THE MEM, THE WEAPONS AND THE OPERATIONS

vid Miller

K#t

is

Special Forces

Special Forces

David Miller

PUBLISHED
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LIMITED

A Salamander Book
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1999

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Salamander Books.

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CREDITS
Project

managed by Ray Bonds

Designed by Megra Mitchell

Picture research by

TRH

Pictures

Colour separation by Studio Technology Limited

Printed

in Italy

THE AUTHOR
David Miller
Islands.

a former

is

British

Army

officer,

who spent most

of his

service

in

the

Far East, Central

He subsequently worked as a freelance author and then spent three years

as

Group, where he was a staffer on International Defense Review, before producing the
Warships. He

is

now

a freelance author once

many

Europe, and the Falkland

a journalist with Jane's

first

edition

of Jane's

Information

Major Surface

again, writing on a wide variety of defense subjects. He has contributed to

international military journals and

has had some 35 books published.

ADDITIONAL CAPTIONS
Jacket front:

US Army Ranger, a

variety of missions in

arctic,

member

of

an

elite

unit trained

to

conduct a

mountain, jungle, urban, and amphibious warfare.

Page

I:

Black-clad special forces with

respirator

masks

typify

the

deliberately

formidable appearance of such international units on a counter-terrorist

training mission.

Jacket

back: Top,

Land Rover Multi-Role Combat Vehicle, specially designed

rapid-reaction forces. Bottom

left,

Operaciones (GEO) preparing to

special

forces

member

fire

of Spain's

for

Grupo Especial de

during abseiling. Bottom right, French

trooper armed with silenced sub-machine gun.

Pages 2-3: Soldiers

Pages 4-5:
terrorist

Endpapers:

Dutch Marines race ashore under realistic-looking

training exercise. This elite

forces.

unit

is

fire

during a

an important element of NATO's amphibious

of the

French

Army

ler

RPIMA (Regiment de Parachutistes

d'lnfantene de Marine) storm a house during training for hostage rescue,

Members

unit.

of Canada's

300-strong Joint Task Force 2 counter-

Contents

Foreword

Page

Introduction

Page

Part

I:

Special Forces

Page 14

Part

2:

Operations

Page 74

Part

3:

Weapons & Equipment

ndex

Page
Page

10

72

Foreword
is not the first book that has been written
about the elite forces that exist in various
However, this
countries throughout the world.
highly researched and authoritative volume is

This

one of the most definitive of its kind

written to date, and most likely will remain so for
certainly

the foreseeable future.

The authors have compiled

misunderstood

been

exaggerated,
misrepresented.

The establishment

World War

recognized and documented by

many reasons

has greatly

forces

of elite

increased since the end of

for this growth,

or

II

a fact

book,There are

this

among them:

organizations,

process

selection

this

assessment system which helps

determine whether individuals measure up to the
as

an

standards of the organization.

meet those standards

to

In fact,

selection process that those

initial

during this

it is

who

aren't likely

are separated from the

unit.

Some

an extensive presentation of organizations that have

often

most

In

serves

when not

organizations,

selecting certain

whatever reason)
return them to their parent unit or to another
organization, usually a support type, with high praise
and as much good will as possible. This is done to
ensure that non-acceptable volunteers do not
poison the recruiting well throughout the regular
individuals within their ranks (for

formations.

Improvements in the sophistication and

lethality of weapons and the quantum jump in
the
complete
spectrum
of
conducting
conventional
increased

warfare, concomitant with

required to

costs

sizable modern forces.

The recognition by many

man and equip

and judicious

committed

manner, could

in

possibly

deter an aggressor. This has the added benefit

of preventing the

assistance to individual countries. This

whose

nation

commitment

of

much

larger

externally, they call

missions.

Some

respond to terrorist threats or

extensive

conflict

nations recognize the requirement to form,

and

peacetime so that they can

do so, in all phases of pre-

directed to

conflict.

