and the actual analysis is
being carried out.
Therefore the sample should not be
adulterated by foreign matter or there is a
lost of analyte during storage.
During the storage of samples certain side
reactions can occur. This will change the
properties of the samples that will be
analysed.
Therefore, the sample, once collected must
be handled and stored in a manner so as to
protect it from contamination or alteration.

Chapter 4

19

Sample Storage

Example in the air pollution studies the

content of SO2 in air is not stable due to
the following reaction .

2SO2

O2

2SO3

To avoid the above reaction the sample is

cooled to 4oC.

Chapter 4

20

Sample Storage
For liquids samples, make sure that it is kept
in bottles with stoppers.
Acidic liquid samples can be stored in glass
container.
Whereas basic liquid samples in plastic
container.
Solid samples is easier to keep and have less
chance to be adulterated by foreign
matters. Sometimes it can also get absorbed
or adsorbed to the wall of the container.
Chapter 4

21

Problems encounter during storage of samples

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

The sample can be contaminated by foreign matter.

Lost of analyte during storage.
Decomposition of sample.
Side reactions can occur.
The sample should not react with the wall of the
container or get contaminated.
Lost of analytes during storage of volatile liquid
samples in which the container is not tightly closed.
Loss of water from hygroscopic material.
Precipitation of metals from water samples.

Chapter 4

22

Why we do proper and suitable

storage of sample?
To prevent:
1.
2.

3.

Contamination or alteration that may cause

by container, the atmosphere or the light
Loss of the analyte due to exposure to
atmosphere or adsorption onto the wall of
the container
Decomposition due to heat, light or
bacteria

Chapter 4

23

Examples of precaution taken to preserve the sample

Trace amount of metal should not be stored in glass container

since glass can leach small amount of metal

Trace organic compound may react with plastic container.

Preservatives may have to be added to sample which is

unstable. Eg. NaCI is added to blood sample to preserve the
blood.

Samples may need to be stored in refrigerator to avoid

decomposition of sample from bacterial sources.

Chapter 4

24

Desiccator

Sample Storage and Preservation

Preparing a laboratory sample

Converting the sample to a useful form.

Solids are usually ground to a suitable

particulate size to get a homogeneous
sample.

Dry the samples to get rid of absorption

water.

Chapter 4

26

Modern balances are electronic. They still compare

one mass against another since they are calibrated
with a known mass. Common balances are sensitive to
0.1 mg.

Electronic analytical balance.

Chapter 4

27

Weighing bottles are used for drying samples.

Hygroscopic samples are weighed by difference,
keeping the bottle capped except when removing the
sample.

Weighing bottles.
Chapter 4

28

A weighing dish or boat is used for direct weighing

of samples.

Weighing dish.

Chapter 4

29

Volumetric flasks are

calibrated to contain an
accurate volume. See the
inside back cover of the
text for tolerances of
Class A volumetric
glassware.

Volumetric flask.

Chapter 4

30

Typical pipets

Volumetric pipets accurately deliver a

fixed volume.
A small volume remains in the tip.

Transfer of volumetric pipettes.

Chapter 4

32

Measuring pipets are straight-bore

pipets marked at different volumes.
They are less accurate than volumetric
pipets.

Measuring pipettes.
Chapter 4

33

Syringe pipets precisely deliver microliter volumes.

They are commonly used to introduce samples into a
gas chromatograph.

Hamilton microliter syringe.

Chapter 4

34

These syringe pipets can

reproducibly deliver a selected
volume.
They come in fixed and
variable volumes. The plastic
tips are disposable.

Single-channel and
multichannel digital
displacement pipets
and microwell
plates.
Chapter 4

35

A 50-mL burette is marked in

0.1 mL increments.
You interpolate to 0.01 mL,
good to about 0.02 mL.

Two readings are taken for

every volume measurement.

Typical burette.
Chapter 4

36

Position the black field just below the meniscus.

Avoid parallax error by reading at eye level.

Meniscus illuminator.

