Avo Prim Attr

AVO Primary Attributes (AVO_PRIM_ATTR)
Abstract
Primary AVO attributes are estimated from prestack P-wave reflection angle gathers.
Prestack moveout-corrected P-wave data are input. The input data must be common angle
gathers. This process is robust in the presence of noisy data outliers (e.g., anomalous amplitudes).
Additional AVO quality control (QC) attributes can be generated consisting of the modeled AVO
and residual noise traces.
For incident angles up to 30 degrees, use the 2 term fitting options in this SFM, to estimate the
intercept and gradient or P-wave impedance contrast and Pseudo shear-impedance attributes.
For incident angles greater than 30 degrees, use the 3 term fitting option in this SFM, which
estimates P-wave AVO attributes from Common Angle Gathers, using Pan and Gardner's quadratic
approximation.
These primary quadratic AVO attributes may be converted to contrasts in elastic parameters, or
impedances.
NOTICE
Copyright protection as an unpublished work is claimed by WesternGeco. The work was
created in 2013. Should publication of the work occur, the following notice shall apply. "
2013 Westerngeco". This work contains valuable tradesecrets; disclosure without written
authorization is prohibited.
July 2013 - WesternGeco
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
AVO Primary Attributes
Contents
1.0
Technical Discussion
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Seismic Characteristics
1.3
Theoretical Background
1.3.1 Shueys Approximation
1.3.2 Gidlow Approximation
1.3.3 Pan and Gardner Approximation
1.3.4 Azimuthal AVO: Ruger Approximation
1.4
Operation Mode
1.4.1 SHUEY_2_TERM
1.4.2 GIDLOW
1.4.3 QUAD_3_TERM
1.4.4 RUGER
1.4.5 RUGER_HIGHER
1.5
Line Fitting Mode
1.6
QC Output Mode
1.7
Example Setups
2.0
References
3.0
Additional Reading
4.0
Inputs and Outputs
5.0
4.1
Inputs
4.2
Outputs
Literal Summary
5.1
Inputs
5.1.1 STANDARD_INPUT Port
5.2
Outputs
5.2.1 STANDARD_OUTPUT Port
6.0
Parameter Set Summary
AVO_PRIM_ATTR

7.0
Setup Parameters
7.1
Units
7.2
General
7.3
Shuey 2 Term
7.4
Gidlow
7.5
Quad 3 Term
7.6
Ruger
7.7
Ruger Higher
7.8
Standard Fit
7.9
Robust Fit Control
7.10 Ruger Axes

Attachment A
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
1.0 Technical Discussion

1.1 Introduction
The AVO Primary Attributes (AVO_PRIM_ATTR) Seismic Function Module (SFM) estimates
primary Amplitude Variation with Offset (AVO) attributes from common angle gathers using a
linear or quadratic fit. the linear fit is valid up to an incident angle of approximately 30 degrees.
If good quality data is available for larger angles then the quadratic fit may be used to extract
additional information.
For a linear fit, the primary attributes may be intercept and gradient of the line fitted to the reflection
2
coefficient vs sin ( ) (the 2term Shuey equation) or the P-wave and S-wave reflection coefficients
based on the 2term Smith and Gidlow equation. For the quadratic fit, the primary AVO attributes
are the three fitting parameters from the 3term Pan and Gardner equation. In either case the
parameter fitting may be done using conventional least-squares, or robust fitting may by used to
minimize the effects of spurious noise on the data.
The input common angle gathers have to be generated with the Decompose CIP/CMP Gathers
into Common Incidence Angle Traces for AVO (AVO_ANGLE_DECOMP) SFM, using the STACK
output port. The common angle gathers may be either sampled linearly in the sine of the incidence
angles, or even linearly in the squared sine.
The linear or quadratic primary attributes can be used to compute additional secondary attributes
using the Compute Secondary AVO Attributes from Primary Attributes (AVO_SECN_ATTR) SFM
as shown in Figure 1.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
Figure 1. Typical AVO flow generating primary and secondary AVO attributes
1.2 Seismic Characteristics