They must be prepared to conduct operations

during this period of "violent peace," and they must
also be ready to conduct their wartime missions
without having to take the time for extensive
training after conflict starts, as

World War
Many of the requirements
book which differentiate

was the case during

II.

are discussed
elite

forces

in

this

from

should be since
selection and training are so critically important to
the successful performance of any elite unit.
conventional forces.

This

is

as

it

these units are for the most part

Personnel

in

volunteers

who undergo some form

assist

in

when committing them

strategic

forces are controlled and supported

commitment, there

of

exists

phases of special operations the need for

all

planning so that psychological and

deception operations are an integral part of the

acts.

organize, equip, train and support elite or special

in

to any

vital

to

upon them to perform

command.
Whatever the mode

in

when

is

is

by operational commanders, while others may be

committed independent of the conventional force
chain of

operate,

it

nations control their elite forces at the

Recognition that a requirement exists to have a

highly trained organization that can rapidly

operations forces

policy

highest national levels, and,

conventional forces at a later time.

Many

national

obtaining or preserving freedom.

Many
nations that a highly

trained, truly professional force,

timely

the

Those who do go forward are language-trained,

area-oriented forces capable of providing sustained

whenever possible.
believe that
most important factors in planning and

overall operation

some

of the

conducting these kinds of operations are the need

good security.
The authors have done exceptional research on
the various elite forces. While some information is
readily available from open sources in the Western
countries, the Communist nations have not been as

for timely, accurate intelligence and

open with information

limitation, the

in

this

area.

Despite

this

work

that

authors have produced a

should be indispensable for the practitioner and

student of elite forces and special operations
organizations,
I

predict that anyone

operations, terrorism

welcome

this

associated with

or

book and use

special

counterterrorism
it

as a reference

will

many

times.

of selection

process which greatly tests individual physical

ability,

stamina and the capability to plan and operate under

great mental and physical strain,

by Robert C. Kingston,
US Army (Ret.)

General,

Robert C. Kingston,
General,
General Kingston enlisted

in

platoon, a company, a battalion,

conflicts.

He wears

US Army

(Ret.)

the US Army in 1948 and has commanded a

two brigades and special operations forces in two

16 battle stars

and also earned the

Combat

(two awards); the Master Parachutist Badge (US); Ranger Tab;

Badge

Infantry

Gliderman Badge;

Korean Parachutist Badge; Parachute Wing (UK); Cambodian Parachutist Badge;

Vietnamese jumpmaster Badge;Vietnamese Ranger Badge; and 12 overseas
His special operations experience includes a tour
officer,

Far East

in

Korea

as

bars.

commanding

Command

the Ranger Mountain

Special Mission Group. He was executive officer of

Camp, Dahlonega, Georgia (1954-55). In 1960-1961, he

served as the exchange airborne officer with the 16th Independent Parachute

Group, UK.
General

Kingston

was

also

Command

(1966) and

1st Special

Forces, Fort Bragg,

In

senior

commander

advisor

to

the Vietnamese

of the 3rd Special Forces

North

Group

Ranger

(Airborne),

Carolina.

command

January 1973, General Kingston assumed

of the joint Casualty

Nakhon Phanom, Thailand, In October 1975, he became

commander of the US Army John Kennedy Center for Military Assistance
and the US Army Institute for Military Assistance at Fort Bragg, The general
Resolution Center,

F.

pinned on

his

fourth star and assumed

command

Command,

MacDill Air Force Base, Florida, on

active duty

on November

30, 1985.

of the United States Central

January, 1983.

He

retired

from

Special Forces

INTRODUCTION

Above: The
terrorist

airliner

image

traditional

attacks

is

of

burning on a Middle

East airfield. Constant vigilance

mission,

airlines

has reduced

the

prevalence of such attacks but

the threat

is

ever-present.

who

dash

enemy territory, create utter havoc and, having successfully completed the
return to camp to prepare for yet another foray. It is the stuff from which legend

deep

into

springs.

these warriors
viewed with
glamor attaches to
opprobrium comes

Even

and firm action by governments

and

HAS always been a fascination with the exploits of uniformed warriors

There

hijacked

so,

formations
of

members

usually

that success;

publicized

Make no mistake about

it:

all

when

too

there

is

they are not

unconventional

military

particularly

when

the failure

is

in

open and democratic

elite

societies.