Chapter 4

37

Place the flask on a white background.

Place the burette tip in the neck of the flask while
your swirl.

Proper technique for titration.

Chapter 4

38

Use these for quantitative transfer of precipitates

and solutions, and for washing precipitates.

Wash bottles:
(a) polyethylene, squeeze type; (b) glass, blow type.
Chapter 4

39

Replicate Samples
Most chemical analyses are performed on
replicate samples whose weights or volumes
have been determined by careful
measurements with an analytical balance or
with a precise volumetric device.
Obtaining replicate data on samples improves
the quality of the results and provides a
measure of their reliability.

Chapter 4

40

Defining replicate samples

Replicate samples are always performed

unless the quantity of the analyte, expense
or other factors prohibit.

Replicate samples are portion of a material

of approximately the same size that is
carried through an analytical procedure at
the same time and the same way.

Chapter 4

41

Preparing Solutions of the Sample

A solvent is chosen must dissolves the whole
sample without decomposing the analyte.

OCT
2007

Sources of error:
i.

Incomplete dissolution of the analyte.

ii.

Losses of analyte by the volatilization.

iii.

Introduction of analyte as a solvent

contamination.

iv.

Contamination from the reaction of the

solvent with vessel walls.
Chapter 4

42

Five general principles of sample preparation

The sample preparation should be done without losing any of

the analytes.

The sample preparation should include bringing the analytes

into the best chemical form for the method to be used.

Sample preparation should include removing some

interferences.

Sample preparation should be done without adding new

interferences.

Sample preparation may include diluting or concentrating the

analytes to get the best concentration for the method
chosen.
Chapter 4
43

Samples Dissolution
Sample dissolution is digestion or mineralization the
analyte into solution and to get rid of the interfering
organic substances in the samples.

Dissolving inorganic materials or sample that

can be converted to an inorganic derivative
for measurements. Solution that totally
destroy the sample matrix.
B. Dissolving organic materials either by wet
digestion or dry ashing. Solution that are
nondestructive or partially destroy the
sample matrix.
A.

Chapter 4

44

A. Method Dissolving
Inorganic Materials
1.

2.

Inorganic materials that dissolve in

acids.
Using strong mineral acids.
Example such as Hydrochloric acids,
Perchloric acids and nitric acids.

Inorganic materials that do not

dissolve in acids.

Using the acidic and basic flux in the

molten state.
Example such as acid-sodium carbonate
flux.
Chapter 4

45

Dissolving the Inorganic

materials (Acidic-basic flux)
Sample is mixed with the flux in a sample to
flux ratio of about 1 to 10 or 20.
The mixture is heated in an appropriate
crucible until the flux becomes molten. (The
insoluble materials react with the flux to
form a soluble products)
The reaction is considered complete as the
melt becomes clear.
The cooled solid is then dissolved in dilute
acid or water.

Chapter 4

46

B. Method Dissolving
Organics Materials
1.

Wet Digestion
A method for decomposition of an organic
material, such as resins or fibers into an ash
by treatment with a boiling oxidizing acid or
mixture of acid.
The acids oxidize organic matter to carbon
dioxide, water and other volatile products
which are driven off leaving behind the salts
or acids of the inorganic constituents.
Chapter 4

47

B. Method Dissolving
Organics Materials

2. Dry Ashing

The sample is slowly combusted at a high

temperature (400C -700C) in a muffle
furnace.
Atmospheric oxygen serve as oxidant, that is
organic matter is burned off leaving the
inorganic residue, that is soluble in acid.