The bright spot methodology actually involves three different scenarios about the amplitude
variation with offset or incident angle.
1. The dim spot scenario, in which a large positive amplitude reduces to a smaller positive
amplitude with offset.
2. The phase reversal scenario, in which a small positive amplitude changes to a small negative
amplitude with offset.
3. The bright spot scenario, in which a negative amplitude increases to a larger negative amplitude
with offset.
The interpretation of bright spot reflections has been most successful for interpreting lithology
and making estimates of layer thickness. Interpretation of phase reversal reflections is extremely
difficult, for their tendency to disappear on a conventional stack. The dim spot method of
interpretation is normally associated with large acoustic impedances.
Several different attributes describe the amplitude variation with offset or incident angle. Most
straightforward is the parameterization of the amplitude variation with incident angle using (1)
the normal incidence P-wave reflection coefficient and (2) the gradient of a linear fit of amplitude
versus the squared sine of the incident angle. The normal incidence P-wave reflection coefficient,
in this case, is given by the intercept of the fitted line with the amplitude axis, hence this attribute
is usually called the intercept. See Figure 2.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
Figure 2. Linear fit of AVO curve of reflection amplitude versus the squared sine of the
incident angle.
For reflection angle less than 30 degrees, the amplitude of a P-wave reflected from a planar
2
interface between two elastic media varies linearly with sin ( ). In the linear fit, P is the intercept
and G is the gradient (or slope).
Alternatively, normal incidence reflection coefficients can be estimated for both wave types
(P-waves and S-waves).
Both quantities, either intercept and gradient, or P-wave and S-wave reflection coefficient, can
directly be estimated from common angle gathers. These gathers should contain at least 5 traces
to avoid erratic estimates of the gradient.
The normal incidence P-wave reflection coefficient is also lithologically useful, because it is based
on velocities and densities on opposite sides of a reflecting boundary, while the gradient of
amplitude versus squared sine of incident angle is not. A far better parameter is the sum of the
gradient and the normal incidence P-wave reflection coefficient, which is related to the Poissons
ratio on opposite sides of the reflector. It is convenient to refer to it as the Poissons reflectivity.
Poissons reflectivity is a secondary attribute, to be computed from intercept and gradient as
delivered by AVO_PRIM_ATTR using AVO_SECN_ATTR.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
Other secondary attributes are related to the product of intercept and gradient and can be
computed using AVO_SECN_ATTR.
1.3 Theoretical Background
Figure 3. Reflection coefficients (reflectivities) derived for the exact Zoeppritz equations
(blue) and the 3- and 2-term approximations of Pan-Gardner (red), Gidlow (green)
and Shuey (purple) .
Layer 1
Layer 2
Vp
2.50
3.00
Vs
1.60
1.45
Density
2.20
2.30
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
Vp:Vs ratio
1.56
2.07
Poisson's ratio
0.15
0.35
P-wave modulus
5.66
4.84
S-wave modulus
13.75
20.70
In Omega, there are three methods to approximate the Zoeppritz equations:

1. Shuey, for angles of 30 degrees or less.
2. Gidlow, for angles of 30 degrees or less.
3. Pan and Gardner, for 30 degrees or more.
1.3.1 Shueys Approximation

When SHUEY_2_TERM is selected, intercept and gradient primary attributes are computed using
a least-squares linear fit of amplitude versus squared sine of incidence angle.
Aki and Richards (1980) developed a three-term approximation involving density,
compressional-wave velocity and shear-wave velocity. This equation was later written in terms
of reflection coefficients by Shuey (1985), as shown in Equation 1.
(1)
where
= Average angle
at the reflector. For a slowly varying velocity field,
this is approximately equal to the incident angle.
= the incident angle
= the refracted angle
= Reflectivity of reflected P-waves as a function of angle of incidence
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Average of P-wave velocity (Vp) above and below the interface

Average of S-wave velocity (Vs) above and below the interface
Average of density above and below the interface
Difference in above and below the interface
Vp / Vs
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
Shuey then simplifies Equation 1 further, to just two terms (in Equation 2), by making the
assumptions that the Vp:Vs ratio be set equal to 2:1 and that angles of incidence in excess of
30 degrees can be discarded.
(2)
where
R pp (0)
R ss (0)
G
P
=
=
=
=
P-wave reflectivity at normal incidence

Shear wave reflectivity at normal incidence
Gradient
Intercept
This first AVO option,

is a linear approximation, which may, in theory, be used
to invert the amplitude information to provide rock elastic parameters. P and G can be extracted
from the data when the data is input in the form of common incident angle gathers per CMP
(created with AVO_ANGLE_DECOMP) using the STACK output port. AVO_PRIM_ATTR is then
run and outputs P (which is equal to Rp) and G as data samples setting the AVO_TRC_TYPE
trace header literal equal to 1 for P and setting the AVO_TRC_TYPE trace header literal equal
to 2 for G. The attributes P and G are known as the primary AVO attributes of the linear
approximation.
From the P and G primary attributes, secondary AVO attributes can be generated with
AVO_SECN_ATTR. P is lithologically useful because it is based on velocities and densities on
opposite sides of a reflecting boundary.
The sum of P and G, which is related to Poissons ratio, contains information from both sides of
a reflector. The secondary AVO attribute P + G is known as Poissons Reflectivity, and is generated
using AVO_SECN_ATTR.
1.3.2 Gidlow Approximation

When GIDLOW is selected, zero-offset P-wave and S-wave impedance contrasts are estimated
by a least-squares fit using Equation 3, following Gidlow, Smith, and Vail (1992).
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
(3)
where
= Angle of incidence at reflector. See Average angle
= Reflectivity of reflected P-waves as a function of angle of incidence
= The Gidlow acoustic impedance contrast, which is related to the normal
incidence P-wave reflectivity by the equation.
= The Gidlow shear impedance contrast, which can be related to the S-wave
reflectivity by the equation
= Vp / Vs
1.3.3 Pan and Gardner Approximation

