David Thomson

200915903
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
CL422 Transport Planning
Coursework 1
Words = 1870

1 Introduction
In recent years there has been a massive increase in car travel by the
population. This has been measured to be an increase of 40% in passenger
kilometres over a decade whilst the population only increased by 3.4%
(Marshall et al, 1997). The effects of this are numerous (Turton & Knowles,
1992) but most importantly air pollution from this increase in car use has
serious detrimental effects on the population. In Glasgow the main pollutants
are Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Particulate Matter (PM10). NO2 is a by-product
of combustion and therefore road transport is the main source. With more
than 120,000 cars using the Kingston Bridge in Glasgow NO 2 is a large
problem. NO2 causes inflammation of the airways and long term exposure can
affect lung function and respiratory symptoms (DEFRA, 2007). PM 10 equates
to the mass of particles less than 10micrometers in diameter. PM 10 is made up
of various materials from numerous sources. Main sources are from road
transport via combustion but also from tyre and brake wear. Exposure to PM
is associated with cardiovascular illness and mortality (DEFRA, 2007). Due to
effects such as these it is very important that the use of cars is reduced in the
Glasgow area.
2 Policy Measures
2.1 Car pooling
Car pooling is where multiple people use the car for trips where before each
individual would have travelled individually. Car pooling can be done
informally with work colleagues or can be implemented by a company. Along
with car pool lanes and parking for car pooling this could reduce the overall
car usage in an urban environment. A study in Tehran, Iran showed that
carpooling would decrease vehicle trips per day by about 780000 and reduce
annual fuel consumption by 336.53 million litres (Seyedabrishami et al, 2012).
2.2 Car sharing
Car sharing is a good way of reducing car usage. This is due to individuals
have access to a car but they do not own it. This reduces the car usage as
there is a more selective use. It can be done informally with it being as easy
as sharing a car with relatives or friends. Although it is also possible to join a
car sharing program run by a company. A study in Rome, Italy showed that
PM and NOx emission would dropped by 49% and 46% respectively with the
introduction of car sharing initiatives (Musso et al, 2012).
2.3 Media campaign
Media campaigns can help reduce car usage in collaboration with other
initiatives. Bike to work week is an annual initiative that promotes the idea of
commuting by bicycle. It is run during the month of June which is hoped that it
will give the best weather and therefore not deter people from joining in due to
bad weather. It was claimed that Bike Week encouraged over half a million
people to join in events, rethink their everyday journeys and switch to cycling
as the most convenient way to get around (Bike Week, n.d). Along with this
British Cycling run media campaigns all year round into road safety.

2.4 Discussion
Car pooling has been a well used policy in this country in the past when less
people were able to afford to travel separately. This has decreased in recent
years as commuters have been able to afford their own car and therefore use
it as it gives them more freedom and independence.
Members of car sharing clubs are very unlikely to use the car during
commuting and short trips. This is good as it reduces the number of cars in
peak times and also short trips also produce higher emissions per mile than
longer trips.
Cycling as a transport is realistic mode switch for a large portion of then
population. It would decrease car usage and therefore emissions in the
Glasgow area. However it has not been seen in this country as a viable
transport mode. In a survey reasons given for not cycling were danger
(given by 44% of respondents), hills and weather (24%), distances too
great (23%), and cycling does not appeal (20%) (Mintal, 1989).
3 Infrastructure Interventions
3.1 Cycling
The provision of infrastructure to promote cycling as a transport mode is a
beneficial investment. It has been estimated that it the benefits of cycling
infrastructure is 5 times greater than the cost and that it is more beneficial
than investments in vehicle infrastructure (Slensminde, 2004). These traffic
schemes such as bike lanes segregating bikes from other transport will
remove some of the danger that people feel towards cycling as a transport
mode. Also giving bikes priority at junctions will allow cyclist to flow through
traffic more easily and therefore give cycling more appeal.
3.2 HOV lanes
High occupancy vehicle lanes can be used in conjunction with a car pooling
policy and media campaign or as a bus lane to promote travel by bus. It
allows individuals who are partaking in car pooling or using the bus as their
transport mode to travel in lanes which should allow them to travel to their
destination faster. However it has been reported that the provision of HOV
lanes will not eliminate congestion (Dahlgren, 1997)
3.3 Park and Ride
Park and ride is an initiative that reduces the travel into the urban centre by
car. Car drivers can park their cars on the outskirts of the city for free or for a
small charge and then transfer to another transport mode (bus, train, subway,
and tram) for the remainder of the journey. There is a large number of informal
park and ride where as car drivers park in residential areas before getting a
train or subway. This can cause conflict with residents (Cairns, 1998) but if it
was to be made formal and charged for then there would only be a movement
of the problem to another area.