It is

a distrust

or special forces to wax and wane.

and "special" are simply ways to describe unconventional or supreme and

paramilitary formations.

commando, paratrooper,
embracing

or

they are successful, a certain aura

an inherent distrust of secret or "special" operations

deep and which causes the fortunes of

"Elite"

special

When

swiftly.

and those associated with them, particularly

that runs

of

skeptical ambivalence.

are

Other

labels that have

irregular, guerrilla,

special operations forces.

Whatever the choice

forces have always had an important role to play

historical legacy

The Roman

is

been applied, with various relevance, are

even "cowboy," or simply

in

and

perhaps more

of designation, however, these

their nations' defense forces, and their

particularly rich.

legions, for

example, were denied success by irregular African forces using

camels and arrows. They were also thwarted

in Great Britain by the guerrilla tactics of a

America the sharpshooting Minutemen played an
undeniably significant role in the outcome of the Revolutionary War. General George
Washington's famous crossing of the Delaware on Christmas Eve just prior to the Battle of

female warrior

named

Boedicia.

In

in Britain, what we now know as the Special Air Service

North Africa in 1941, where it performed daring raids behind
German lines during World War That undeniably elite and special force performed just as
spectacular feats toward the end of the 20th Century, notably alongside American Delta and

Trenton was a special operation. And

(SAS) had

its

genesis

in

II.

other special forces

Today

it is

The

in

influential in

post- World

the Iraqi desert

in

99

and, undoubtedly,

the training, actual and by example, of

War

II

era saw a decline

in

in

many

the trouble-torn Balkans.

elite units

special forces; in fact,

the world over.

many were disbanded.

Introduction

Without

argument went, there was no mission. Marry to that the distrust of

uneasy tolerance accorded them by the regular forces, and it's

a war, the

special forces, as well as the

why

easy to see

elite

forces

seemed to be approaching

their nadir.

must be an

integral part of any nation's defense forces and, as such, will always have

defending the sovereign. These forces are

a role in

now

stronger than they ever were, and

the reasons for this are both practical and historical.

In

the 1960s, a netherworld existed

war" developed.
in

It

in

which

of revolutionary

a state of

neither "true peace" nor "true

it.

In

fact,

in

Africa, East Asia,

itself out.

By the

970s, these postwar

and the Middle East and hands previously

at the tiller

movements were now firmly on the reins of power.

mean that the use of upheaval and instability had been abandoned.
highly

will, this

dangerous situation

represented a more deliberate type of conflict with severe consequences for the security of
nations, large and small.

In

the past 30 years, conflict

government
them,
in

like

in

many

in

one form or another has

countries. During the Cold

the Vietnam War, on

a large scale

War

led to violent

there were

many

in

particular, with the

States as the only

conflicts

changes of

some

of

but the need to avoid global conflict resulted

a variety of pressures to localize their impact. With the ending of the

and,

Cold War, however,

demise of the Soviet Union and the emergence of the United

and frequently

reluctant

Superpower, such constraints have been

lifted

and conflicts of one sort or another continue unabated.

In

the

words of one observer, "World War

III

has already begun and. ..is comprised of

brush-fire conflicts, assassinations, terrorist bombings, coups, revolutions, and

prophetic views of George Orwell

come

he

our time

claimed,

but

characteristics.

instantaneous, as

discovered

States

by

of

United

the

when

seriously

lorry-bomb

in

its

Beirut

damaged

1983.

the

peace

of

pretty close to the mark.

has

assumed

civil strife.

War may

"The

not be peace,

some unmistakably

Above: Typically
fighters

man

clad

Beirut street

barricade,

wearing US webbing but

Far

the distorted and grotesque outrages of terrorism, state-sponsored and

otherwise, plagued the globe. As an instrument of national

many

lapses

of

are severe and

Embassy was

But that did not

from

vigilance

the never-ending
terrorists, the

featured so-called "wars of national liberation" characterized by conflict

which the postwar process of decolonization played

spasms were over

left: In

war against
consequences

But the mission for special forces can never truly go away for one very basic reason. They
are and

Above

warlike

carrying Russian
assault

rifles.