As can be seen from Figure 3, when angles are greater than 30 degrees, the observed variation
of amplitude with incident angle is closer to a parabola. This case is catered for using the
approximation which consists of three separate terms in the form of a parabola, and was developed
by Pan and Gardner in 1987.
The Pan and Gardner (1987) re-parameterization of the Aki and Richards approximation is shown
in Equation 4.
(4)
where
= Average of the P-wave incidence and transmission angle above and below
the interface. See Average angle
= Reflectivity of reflected P-waves as a function of the average angle of
incidence and transmission above and below the interface
=
=
=
=
=
=
Average of P-wave velocity (Vp) above and below the interface

Average of S-wave velocity (Vs) above and below the interface
Average of density above and below the interface
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
10

= Difference in
= Difference in
= Vp / Vs

above and below the interface
above and below the interface
To get a band limited reflectivity for density combine b and c
For the P-wave velocity reflectivity combine all three parameters
The S-wave velocity reflectivity requires also the Vp/Vs ratio
Alternatively, the output traces can be combined to produce P-wave and S-wave reflectivities,
where parameter a already is the P-wave reflectivity, and the S-wave reflectivity finally is
.
A range of secondary quadratic AVO attributes with direct geophysical meaning, including the
above, can be obtained by using AVO_SECN_ATTR after AVO_PRIM_ATTR.
1.3.4 Azimuthal AVO: Ruger Approximation

In some situations amplitudes vary not only with offset but also with azimuth. This can happen
when vertical fracture systems are present. As a result both the P and S-waves velocities can
change with respect to the fracture strike and the rock is said to be azimuthally anisotropic. Thus
it is possible to extract information on fractures by performing an azimuthal and offset dependent
AVO inversion. Clearly, this method can only be applied to wide azimuth data.
Appropriate AVO expressions were developed by Ruger (1997,2000). This has two forms, which
we will refer to as normal and higher order. These can be selected using the RUGER and
RUGER_HIGHER options.
The normal form of Rugers approximation is similar to Shueys two term approximation but the
gradient term now changes with azimuth.
(5)
where
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
11

a
biso
bani
the zero-incidence reflectivity term

the azimuthally isotropic gradient term
the azimuthally anisotropic gradient term
= the azimuth from the maximum absolute AVO gradient (i.e., the maximum
absolute value of (bani + biso ))
The and are anisotropy parameters similar to those defined by Thomsen (1986) but for an
HTI anisotropic medium (see Ruger, 1997, for more details).
The biso and bani parameters define an ellipse whose major axis corresponds to the azimuth
, where the absolute value of ( biso+ bani) is maximum.
max
The higher order form of Rugers approximation is

(6)
where
ciso
c4ani
c2ani
the higher order isotropic term

higher order anisotropic term
higher order anisotropic term
The azimuth definition for RUGER_HIGHER is the same as for RUGER. It is measured from the
maximum AVO gradient given by biso and bani. The AVO curvature terms (ciso, c4ani, and c2ani) make
the azimuthal AVO surface more complex and larger amplitudes are possible at other azimuths,
particularly at large incidence angles, .
The
is another anisotropy parameter defined by Thomsen (see Ruger, 1997, for more details).
1.4 Operation Mode

Depending on the parameter options selected, the primary AVO attribute traces have different
AVO_TRACE_TYPE trace header literal values. A list of all AVO attributes is referred to in
Attachment A.
The Operation Mode determines the AVO primary attribute traces that are generated and used
by AVO_SECN_ATTR to create AVO secondary attribute traces.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
12
1.4.1 SHUEY_2_TERM
The SHUEY_2_TERM option uses Shueys two-term equation to produce P and G, where P is
the AVO intercept and G is the AVO gradient. See 1.3.1 Shueys Approximation.
In a run, when SHUEY_2_TERM is selected, these traces are output.
TRACE TYPE
AVO_TRC_TYPE
Intercept
Gradient
Standard Deviation of Intercept
101
Standard Deviation of Gradient
202
1.4.2 GIDLOW
The GIDLOW option uses the Gidlow et al.(1992) equation to produce
and
, where
relates to the P-wave impedance contrast or zero-offset reflectivity, see Equation 3, and
is
a scaled-version of the S-wave impedance contrast or zero-offset reflectivity. See 1.3.2 Gidlow
Approximation
In a run, when GIDLOW is selected, these traces are output.
TRACE TYPE
AVO_TRC_TYPE
Gidlow acoustic impedance contrast
10
Gidlow shear impedance contrast
21
Standard Deviation of Gidlow acoustic impedance

contrast
1010
Standard Deviation of Gidlow shear impedance contrast
2121
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
13
1.4.3 QUAD_3_TERM
The QUAD_3_TERM option uses the Pan and Gardner equation to produce the 3 quadratic terms
a, b and c. In a run, when QUAD_3_TERM is selected, these traces are output.
TRACE TYPE
AVO_TRC_TYPE
Pan-Gardner Constant term a
Pan-Gardner Linear term b
Pan-Gardner Quadratic term c
Standard Deviation of Pan-Gardner