Example
Hydrochloric acid, nitric acid or aqua regia (3:1)
dissolve many inorganic substances.
HF acid decompose silicates.
Perchloric acid is used to break up organic
complexes.
Chapter 4

48

TOTAL DISSOLUTION
Process whereby the entire sample
dissolve in a solvent

PARTIAL DISSOLUTION
Process whereby only the analyte
dissolve in a solvent
Chapter 4

49

Wet digestion methods

Usually use
the
combination of
acid

Performed in
kjedahl flask

Boiled of the
acids, white
fumes evolve

Eg, sulphuric
acid and nitric
acid
Chapter 4

50

1. Wet Digestion
Priciple of wet digestion (wet ashing)
Usually use combination of acids to achieve a
complete dissolution.
A small amount (5 mL) of H2SO4 is used with
larger volumes of HNO3 (20 to 30 mL).
Usually performed in a Kjeldahl flask.
HNO3 destroys the bulk of organic matter,
but it does not get strong enough to destroy
the last traces.
.

Chapter 4

51

cont

It is boiled off during the digestion process

until only H2SO4 remains and dense, white SO3
fumes are evolved and begin to reflux in the
flask.
At this point, the solution gets very hot, H2SO4
acts on the remaining organic material.
If the organic matter persists, more HNO3
may added.
Digestion is continued until the solution clears.
All digestion procedures must be performed in a
fume hood.
Chapter 4

52

Performed at high
temperature

Process of dry
ashing
(dry method)

Atmospheric O2
serves as oxidant

Organic matter burnt off,

leaving inorganic residue

Chapter 4

53

2. Simple Dry Ashing

Most commonly employed techniques is simple dry
ashing whereby there is no chemical aids involved.
A porcelain crucible can be used usually.
Trace analysis of Pb, Zn, Co, Cr, Mo, Sr, Fe used the
simple dry ashing method since there is little loss
by retention and volatilization during analysis.

Example:
lead is volatilized at temperature more than 500c,
especially if chlorine if present (blood and urine
samples). The crucible are preferred for lead for
minimal retention losses. If an oxidizing material
(Mg (NO3)2 is added to sample, the ashing
efficiency is enhanced.
Chapter 4

54

2. Dry Ashing

If the sample are liquids and wet tissues

a. The sample are dried on a stream bath
or by gentle heat before they are
placed in a muffle furnace.
b. The heat from the furnace should be
applied gradually up to full
Temperature to prevent rapid
combustion and foaming.

Chapter 4

55

2. Dry Ashing
Performed by weighed sample in crucible,
heated in muffle furnace then the residue is
dissolve in suitable acid (1-2 mL of hot
concentrated or 6 M HCl).
Typical ashing temperatures are 450-550C.
Magnesium nitrate is commonly used as an
ashing aid.
Charring the sample prior to muffling is
preferred. Charring is accomplished using an
open flame.
Further reading page 55 (G.D Christian).
Chapter 4

56

2. Dry Ashing
Care must be taken to ensure that non of
the volatile elements (Hg, Arsenic) from
escaping during ashing.
Dry ashing often used to remove organic
substances from interfering with the
analyte.

Further reading page 55 (G.D Christian).

Chapter 4

57

ADVANTAGES
AND
DISADVANTAGES
WET DIGESTION
DRY ASHING
Chapter 4

58

WET DIGESTION
ADVANTAGES
Superior in term of
rapidity
Freedom from loss by
retention
Low level of
temperature maintained

DISADVANTAGE
Introduction of
impurities from the
reagent necessary
for the reaction

Chapter 4

59

DRY ASHING
ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGE

The ability to decompose

large sample sizes.
Free from contaminations
since little or no reagents is
required.
The technique is
relatively safe and simple
(simplicity)
The ability to prepare
samples containing volatile
combustion elements such as
sulfur, fluorine and chlorine
(the Schniger oxygen flask
combustion technique is very
popular in this case).
The technique lends itself
to mass production.

Losses due to retention to the

ashing container.
Losses due to volatilization.
Contamination from the ashing
container.
Contamination from the muffle
furnace.
Physical loss of 'low density ashes
when the muffle door is opened (air
currents).
Difficulty in dissolving certain
metal oxides.
Formation of toxic gases in poorly
ventilated areas. (Note that all
charring should take place in a hood
and the muffle furnace must have a
hood canopy for proper ventilation).
Chapter 4

60

Other Technique
Microwave
In some cases the dissolution of sample can
be done by using microwave oven to
accelerate the dissolution process (at
microwaves T=100 250oC).
The sample is sealed in specially designed
microwave digestion vessel with a mixture
of appropriate acids.