Kalashnikov

Special Forces

That

is

change

unlikely to

the near future. Just as

in

1999, the early decades of the 21st Century

number

seem

of situations requiring responses short of

One

it is

definition

elite

claims that low intensity conflict

states or groups

among

below the
states.

It

which to put low intensity

in

The spectrum
conflict, readily

formed

in

1986. Like a number of such

forces,

it

is

police

unit,

answering directly to the police

chief in

Buones Ayres.

It

is

responsible for counter-terrorist

duties and VIP

10

protection.

level

in

is

no

represents

is

critical

to

is

political-military

of conventional

in

confrontation

war and above the

involves protracted struggles of competing

political,

force.

It is

waged

economic, informational, and military

nature, but contain regional and global security

implications. Accepting this definition, imperfect

framework

it

from subversion to the use of armed

instruments. Such conflicts are often local

Halcon,

Kosova

forces and their roles.

by a combination of means employing

Argentina's

in

a universally appropriate definition of

although an understanding of what

conflict,"

routine, peaceful competition

These are from

and

I940s-style disgraceful "ethnic cleansing" characteristics), and special operations

principles and ideologies and ranges

forces.

1,

intensity conflict" (along

its

bewteen contending

operations

99

However,

understanding special and

special

conflict they represent.

need to be considered together. Nobody has devised

its

in

mobilization to address. There

full

way to categorize these crises and the types of

clear that terrorism and what has been dubbed "low

"low intensity

Below: Virtually every country

the Gulf

clean and easy

with

now has

in

certain to bear witness to an increasing

though

it

may

be, at least provides a

working

conflict.

of potential conflict ranges from terrorism through mid- and high-intensity

recognized since they involve the application of conventional military power,

to strategic nuclear warfare. Terrorism, properly identified as a form of warfare, cuts across

the entire spectrum. So, too, can elite and special forces be employed anywhere across the

spectrum.

But even the most

elite

of special forces can deal with only a small portion of the threats

criminality, and terrorism. This is why more of these forces

why nations are cooperating in framing strategies to deal with the
why there is increasing recognition that terrorism is a form of

posed by subversion, international

have

come

into being;

problems of
conflict that

conflict;

it

is

must be met by forces

There are
handful of

it is

literally

hundreds of

members, some with

specially trained for the counter-terrorist mission.

special

a cast of

and

elite

formations

in

some

existence

with a

thousands. Many, despite the sensitive nature of

Introduction

their missions, are relatively easy to identify, explain, and describe

these units operate

units

in Britain,

some

In

Army

in

open

societies

New

Australia, and

the French Foreign

Grenada

in

Most

detail.

of

1983.

in

two missions are combined

9 and the French

one

in

character

like

other cases, the mission

In

GIGN.

is

the

US

strictly

yet other

In

force, such as with the British

SAS

and American Delta.

Units such as

Italy's

COMSUBIN

counter-terrorist activity second

It

would be

guide to
elite

elite

blatantly

are charged with military responsibilities

unless that mission

is

force truly

is

reversed

beyond the

fact that

generally

it

is

An

Italian

first

and

COMSUBIN

trooper with the highly

pistol.

H&K

PI

underwater

The 5-round weapon

electrically

is

operated, with power

provided by two 24-volt

batteries.

