Energy and Environment

Question of the Day

What are the major pollutants from
conventional energy production and use?

Lecture 2.1

Topics of the Day

Pollutant and Environmental Effects

Emission Sources
Global Warming
CO2 Sequestration

Lecture 2.2

Pollutants and Environmental Effects

Power Plants (Coal and Oil )
Carbon Dioxide: Global Warming
Nitrogen Oxides: Smog
Particulate or Dust: Smog, Causes lung cancer and other lung ailments
Mobile Sources
Carbon Dioxide: Global Warming
Nitrogen Oxides: Smog
Particulate Matter: Smog, Causes lung cancer and other lung ailments
Carbon Monoxide: poisonous gas
Hydrocarbons: Smog
Nuclear Power Plants
Radioactive Waste (liquid or solid): Difficult to dispose of
Radiation Leaks (air): Radiation poisoning and increased risk of cancer
Heat Emissions (water): Causes growth of algae and kills marine life
Lecture 2.3

EPA Air Quality Standards

The EPA has set national air quality standards for six
common air pollutants. These include:
carbon monoxide,
lead,
nitrogen dioxide,
ozone,
particulate matter, and
sulfur dioxide.
Lecture 2.4

CO Emission Sources

Lecture 2.5

(EPA)

Lead Emission Sources

Lecture 2.6

(EPA)

NOx Emission Sources

(EPA)

Lecture 2.7

VOCs Emission Sources

Lecture 2.8

(EPA)

PM Emission Sources

Lecture 2.9

(EPA)

Sulfur Dioxide Emission Sources

Lecture 2.10

(EPA)

U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emission Sources

Total Emissions in 2011 = 6,702 Million Metric Tons of CO2 equivalent

(Source: Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2011)

Lecture 2.11

CO2 Emissions in the World

2008 Global CO2 Emissions

Lecture 2.12

(EIA World Energy Outlook, 2011)

World CO2 Emissions by Fuel Type

Lecture 2.13

Source: (EIA World Energy Outlook, 2011)

Why are We Concerned About CO2?

Global Warming

(http://jcwinnie.biz/wordpress/?p=2103)

Lecture 2.14

Global Warming

Global mean surface temperatures change from 1901 to 2000 as 0.57

0.17 C. All 14 years to date in the 21st century (2001 to 2014) rank
among the 15 warmest in the 135-year period of record (keeping). 2014
was the warmest year on record, 0.68 C above average.
Note: The zero on this
figure is the mean
temperature from
1951-1980
Source: NASA

Lecture 2.15

Global Warming

2014 was the warmest year on record, 0.68 C above average.

Lecture 2.15

Source: NASA

CO2 - Global Warming

398.78 ppm
December, 2014
396.81 ppm
December, 2013
394.39 ppm
December, 2012
391.83 ppm
December, 2011

Lecture 2.17

http://scottthong.wordpress.com/

CO2 - Global Warming?

interglacial period

Lecture 2.18

Effects of Global Warming

The snow cover in the Northern Hemisphere and floating ice in the
Arctic Ocean have decreased.

Global sea levels have risen about 8 inches since 1870.

Influence the patterns and amounts of precipitation.

Arctic sea ice 1979

Arctic sea ice 2003

Arctic sea ice 2012

Lecture
geology.com
2.19

What Are Greenhouse Gases

Carbon dioxide is released when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural
gas and coal), and wood and wood products are burned (increased
nearly 30%).

Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural

gas and oil. Methane emissions also result from the decomposition of
organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills, and the raising of
livestock (more than doubled).

Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as

well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels (increased
about 15%).

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and sulfur

hexafluoride (SF6) are generated in a variety of industrial processes.

Lecture 2.20

What Are Greenhouse Gases

Source: IPCC 4th Assessment Report: Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report
Lecture 2.21

World Greenhouse Gas Emission

Lecture 2.22

MMTCE
MMTCE - Million Metric Tons of Carbon Equivalent
To calculate MMTCE, multiply the weight of the gas times it's global
warming potential, times 12/44.
MMTCE = (Tg of gas) x (GWP) x (12/44)
One teragram (Tg) equals a million metric tons.
Global warming potential (GWP) is a measure of how much a given
mass of greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to global warming.
It is a relative scale which compares the gas in question to that of the
same mass of carbon dioxide (whose GWP is by definition 1).
For example: Methane (CH4): 21; Nitrous oxide (N2O): 310; HFC-23:
11,700; SF6: 23,900

Lecture 2.23

Greenhouse Gases
Gas

1978

2005

% increase

Carbon dioxide

CO2

337 ppm

375 ppm

11.3%

Methane

CH4

1.54 ppm

1.85 ppm

20 %

Nitrous oxide

N 2O

302 ppb

319 ppb

5.6%

Chloroflurocarbons CF4

40 ppt

80 ppt

50 %

Sulfur hexaflourides SF6

0 ppt

5.21 ppt

521 %

Lecture 2.24

What is the Potential Risks?