Constant term a
404

Linear term b
505

Quadratic term c
606
1.4.4 RUGER
The RUGER option uses the Ruger equation to produce the 4 azimuthal terms a, biso , bani , and
max
. In a run, when RUGER is selected, these traces are output.
TRACE TYPE
DESCRIPTION
AVO_TRC_TYPE
Ruger Zero-incidence reflectivity term
31
biso
Ruger Azimuthally isotropic gradient term
32
bani
Ruger Azimuthally anisotropic gradient

term
33
Ruger Azimuth of Maximum AVO

Gradient term ( max )
37
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
14

Standard Deviation of Ruger
Zero-incidence reflectivity term
3131
sd_biso
Standard Deviation of Ruger Azimuthally

isotropic gradient term
3232
sd_bani

anisotropic gradient term
3333
Standard Deviation of Ruger Azimuth (

max)
3737
sd_a
sd_
1.4.5 RUGER_HIGHER
The RUGER_HIGHER option uses the Ruger high order equation to produce the azimuthal terms
a, biso , bani, ciso , c2ani, c4ani and max . In a run, when RUGER_HIGHER is selected, these traces
are output.
TRACE TYPE
AVO_TRC_TYPE
31
biso
32
bani

term
33
ciso
34
c2ani

term
35
c4ani

term
36
Ruger Azimuth of Maximum AVO

Gradient term ( max )
37
DESCRIPTION
sd_a
Standard Deviation of Ruger

Zero-incidence reflectivity term
3131
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
15
sd_biso

3232
sd_bani

3333
sd_ciso

3434
sd_c2ani

3535
sd_c4ani

3636

max)
3737
sd_
1.5 Line Fitting Mode

The AVO primary attributes (e.g., intercept and gradient) are obtained by linear regression, or
straight-line fit, of the amplitude versus sine-squared angle. Similarly, for three term fitting, a least
squares fit of the parabola is made. The LINE_FIT selection determines whether standard linear
fitting (STANDARD_FIT option) or robust linear fitting (ROBUST_FIT option) is employed.
The standard linear regression mode (STANDARD_FIT option) applies a least-squares fit to the
data. This is generally acceptable when the noise in the data is randomly distributed (Gaussian).
However, the standard least-squares fit is not robust in the presence of data outliers caused by
noise contamination from ground roll, multiples, etc.
The robust linear fitting (ROBUST_FIT option) follows the approach of Walden (1991) using
M-estimates (maximum-likelihood). The robust fitting is slower than the standard least-squares
fitting. The robust estimation method limits the damage done by outlying amplitudes.
NOTE that only the STANDARD_FIT option is available for the azimuthal Ruger options.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR will output zero values for each of the attributes at samples where there are
not enough points to fit a line or where the distribution of points does not allow an unambiguous
line to be defined. The following table shows the minimum number of live points required
METHOD
ORDER
Minimum number of points
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
16
STANDARD_FIT
2TERM
STANDARD_FIT
3TERM
ROBUST_FIT
2TERM
ROBUST_FIT
3TERM
STANDARD_FIT
RUGER
STANDARD_FIT
RUGER_HIGHER
The regression line is the line of best fit for the data and is a reasonably good model for a given
set of data. For 2 term fitting, to measure how well the regression line fits the data, the linear
correlation coefficient is used. This is a number between -1 and +1 that tells the strength of the
amplitude versus angle relationship. It takes on a value of +1 when the data lies on a perfect line
with positive gradient and -1 for a negative gradient. The value holds independent of the magnitude
of the AVO gradient. A linear correlation coefficient near zero indicates that there is no linear
correlation between the amplitudes and angles. Since Pearsons (linear) correlation coefficient
is greatly affected by the presence of outliers, a robust linear correlation coefficient is calculated
from the goodness-of-fit measure, based on the weighted sum of the residuals.
The standard linear regression mode (STANDARD_FIT option) applies a least-squares fit to the
data. This is acceptable when the noise in the data is randomly distributed (Gaussian). However,
the standard least-squares fit is not robust in the presence of data outliers caused by noise
contamination such as ground roll or multiples. In such circumstances, it is necessary to use the
robust estimation method which limits the damage done by outlying amplitudes.
The robust linear fitting (ROBUST_FIT option) follows the approach of Walden (1991) using
M-estimates (maximum-likelihood). The robust fitting is slower than the standard least-squares
fitting.
The LINE_FIT selection of ROBUST_FIT option is done in two steps. In the first step, an initial
fit is performed using medians following Waldens method. The data is divided into segments
with the same number of traces. The median angle and amplitude are calculated in each segment,
forming median points. A line or parabola is then fitted through the points to form the initial fit.
In the second step, a decision is made as to which amplitude values are considered as outliers.
Outliers are weighted down or eliminated from the following least-squares fit. The decision is
based on the distance from the data point to the initial fitted line.
For 3 term and Ruger fitting, the coefficient of determination is a statistic that is used to determine
how well a regression fits. It is similar to the linear correlation coefficient that is used when doing
a 2 term fit.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
17
The definition of the coefficient of determination statistic varies in the literature. The one used
here is equation 15.2.13 from Numerical Recipes.
METHOD
ORDER
TRACE TYPE
AVO_TRC_TYPE
STANDARD_FIT
2TERM
Standard Linear Correlation Coefficient
9004
STANDARD_FIT
3TERM
Standard Coefficient of Determination
9004
STANDARD_FIT
RUGER
Standard Coefficient of Determination
9004
STANDARD_FIT RUGER_HIGHER Standard Coefficient of Determination
9004
ROBUST_FIT
2TERM
Robust Linear Correlation Coefficient
9005
ROBUST_FIT
3TERM
Robust Coefficient of Determination
9005
The Z runs statistic trace with AVO_TRC_TYPE 9003 is output with 2term and 3term fitting.
The purpose of the Z runs statistic is to find out if there are situations that can be considered as
a 'model breakdown'. A model breakdown occurs when there is no model that appropriately fits
the given input data. In AVO inversion, this happens when the input data ( the AVO curve for one
sample time) and the inverted/modeled curve are grossly inconsistent.
Mathematically, the Z runs statistic looks at the residuals from the AVO curve fit, i.e. the modeled
noise. Long runs of the same sign in the residuals, positive or negative, indicate inconsistencies
between model and data. A minimum number of data points is required for the Z runs statistic to
be meaningful. Appendix D in Walden (1991) states 20 as the minimum number of data points
required.
The usefulness of the Z runs statistic is still controversial and under discussion, so it should be
used with care.
1.6 QC Output Mode