Out

of

water the

weapon has a

similar effect to

a conventional

7.62mm

pistol.

the national interest.

in

presumptuous to claim that one has come up with

and special forces. To begin with, there

Above:

specialized

strictly military in

is

German GSG

counter-terrorist, such as that of the

cases, however, the

some

Zealand are examples.

cases, the mission of an elite force

Rangers, and their operation

in

Legion, and the Special Air Service

no accepted

comprehensive

definition of

what an

has a quite different mission from that

of a conventional force. Moreover, these units are constantly being formed, disbanded, and
realigned to

meet

security factor; for

individual

some time

circumstances. Bulking large

force. Delta, received the standard reply, "Delta

the

most famous

British

front of the world's

TV

in

the overall equation

is

the

questions about America's premier counter-terrorist special

SAS operation, the

cameras,

it is

is

an

Iranian

airline,"

and because what was probably

Embassy Siege

in

1980,

was played out

in

quite understandable that there has been a reluctance

on the part of the authorities to provide information to the media

lest future

become compromised.
This book is divided into three main sections, which describe, respectively, the
elite forces, some of the major operations in which they have been involved, and

special

operations

of their weapons.

comprehensive.

unknown

must be appreciated that

elite

coverage cannot, by definition, be

units are so secret that even their very existence

is

totally

number of operations, even by acknowledged units,

some weapons and techniques are secret in order that an

classified. Similarly,

can achieve tactical surprise over

Four major points emerge from

demonstrated, special forces have
ability

this

and

a selection

to the general public, while a

remain highly
elite unit

It

Some

special

to operate clandestinely

in

its

opponents.

this study. The first

is

that, as the

Gulf War conclusively

a firm place in conventional war. In

the enemy's rear enables

such conflicts, their

them to attack

targets which

11

Special Forces

Above:

A defining moment

counter-terrorist warfare was

British

rescue

in

tale. This

the

to

to

tell

the

event was widely

TV, serving

terrorists

London

hostages; only one

terrorist survived

shown on

cannot be reached by any other means, and to exert an influence out of

notice

that

meted out

to

their victims.

proportion to

Secondly, elite forces involved

in

the counter-terrorist mission face a unique challenge.

Their successes dissuade their opponents from trying again, leading to long periods without
action,

making

harder to maintain the essential high degree of training and readiness.

it

addition, protracted periods of apparent inactivity result

in

government

question the large expenditure necessary, sometimes even resulting

that the terrorists strike again, often using
Thirdly, there

would be treated with

same violence that they

all

the actual numbers deployed.

SAS attack on the

Embassy

Iranian

in

the

is

some

totally

a high degree of lateral cooperation

new

In

financiers starting to
is

then

special forces, ranging

from

in

cutbacks.

It

technique.

between

exchanging information, through conducting joint exercises and the exchange of personnel
to taking part

in

each other's operations.

the great majority of special forces traditionally find their recruits from elsewhere

Finally,

armed forces. This ensures that their operators have experience of the
whole and are a known quantity when they start the selection process.
However, the rapid down-sizing of most military forces since the end of the Cold War means
in

their country's

armed forces

as a

that the size of the pool from which such volunteers can be found

As

this

book

will

value lying not just

show,

in

elite units

their capability

have a very important task

in

is

in

also diminishing.

modern

conventional warfare, but also

in

society, their

the clandestine

world of counter-terrorism, where they must be ready to meet any threat at any time. In
addition, while most counter-terrorist forces are confined to their national homelands, some
others, like those of the

world.

It is

USA, UK, France, and

Israel,

may be committed anywhere

in

a daunting challenge.

12

the

Introduction

Special Forces
Special Forces of the NATO Alliance countries were
in early 1999 as war erupted in the Balkans

called into action

when

Europe,

in

War, 1999

the Balkan

in

NATO bombing

identify Serbian targets for

SAS

raids.

soldiers fluent in

Albanian and Serbian were said to have skirted minefields and Serbian

Serbian forces pursued a two-pronged campaign of forcing hundreds

patrols

of thousands of ethnic Albanians from the neighboring province of

Albania and Macedonia to enter the Kosovo province on surveillance

Kosovo and engaging

Army

Liberation

a brutal offensive against the rebel Kosovo

in

repeated threats that

would use

it

force

Serbia failed to comply with

if

ethnic-Albanian province of Kosovo and to agree to the deployment of

an

NATO-provided

international,

implementation. The Balkan

Force)

monitoring

War (NATO

air

supervize

to

Operation Allied

and

forces

missiles

defense assets, including missile bases, radars, and

command/control centers. NATO's

was

their intention

force

designation

was launched during March, with NATO

striking Serbian air

from the

air,

and

the conflict. Cruise missiles were

aircraft into

US

entirely

aircraft

and surface warships, and from

British

and US submarines.
The

power alone would not

attack aircraft

were

limited by a

was considered

launched

air

suffice.

number

targets

when

importance

Albanian

positively,

was

it

bomb from

observation,

First,

some

specifically

One

of

them

had happened

fiber

or

As

problems and

this

was being

it

had

forces

them almost

were

Kosovo.