Further reading page 57 (G.D Christian).

Chapter 4

61

Other Technique
Microwave
Microwave ovens can be used for rapid
and efficient drying and acid
decomposition of samples.
Advantages of microwave digestions
include reduction in times from hours to
minutes and low blank levels due to
reduced amounts of reagents required.

Further reading page 57 (G.D Christian).

Chapter 4

62

Other Technique
Fusion
A weighed sample is mixed with a flux
(sodium peroxide) in a metal (zirconium) or
graphite crucible. The mixture is heated
over a flame, or in furnace and the resulting
fused material is leached with either water
or appropriate acid (dilute mineral acid) or
alkali.
These techniques are required for sample
types that are inorganic in nature and
unreactive toward acid decomposition.

Chapter 4

63

Fusions are considered to be more of a

last resort' by trace analysts because
They are expensive and often not available
(high purity fluxes).
2. They yield high solids solutions that can
salt out in the nebulizer.
3. Large dilutions of the sample are a
necessity.
4. They often require expensive equipment.
1.

Chapter 4

64

Fusions are considered to be more of a

last resort' by trace analysts because
Spectral interferences from the flux
and/or crucible construction material must
be considered.
6. Contamination of the sample with the
crucible construction element and
impurities must be considered
7. They are labor intensive.
5.

Chapter 4

65

Eliminating Interferences
Interferences are substances that prevent
direct measurement of the analyte and must
be removed.
ANALYTES - are
May included separation steps:
components of a
precipitation
sample that are to
chromatography
be determined.
distillation
dialysis
extraction into an immiscible solvent

Chapter 4

66

Standard Solution
Definition
Standard solutions are solution whose
concentrations are known to a high degree
of accuracy.
Characteristics:
i) Maintain its concentration over a long
period of time (months or years) after
preparation. This eliminates the need for
restandardization.
ii) Must be able to undergo rapidly,
stoichiometric, and complete reaction with
the analyte.
Chapter 4

67

Standardization

A process to determine the concentration of

solution (impure titrant) by titrating with
primary standard solution or with a solution of
known concentration.

Mtitrant = mass (g)primary std

RMM primary std (g/mol)

1
volume (L)titrant

b (mol titrant)
a (mol primary std)

Chapter 4

68

An approximate solution of 0.100 M HCl was prepared by

diluting the HCl stock solution. It was then standardized by
titrating with 0.1905 g primary standard, Na2CO3. The
titration reaction is follow:

CO32- + 2H+ H2O + CO2

The titration requires 36.10 mL of HCl. Calculate the

molarity of HCl. Molar mass for Na2CO3 is 105.99 g/mol.
Answer:

2 mol HCl = 1 mol Na2CO3

Convert volume titrant (HCl) in mL to L
36.10 mL x 1 l
1000 mL
MHCl = 0.1905 g
x
1
x
2 mol HCl
105.99 g/mol
0.036 L
1 mol Na2CO3
= 0.09985 M
Chapter 4

69

Standard Solution

Standard Solution
How to prepare 1L 0.77M of NaCl?

Calculate amount of NaCl needed to prepare the

standard solution.
Weighed accurately mass of NaCl needed in a weighing
boat using an analytical balance and transfer to the
beaker.
Add distilled water and stir using glass rod to dissolve
the solute.
Transfer the solution from beaker into the volumetric
flask using filter funnel.
Add distilled water into the volumetric flask until the
solution level near the calibration mark.
Use a dropper to carefully add the water until the
meniscus is exactly on the calibration mark.
Homogenize the solution by shaking the volumetric flask
for 20 seconds.

Commercial Standard
1. Technical or commercial grade. Not use in
analytical work, but cleaning solution.