For QC purposes it may be useful to output signal and noise traces. To do this, the QC_MODE
parameter is set equal to the YES option. The signal trace is computed from the intercept and
gradient or the a,b,c AVO primary attribute traces, and the angle values of the input trace. The
noise trace is the difference between the signal trace and the original input trace. These trace
pairs are ideal input to the Quantified Quality Attributes of Seismic Data (DATA_QUALITY_ATTR)
SFM to produce signal to noise related quality indicators.
When the QC_MODE parameter is equal to the YES option, the following traces are output in
addition to those described above:
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
18
TRACE TYPE
AVO_TRC_TYPE
Signal
9001
Noise
9002
1.7 Example Setups

The Gidlow 2-term option is shown in Example 1, the Shuey 2-term option in Example 2, and the
Pan-Gardner 3-term option in Example 3.
Example 1 shows the setup for AVO_ANGLE_DECOMP which precedes AVO_PRIM_ATTR. In
AVO_PRIM_ATTR, the mode is equal to GIDLOW. The QC_MODE parameter is equal to YES,
which generates signal and noise traces. The LINE_FIT selection indicates a standard
least-squares fit is used for linear regression.
Example 1
$AVO_ANGLE_DECOMP[STACK4]
*UNITS
*GENERAL
VEL_FILE_NAME = 'vel_2d'
*ANGLE_RANGE
MIN_ANGLE = 3
MAX_ANGLE = 43
NUM_ANGLE_BANDS = 20
ANGLE_BANDWIDTH = 6
*STACK
END_TAPER_LEN = 0
*QC_DIP_AZIM
DIP_ANGLE_QC = 20
/****************************************************************************/
[STACK4]$AVO_PRIM_ATTR
*UNITS
*GENERAL
OPERATION_MODE = 'GIDLOW'
QC_MODE = 'YES'
LINE_FIT = 'STANDARD_FIT'
*ROBUST_CONTROL
The SHUEY_2_TERM option is selected and the QC_MODE parameter is equal to the NO option
in Example 2. These selections generate intercept and gradient primary AVO attribute output
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
19
traces, standard deviation traces, a linear correlations coefficient trace and a statistical Z trace.
The LINE_FIT selection is for the ROBUST_FIT option.
Example 2
$AVO_PRIM_ATTR
*UNITS
*GENERAL
OPERATION_MODE = 'SHUEY_2_TERM'
QC_MODE = 'NO'
LINE_FIT = 'ROBUST_FIT'
*ROBUST_CONTROL
In Example 3, the QUAD_3_TERM option is selected and the QC_MODE parameter is equal to
the NO option. There are three output traces corresponding to the Pan and Gardner a, b, and c
terms, three standard deviation traces, a coefficient of determination trace and a statistical Z
trace. The LINE_FIT selection is for the ROBUST_FIT option.
Example 3
$AVO_PRIM_ATTR
*UNITS
*GENERAL
OPERATION_MODE = 'QUAD_3_TERM'
QC_MODE = 'NO'
LINE_FIT = 'ROBUST_FIT'
*ROBUST_CONTROL
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
20
2.0 References
2.0 References
Aki, K., and Richards, P., 1980, Quantitative Seismology - Theory and Methods: W. H. Freeman.
Gidlow, P.M., Smith, G.C., Vail, P.J., 1992, Hydrocarbon detection using fluid factor traces: A
case history: Joint SEG/EAEG Summer Research Workshop, Technical Program and Abstracts,
78-89.
Pan, N. D., and Gardner, G.H.F., 1987, The basic equations of plane elastic wave reflection and
scattering applied to AVO analysis. Annual Progress Review 19, Seismic Acoustic Laboratory,
University of Houston.
Ruger, A., 1998, Variation of P-wave reflectivity with offset and azimuth in anisotropic media:
GEOPHYSICS, Soc. of Expl. Geophys., 63, 935947.
Shuey, R.T., 1985, A simplification of the Zoepprtiz equations, Geophysics, 50, 609-614.
Thomsen, L., 1986, Weak elastic anisotropy : GEOPHYSICS, Soc. of Expl. Geophys., 51,
1954-1966.
Walden, A.T., 1991, Making AVO sections more robust: Geophysical Prospecting, 39, 915-942.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
21
3.0 Additional Reading
3.0 Additional Reading