3.4 Parking capacity and cost

The reduction of parking spaces available in the city centre in conjunction with
rises in the cost of parking in the city centre. Residents in the city centre
would be given the offer to purchase parking permits which would give them a
greater priority parking. This would reduce the amount of individuals driving
into the city centre as it would be harder to find a parking space and also the
coast could become too great for most to afford it. Some companies offer a
parking subsidy which helps cover the cost to park in the city centre. In a
study in America it was shown that if the workers were offered a cash option
instead of a parking subsidy then the percentage that carpooled increased by
64% and the number that walked or cycled to work was increased by 39%
(Shoup, 1997).
3.5 Area control
By stopping cars from entering certain areas then it is hoped that the number
of cars in the city centre would be reduced. These areas can still be open to
buses and cycles which then increases the appeal of public transport and
cycling as it is easier to get around the city with these modes of transport.
3.6 Discussion
Although there is a many reasons against cycling given by non-cyclists are
danger and weather (Mintal, 1989). However with increased infrastructure for
cycling the danger felt towards cycling could be reduced. It has also been
stated that cyclists would be happy to cycle up to 10% increase in journey
distance so as to use safe infrastructure (Hudson, 1983). With weather the
most that could be done is that companies are encouraged to help provide
facilities for cyclists so that the effects of bad weather can be minimised.
These would include good shower and changing facilities, safe and covered
area to store bicycles while at work and drying rooms so that employees can
dry kit while at work so as not to be forced to wear wet clothes on their return
journey.
Although there has been many cases where park and ride has worked well
there is also areas where it has not worked out well. A study claimed that
travel could have increased rather than reduced due to park and ride
(Parkhurst, 1995). This would be due to individuals who previously used a
different mode of transport have switched to using there cars to drive to the
park and ride area which has increased the number of cars on the road. It was
also possible that individuals who previously used a different transport mode
would switch to the car as there was less cars on the road after the park and
ride due to the transport switch to park and ride.
It has been claimed in a study that between 8% and 74% of traffic in city
centres in cruising for parking (Shoup, 2006). This is most likely to be at the
highest during early morning commuting and this will highly increase
emissions in the city centre. The move away from parking in the city centre
would massively reduce the congestion. It could also be claimed that an
increase of parking capacity in the city centre could alleviate this cruising
however this would most likely cause an increase in car usage.

4. Concussions
In conclusion I would propose that cycling and car pooling are the best ways
on how to reduce the car usage in the city centre.
Car pooling is the only car based policy that has shown to give good high
results. Company helped car pooling would be advantageous and a good
media campaign to show the advantages (cost and less congestion) of car
pooling as compared to travelling individually. If companies also could be
encouraged to offer incentives to car pool so that employees would be more
receptive to the idea. Along with this the amount of car parking available could
be reduced so as to encourage car pooling although more would need to be
looked into so as not to increase cruising for parking in the city centre which is
a major factor in congestion and emissions in the city centre. The possibility of
car pool lanes is a possibility although it could backfire and cause more
congestion on the roads especially leaving the city as it could back congestion
on the motorway into the city.
The promotion of cycling as a transport mode would heavily reduce the car
usage in the city centre. A major increase in infrastructure for cycling would be
required so as to reduce the danger (real and mental) to cyclists during their
commute. This would most likely be the introduction of segregated cycle
lanes, preferably with concrete separating them from the traffic as this would
make them feel safe but also would reduce aggression from motorists as they
would not be on the same portion of road. This would be a large influence for
individuals especially those who do not usually do regular exercise. This
would also mean that cyclists would be able to cycle without fear or being
injured due to a crash with a vehicle or pedestrian. A media campaign to show
the investment in infrastructure so as to encourage individuals who were
previously against cycling due to safety reasons. Cooperation with companies
to provide facilities so as to make it easier for employees to commute by
bicycle would be advantageous.
5. References
Bike Week (n.d) http://www.bikeweek.org.uk/page.php?id=68 [Accessed
09/11/12]
Cairns, M (1998). The Development of Park and Ride in Scotland. Journal of
Transport Geography, Volume 6, Issue 4, December 1998, p. 295-307
Dahlgren, J, (1997). High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes: Not Always more
effective than general purpose lanes. Transportation Research Part A: Policy
and Practice, Volume 32, Issue 2, February 1998, p. 99-114
Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (2007). The Air Quality
Strategy for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (Volume 1),
London: HSMO, p. 16-17
Hudson, M. (1983). Cycling as a means of transport. In: C. Bannister and D.
Groome N. C. Unwin Public Health Benefits of Cycling 46 (eds), Planning for
Cycling in the 1980s, Occasional Paper Number 10. Manchester: Department
of Town and Country Planning, University of Manchester.

Marshall, S, Banister, D and McLellan, A (1997). A strategic assessment of

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Mintel (1989). Bicycles. London: Mintel International Group. Quoted in: British
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Musso, A, Corazza M, V and Tozzi, M (2012). Car Sharing in Rome: a Case
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Shoup, D, C, (2006) Cruising for parking. Transport Policy, Volume 13, Issue
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