The average global surface temperature could rise 1-4.5F
(0.6-2.5C) in the next fifty years, and 2.2-10F (1.4-5.8C)
in the next century, with significant regional variation.
Sea level is likely to rise two feet along most of the U.S.
coast.

(Source: NRC 2010)

Lecture 2.25

What is the Potential Risks?

Evaporation will increase as the climate warms, which will
increase average global precipitation. Soil moisture is
likely to decline in many regions, and intense rainstorms
are likely to become more frequent.
Changing regional climate could alter forests, crop yields
and water supplies. It could also affect human health,
animals and many types of ecosystems.
Deserts may expand into existing rangelands, and features
of some of our National Parks may be permanently altered.

Lecture 2.26

Solutions
There are many ways to reduce CO2 emissions:
Increase the energy efficiency by switching from coal to
natural gas for power plants, switching gasoline to diesel
for vehicles and using hybrid cars.
These steps alone will not achieve the required reductions
in CO2 emissions. The capture and storage of CO2 from
fossil fuel combustion could play an important part in
solving this problem.
Widespread use of this technique could be achieved
without the need for rapid change in the energy supply
infrastructure.
Lecture 2.27

U.S. 2008 CO2 Emissions

Source: Energy Information administration, 2008

Lecture 2.28

Methods to Capture CO2

Solvent scrubbing systems. These are well established
and are usually based on use of amines (often
monoethanolamine - MEA) for removing CO2 from
exhaust gases.
Cryogenics. CO2 can be separated from other gaseous
compounds through cooling and condensation.
Membranes. These can be used to separate gases by
exploiting differences in physical or chemical
interactions between gases and the membrane material.
Adsorption. Some solids can be used to separate CO2
from gas mixtures. These include certain zeolites and
activated carbon.
Lecture 2.29

Solvent Scrubbing System

Typically, prior to the CO2 removal stage, the flue gas is
cooled, treated to reduce the levels of particulates and other
impurities present, then passed into an absorption tower
where it is brought into contact with the absorption solution.
The amine solvent selectively absorbs the CO2 by chemically
reacting with it to form a loosely bound compound. The CO2rich absorbent is then pumped into a desorber (stripper tower)
where the pressure is reduced and/or the temperature
increased to roughly 120oC in order to release the CO2. As
the released CO2 is compressed, the regenerated absorbent is
recycled to the stripper in a fully continuous process.
Lecture 2.30

Solvent Scrubbing System

Lecture 2.31

What is the status of CO2 capture?

CO2 is already being captured in the oil and gas and
chemical industries. Indeed several plants capture CO2
from power station flue gases for use in the food
industry. However, only a fraction of the CO2 in the
flue gas stream is captured.
To reduce emissions from a typical power plant by
75%, the equipment would need to be 10 times larger.

Lecture 2.32

Cost of CO2 capture

It would add at least 1.5 US cents/kWh to the cost of
electricity generation in the power plant.
The generating efficiency would be reduced by 10 to 15
percentage points (e.g., from 55% to 45%) based on
current technology.
The cost of avoiding CO2 emissions is U.S. $40-60 per
tonne of CO2 (depending on the type of plant and where
the CO2 is stored), which is comparable to other means
of achieving large reductions in emissions.
It is expected that wide-spread application of this
technology would result in developments leading to a
considerable improvement in its performance.
Lecture 2.33

What is the status of CO2 storage?

Underground storage of CO2 has taken place for many
years as a consequence of injecting CO2 into oil fields to
enhance recovery.
Major reservoirs, suitable for storage, have been identified
under the earth's surface and in the oceans. Work to
develop many of these options is in progress.
CO2 needs to be stored securely for hundreds or even
thousands of years, in order to avoid it reaching the
atmosphere.
Sequestration refers only to the terrestrial storage of CO2.

Lecture 2.34

Storage Options for CO2

Lecture 2.35

International Energy Agency (IEA)

What is the status of CO2 storage?

CO2 is being deliberately stored in a salt water reservoir
under the North Sea for climate change reasons for the
first time.
The potential capacity for underground storage is large
but not well documented. Other geological storage
schemes are under development and plans to monitor
them are well advanced.
The deep ocean could be used to store large quantities of
CO2. This is considered a longer-term option and will
require a much greater understanding of the various
processes involved before it can be used.
Lecture 2.36

Priority of CO2 capture and storage

The main priority for the development of CO2 capture
technology is to reduce its cost. The ultimate goal is to
develop sequestration technologies that cost $10 or
less per ton of carbon sequestered, equivalent to
adding only 0.2 cents per kWh.
For CO2 storage the priority is to establish its
credibility and acceptability as a safe, reliable, longterm storage. Proof that any losses will be
insignificant is a major issue for storage. The fact that
CO2 has been naturally stored for geological timescales enhances the credibility of many of the storage
options.
Lecture 2.37