Draper, N., and Smith, H., 1998, Applied regression analysis - 3rd ed: Wiley.
Fatti, J., Smith, G., Vail, P., Strauss, P., and Levitt, P., 1994, Detection of gas in sandstone
reservoirs using AVO analysis: A 3-D seismic case history using the Geostack technique:
Geophysics, 59, 1362-1376.
Press, W., Flannery, B., Teukolsky, S., and Vetterling, W., 1989, Numerical Recipes - The art of
scientific computing: Cambridge University Press.
Ruger, A., 1997, P-wave reflection coefficients for transversely isotropic models with vertical and
horizontal axis of symmetry: GEOPHYSICS, Soc. of Expl. Geophys., 62, 713-722.
Ruger, A., 2000, Variation of P-wave reflectivity with offset and azimuth in anisotropic media,
Applied seismic anisotropy: theory, background, and field studies, 20: Soc. of Expl. Geophys.,
277-289.
Verm, R., and Hilterman, F., 1995, Lithology color-coded seismic sections: The calibration of
AVO crossplotting to rock properties: The Leading Edge, 14, 847-853.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
22
4.0 Inputs and Outputs

4.1 Inputs
Standard Input (Required)
STANDARD_INPUT
The input data must be prestack seismic data after angle decomposition (AVO_ANGLE_DECOMP)
using the STACK output port. The data must contain the reflection angles in the
AVO_CENTRAL_ANGLE trace header literal. Data must be sorted by gather and sub-sorted by
trace.
4.2 Outputs
Standard Output (Required)
STANDARD_OUTPUT
The possible output traces are as shown in the table with the corresponding AVO_TRC_TYPE
trace header literal values.
DESCRIPTION
TRACE TYPE AVO_TRC_TYPE
intercept or P-wave reflection coefficient
gradient or S-wave reflection coefficient
Pan-Gardner constant term
Pan-Gardner linear term
Pan-Gardner quadratic term
Gidlow acoustic impedance contrast
10
Gidlow shear impedance contrast
21
31
biso
32
Ruger Azimuthally anisotropic gradient term
bani
33
ciso
34
c2ani
35
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
23

Ruger Azimuth of Maximum AVO Gradient term (
c4ani
max
36
37
standard deviation of intercept
101
standard deviation of gradient
202
standard deviation of Pan-Gardner a term
sd_a
404
standard deviation of Pan-Gardner b term
sd_b
505
standard deviation of Pan-Gardner c term
sd_c
606
standard deviation of Gidlow acoustic impedance contrast
1010
Standard Deviation of Gidlow shear impedance contrast
2121
Standard Deviation of Ruger Zero-incidence reflectivity term
sd_a
3131
Standard Deviation of Ruger Azimuthally isotropic gradient

term
sd_biso
3232
Standard Deviation of Ruger Azimuthally anisotropic gradient

term
sd_bani
3333
Standard Deviation of Ruger Azimuthally isotropic gradient

term
sd_ciso
3434

term
sd_c2ani
3535

term
sd_c4ani
3636
max
sd_
3737
signal
9001
noise
9002
statistical Z
9003
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
24
standard linear correlation coefficient or standard coefficient

of determination
9004
robust linear correlation coefficient or robust coefficient of

determination
9005
See Attachment A for a complete list of the output trace types.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
25
5.0 Literal Summary
5.0 Literal Summary

5.1 Inputs
5.1.1 STANDARD_INPUT Port
Identification Header
LITERAL
DESCRIPTION
DATA_DESC
EARLIEST_TIME
MAX_GATHER_MULT
MAX_REFLECT_TIME
MAX_TRACE_NUM
SAMP_INT
SORT_DIRECTION
SORT_LITERAL
Data Set Description

