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UNIT F

SECTION 4.1 DESCRIBING MOTION


Speed: the rate at which an object moves, distance divided by time
Velocity: speed and direction
Acceleration: the rate at which an objects velocity changes (m/s2)
o Can be a change in either speed or direction
o Acceleration of Gravity (g): 9.8m/s2
Momentum and Force
Momentum: product of an objects mass and velocity
Force: anything that causes a change in momentum
Net force: the combined effect of all the individual forces acting on an object
o Can be 0 when forces cancel each other out, change in momentum occurs if net
force is not 0
Moving in Circles
Angular momentum: momentum attributable to rotation or revolution, (m x v x r)
Torque: twisting force that can cause a change in angular momentum
Mass
Mass: amount of matter in an object
Weight: net force that an object applies to its surroundings (depends on forces including
gravity)
Free-fall: falling without any resistance to slow you down
In space, astronauts are in a constant state of free-fall when orbiting the Earth
SECTION 4.2 NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION
Aristotle said the heavens were separate from Earth, so the laws of physics didnt apply
to heavenly motion
Galileo showed that Aristotle was wrong
1: An object moves at constant velocity if there is no net force acting upon it
2: Force = mass x acceleration
3: For any force, there is always an equal and opposite reaction force
o You would fall down on the ground if this law were not true
o Objects always attract each other through gravity
A person and the Earth exert identical force, but Earth has more mass, so
person has much greater acceleration, meaning they fall towards Earth, not
other way around
o Also explains how rocket is propelled into space
SECTION 4.3 CONSERVATION LAWS IN ASTRONOMY
Conservation of momentum: the total momentum of interacting objects cannot change as
long as no external force is acting on them
Conservation of Angular Momentum: as long as there is no external torque, the total
angular momentum of a set of interacting objects cannot change

o Angular momentum can only change by transferring some angular momentum to


or from another object

o Orbital Angular Momentum:


Earth doesnt need fuel to stay in orbit
Because r is smaller when Earth is closer to Sun, velocity is greater
o Rotational Angular Momentum:
Earth continues to rotate on its axis because it doesnt transfer any angular
momentum to other objects
Conservation of Energy: energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only change from
one form to another
Basic Types of Energy
o Kinetic: energy of motion, 1/2 mv2
o Radiative: energy carried by light
o Potential: stored energy, can be later converted into kinetic or radiative
o Standard unit is a joule
Thermal Energy
o Subcategory of kinetic energy
o Collective kinetic energy, as measured by temperature, of many individual
particles moving within a substance
o Temperature: average kinetic energy of the particles
Potential Energy in Astronomy
o Gravitational Potential Energy: energy an object has due to its position in a
gravitational field, is greater when there is a greater distance to potentially fall
o Mass-energy: potential energy of mass, E=mc2

SECTION 4.4 THE UNIVERSAL LAW OF GRAVITATION


Every mass attracts every other mass through the force of gravity
The strength of the gravitational force attracting and 2 objects is directly proportional to
the product of their masses
Strength of gravity b/w 2 objects decreases with the square of the distance b/w their
centers (an inverse square law)
Fg = G(M1M2/d2)
o Fg is force of gravitational attraction, M are masses, d is distance b/w the 2 centers
o G is gravitational constant, 6.67 x 10-11 m3/(kg x s2)
Newton showed Keplers laws are consequences of the laws of motion
Newton also expanded Keplers laws
o Orbits of a satellite around Earth, moon around a planet, or asteroid around the
Sun all on elliptical orbits
o Ellipse is only possible shape for a bound orbit (circling continuously), but other
shapes possible for unbound orbits (paths that bring an object close just once)
o The 2 objects actually orbit each other around their common center of mass
Newton refined Keplers 3rd law to work for any units

o P2 = 42______ a3
G(M1 + M2)

SECTION 4.5 ORBITS, TIDES, AND THE ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY


Orbits dont always stay the same
o Ex. Planet going around Sun
Has kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy, which depend on
orbital speed and distance from Sun, which both vary at different points
o Orbital energy: sum of kinetic and gravitational potential energy, always stays the
same
o Two objects can exchange orbital energy through a gravitational encounter, which
is when they pass near enough to feel the effects of the others gravity
Such as a planets gravity altering orbit of a comet
o Friction from a planets outer atmosphere can also cause an object to lose orbital
energy
o To leave Earths orbit, a satellite must have enough orbital energy to achieve
escape velocity (11km/s)
Newtons second law shows that because of gravity, objects will fall at the same rate,
regardless of mass

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