2. USP (United States Pharmacopoeia) grade.

The specifications are designed to limit
impurities that are physiological hazards
3. Reagent grade. Minimum specifications of
the Reagent Chemical Committee of the
American Chemical Society.
4. Primary standard grade/Reference
standards.
5. Special purpose reagents. Spectroscopic,
chromatographic etc.

Standard Solution
A standard solution can be prepared in
either of two ways:
1.

A primary standard is carefully weighed, dissolved,

and diluted accurately to a known volume. Its
concentration can be calculated from this data.

2. A solution is made to an approximate concentration

and then standardized by titrating an accurately
weighed quantity of a primary standard.

Types of standard solutions:

i) Primary standard
ii) Secondary standard

Chapter 4

73

Primary Standard
Definition
A compound of highest purity and it is used to determine,
directly or indirectly, the concentration of the standard
solution for a titration.
Ideal primary standards for volumetric titration should have the
following characteristics:
i.
ii.

iii.
iv.
v.

vi.

Highest purity, up to 99.99% (0.01 to 0.02% impurity).

Stability, the substance should stable at room conditions or
during heating and does not react with constituents of the
atmosphere.
Free from hydrated water and should be non-hygroscopic.
Soluble in titration medium.
High formula weight to minimize weighing errors.
Easily available at reasonable cost
Chapter 4

74

Primary Standard
The number of primary standards available is very limited for example
oxalic acid (H2C2O4.2H2O), sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium
carbonate (CaCO3), sodium chloride and arsenic trioxide.
Others:
1) potassium hydrogen phthalate
2) potassium dihydrogen phosphate
3) potassium hydrogen tartarate,
4) Sodium carbonate
5) Sodium oxalate
6) Benzoic acid
7) Potassium dichromate

Chapter 4

75

APR 2008

Why HCl or NaOH can not be the primary standard?

A primary standard should essentially available in pure form ,

stable towards light and heat and react in a stoichiometric
proportion.
HCl is a gas which is dissolved in water to form the solution.
The concentration expressed is very approximate so its not a
primary standard.
The exact concentration of any hydrochloric acid solution is not
known, unless it is prepared from standard ampoules. Laboratory
grade hydrochloric acid is not sufficiently pure

Ampoule is small sealed vial which is used to contain and preserve a

sample, usually a solid or liquid. Ampoules are commonly
made of glass, although plastic ampoules do exist.

NaOH cannot be weighed in open air because it is

highly hygroscopic.
Chapter 4

76

Secondary Standard
A less pure substance whose composition is
reliably known.
The purity or the concentration of a
secondary standard must be established by
careful stoichiometric analysis, usually
against a primary standard.

Examples: HCl, HNO3, NaOH, KMnO4,

AgNO3, KOH, Ba(OH)2 ,HClO4,Sulfamic Acid
(HSO3NH2), Na2S2O3,Ce(HSO4)4 ,H2SO4, and
NH3(g)
Chapter 4

77

Stock Solution

Is a large volume of common reagent, such as HCl or NaOH

at a standardized concentration.

As a concentrate that is a solution to be diluted to some

lower concentration for actual use.

This term is commonly used in analytical chemistry for

titration procedures where it is important that exact
concentrations of solutions are used.

Many laboratory chemicals such as acids are purchased as

concentrated solution (stock solution). Eg : 12 M HCl, 18 M
H2SO4

More dilute solutions are prepared by taking certain quantity

of the stock solution and diluting it with water
Chapter 4

78

Dilution
Dilution

a process of changing the concentration of a

solution from high to low.
Involves distributing a fixed amount of solute into a
larger volume of solvent. Amount of solute remain the
same (n1 = n2) during the process.
Volume changes from (V1 to V2).
Addition of solvent do not change amount of solute in
the solution but only change the Molarity of the
solution.
Formula of dilution is

M1V1 = M2V2

1 indicate as initial while 2 indicated as new or final.

Advantages of stock solution

Can save a lot of time
Converse material
Reduce needed storage space
Improve accuracy with which we prepare
solutions and reagents

Chapter 4

80