Earliest TIME_SHIFT_ALIGNMENT
Maximum Gather Multiplicity
Maximum Reflection Time
Data Trace Number Maximum
Sampling Interval
Sort Direction (Array)
Sort Literal (Array)
Trace Header
LITERAL
DESCRIPTION
3D_AZIMUTH
AVO_CENTRAL_ANGLE
LTRSAM
MUTE_TIME
MUTE_TIME_INSIDE
STACK_WORD
TIME_SHIFT_ALIGNMENT
XCORD_DETECT
XCORD_SOURCE
YCORD_DETECT
YCORD_SOURCE
3D Azimuth
Central Angle
Length of the Trace in Samples
Mute Time
Inside Mute Time
Stackword
Time Shift for First Sample Alignment
X Coordinate at Detector Location
X Coordinate at Source Location
Y Coordinate at Detector Location
Y Coordinate at Source Location
NOTES
FIRST_LIVE_SAMPLE and LAST_LIVE_SAMPLE are not expected as input trace headers, but
if present they MUST be the equivalent values of the MUTE_TIME and MUTE_TIME_INSIDE
literals.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
26
5.0 Literal Summary
5.2 Outputs
5.2.1 STANDARD_OUTPUT Port
Identification Header
LITERAL
DESCRIPTION
DATA_DESC
EARLIEST_TIME
MAX_GATHER_MULT
MAX_REFLECT_TIME
SORT_DIRECTION
SORT_LITERAL
Data Set Description

Earliest TIME_SHIFT_ALIGNMENT
Maximum Gather Multiplicity
Maximum Reflection Time
Sort Direction (array)
Sort Literal (Array)
Trace Header
LITERAL
DESCRIPTION
AVO_TRC_TYPE
MUTE_TIME
MUTE_TIME_INSIDE
XCORD_CENTROID
YCORD_CENTROID
Amplitude Versus Offset Trace Type

Mute Time
Inside Mute Time
X Coordinate at Average Centroid Location
Y Coordinate at Average Centroid Location
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
27
6.0 Parameter Set Summary
6.0 Parameter Set Summary

Parameter Set Name
Geophysical Language
Parameter Set Title

Parameter Title
UNITS
UNITS_TIME
Units
Units of Time
Required
GENERAL
QC_MODE
MIN_POINTS
General
QC Output Mode
Minimum number of data samples for fit
Required
SHUEY_2_TERM
OPERATION_MODE
Shuey 2 Term
Operation Mode
Optional
GIDLOW
OPERATION_MODE
Gidlow
Operation Mode
Required
QUAD_3_TERM
OPERATION_MODE
Quad 3 Term
Operation Mode
Required
RUGER
OPERATION_MODE
Ruger
Operation Mode
Required
RUGER_HIGHER
OPERATION_MODE
Ruger Higher
Operation Mode
Required
STANDARD_FIT
STANDARD_FIT
Standard Fit
STANDARD_FIT
Required
ROBUST_CONTROL
OVERLAP
SCALE_FACTOR
Robust Fit Control

Overlap
Scale Factor
Required
RUGER_AXES
RUGER_AXES
Ruger Axes
Ruger axes test
Required
Status
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
28
7.0 Setup Parameters

7.1 Units
UNITS
(Status: Required, Type: standard)
General Information
This parameter set specifies the units of measurement. These units of measurement are utilized
for values specified in other parameters in this SFM.
PARAMETERS:
UNITS_TIME
Units of Time
This parameter defines the units of time to use when specifying time parameters.
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Options:
'MILLISECONDS'
'MS'
'MICROSECONDS'
'US'
'NANOSECONDS'
'NS'
'SECONDS'
Default:
No
option
No
No
Milliseconds
Milliseconds
Microseconds
Microseconds
Nanoseconds
Nanoseconds
Seconds
'MILLISECONDS'
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
29
7.2 General
GENERAL
General Information
This parameter set is required and is used to set some general parameters.
PARAMETERS:
QC_MODE
QC Output Mode
This parameter determines whether QC traces are output. Two output traces per angle gather
are created when this is used.
For the YES option, signal and noise traces are output for each input trace.
The signal trace is computed from the intercept and gradient, or the a,b and c parameters, with
respect to the angle values of the input trace, while the noise trace is the difference between
the signal trace and the original input trace. These trace pairs are ideal input to the
DATA_QUALITY_ATTR SFM to produce signal-to-noise related quality indicators.
Reference 1.6 QC Output Mode.
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Options:
'NO'
'YES'
Default:
No
option
No
No
Standard output mode of primary attribute and statistical traces
QC output mode of signal and noise traces
'NO'
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
30
MIN_POINTS
Minimum number of data samples for fit
This parameter can be used to increase the minimum limit of the number of points required for
the fitting of the line or curve through the data. A value of COMPUTED will result in this
parameter defaulting to the minimum possible value for the method selected. If a value below
this minimum possible value is selected for this parameter, it will be increased back to the
minimum possible value, otherwise the given value will be taken.
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
integer
No
No
param()>0
COMPUTED
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
31
7.3 Shuey 2 Term
SHUEY_2_TERM
(Status: Optional, Type: standard)
PARAMETERS:
OPERATION_MODE
Operation Mode
The Shuey two-term equation is used to produce the primary AVO intercept (P) and the primary
AVO gradient (G).
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
string
No
No
check(param() = "SHUEY_2_TERM","Method is
SHUEY_2_TERM for this parameter")
SHUEY_2_TERM
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
32
7.4 Gidlow
GIDLOW
PARAMETERS:
OPERATION_MODE
Operation Mode
The Gidlow equation is used to produce
, the Gidlow acoustic impedance contrast, and
the Gidlow shear impedance contrast, see Equation 3

Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
string
No
No
check(param() = "GIDLOW","Method is GIDLOW for this
parameter")
GIDLOW
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
33
7.5 Quad 3 Term
QUAD_3_TERM
PARAMETERS:
OPERATION_MODE
Operation Mode
The Pan and Gardner equation is used to produce a, b and c, where a, b and c are combinations
of the P-wave velocity, the S-wave velocity and the density.
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
string
No
No
check(param() = "QUAD_3_TERM","Method is
QUAD_3_TERM for this parameter")
QUAD_3_TERM
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
34
7.6 Ruger
RUGER
PARAMETERS:
OPERATION_MODE
Operation Mode
The normal form of Ruger's approximation is used to produce 4 terms, a, biso, bani and
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
string
No
No
check(param() = "RUGER","Method is RUGER for this
parameter")
RUGER
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
35
7.7 Ruger Higher
RUGER_HIGHER
PARAMETERS:
OPERATION_MODE
Operation Mode
The higher order form of Ruger's approximation is used to produce 7 terms, a, biso, bani, ciso,
c4ani, c2ani and
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
string
No
No
check(param() = "RUGER_HIGHER","Method is
RUGER_HIGHER for this parameter")
RUGER_HIGHER
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
36
7.8 Standard Fit
STANDARD_FIT
General Information
This parameter set is used when the LINE_FIT selection is for the STANDARD_FIT option.
PARAMETERS:
STANDARD_FIT
STANDARD_FIT
Linear regression is a standard least-squares fit.
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
string
No
No
check(param() = "STANDARD_FIT","Option is
STANDARD_FIT when this parameter is selected")
STANDARD_FIT
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
37
7.9 Robust Fit Control
ROBUST_CONTROL
General Information
This parameter set is used when the LINE_FIT selection is for the ROBUST_FIT option.
The robust fit is done in two steps. In step one, the data is divided into two segments (or three
for the three-term case), each with the same number of traces. A median point is found for each
segment and a line or parabola is fitted through them to form the initial fit. In step two, amplitude
values are found which do not conform to the initial fit. These amplitude outliers are then either
weighted or eliminated from the least-squares fit. See 1.5 Line Fitting Mode.
PARAMETERS:
OVERLAP
Overlap
This parameter defines the overlap in the number of traces between the segments in the first
step of the robust-fitting process. For a value of 0, every trace falls into only one segment. For
a value of 3, three traces are shared by adjacent segments. An OVERLAP parameter value
greater than 0 should be specified if non-random noise contaminates more than 50% of any
segment.
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
integer
No
No
param() >= 0
0
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
38
SCALE_FACTOR
Scale Factor
This parameter specifies the scale factor of a term which defines the maximum distance between
a data point and the initial robust fit. If a data point is greater than this distance from the initial
fit, it is considered an outlier. The default of 2.1 is appropriate for random noise. For lower
values such as from 1.0 to 1.5, more data points are identified as outliers, and thus eliminated
from the least-squares fit.
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Constraint:
Default:
No
number
No
No
param() > 0.1 and param() < 5.0
2.1
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
39
7.10 Ruger Axes
RUGER_AXES
PARAMETERS:
RUGER_AXES
Ruger axes test
Temporary parameter to allow sign convention for Ruger axes to be tested.
Optional:
Type:
Trace-varying:
Multi-valued:
Options:
'SAME_SIGN'
'OPPOSITE_SIGN'
Default:
Yes
option
No
No
Ba same sign as Bi
Ba opposite sign to Bi
SAME_SIGN
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
40
Attachment A
Attachment A: AVO_TRC_TYPE Definitions

This attachment provides associated numbers and definitions for the AVO_TRC_TYPE trace
header literal.
Click here to view the attachment.
AVO_PRIM_ATTR
41

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AVO Primary Attributes (AVO_PRIM_ATTR)

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

Line Fitting Mode

Inputs and Outputs

Parameter Set Summary

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

Robust Fit Control

7.10 Ruger Axes

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

1.0 Technical Discussion

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

1.2 Seismic Characteristics

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

1.3 Theoretical Background

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

In Omega, there are three methods to approximate the Zoeppritz equations:

1.3.1 Shueys Approximation

Average of P-wave velocity (Vp) above and below the interface

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

P-wave reflectivity at normal incidence

This first AVO option,

1.3.2 Gidlow Approximation

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

1.3.3 Pan and Gardner Approximation

Average of P-wave velocity (Vp) above and below the interface

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

To get a band limited reflectivity for density combine b and c

For the P-wave velocity reflectivity combine all three parameters

The S-wave velocity reflectivity requires also the Vp/Vs ratio

1.3.4 Azimuthal AVO: Ruger Approximation

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

the zero-incidence reflectivity term

The higher order form of Rugers approximation is

the higher order isotropic term

1.4 Operation Mode

July 2013 - WesternGeco

AVO Primary Attributes

1.0 Technical Discussion

Standard Deviation of Intercept

Standard Deviation of Gradient

Gidlow acoustic impedance contrast

Gidlow shear impedance contrast

Standard Deviation of Gidlow acoustic impedance