NATO

forces

Milosevic had capitulated to

NATO

under K-FOR entered Kosovo to return the

in

Former Yugoslav

it

quickly

Serb "General" Radko Mlavic,

it

was

publicly

had been shrouded

activities

in

identified in

Kosovo

in

(also

known

as "Arkan")

in

who had formed

a paramilitary unit

which had reportedly been involved

Bosnia and Croatia

preparing to

become

NATO

in

who was

1991/92, and

involved

in

the

in

Kosovo

in

said to be

1999;

personnel and any hostages taken by the Serbs;

and advisory

roles,

by

NATO

special forces with the

Kosovo Liberation Army.

As NATO forces were

some

who was

1999, and possibly also the villainous Zeljko Raznatovic

most murderous ethnic cleansing operations against the Muslims

difficult.

essential to the resolution of

their mission could

April

called the "Tigers"

hilly

became apparent

and

snatching war criminals, including Milosevic and the Bosnian-

had to

the

crucial,

include:

difficult or, at times,

clear,

remained

role of the special forces

exodus of ethnic-

was not long before

KLA

trying to

keep the retreating Serbs and the

apart, attempting to disarm the latter,

and systematically clearing

the province of unexploded munitions, Serb-laid mines, and booby

traps,

there task will be difficult and their deployment, and that of the

special forces, could last for decades.

deployed,

actually

Kosovo.

inside

certainly

Such forces were based

and the

written,

pressure and, after protracted negotiation, pulled his Serb forces out of

problem was further

This

the Gulf War,

although their

that,

special

which cannot be intercepted by signals

optics,

means.

intelligence

to possess,

pilots

Kosovo made target acquisition

in

that special operations forces

of

use by special forces.

for

War) was to locate and destroy

Serb ground communications systems, particularly those using metal

over 10,000ft (3,000m).

realized that a massive

terrain over large parts of

some

designed

particular role (again, as in the Gulf

cables

since aircrew

known

even impossible. Then, even when the weather was

secrecy,

was as

markers,

direct action,

these

the region

in

(FAC) using the latest range of laser target

rescue of

acknowledged

and rescuing downed

air controllers

which made target acquisition and actual attacks

of

surveillance,

primary role of the special forces

complicated by the bad weather over the Balkans, especially clouds,

So, as

One

villages.

forward

which assumed even greater

factor

was under way.

refugees

became

rapidly

However, the Rules of Engagement (RoE) stipulated that

identify

Apart from
aircrew, a

a need to avoid shoulder-

defense missiles which the Serbs were

which meant that they had to

it

The capabilities of the

of factors.

was

there

vital,

but

initial effect,

clear that air

safety

the

in

province to order and to safeguard the returning Kosovo Albanians. The

had considerable

air strikes

and report on Serbian

said to be to locate

and patrols hidden

posts,

Kosovo to target Serbian "death squads."

ground attack, bomber, reconnaissance,

thrust thousands of fighter,

and electronic warfare

leaders proclaimed that

political

campaign

to conduct the

also launched from

command

unconfirmed report stated that 80 SAS soldiers had been sent deep into

requirements for internal self-government for the

United Nations'

was

missions. Their mission

tanks,

(KLA).

hard-man President Slobodan Milosevic ignored NATO's

Serbia's

around the devastated villages along Kosovo's borders with

neighboring Albania
Republic

(FYR)

of

Macedonia, with further bases across the Adriatic

in Italy.

Among

the

first

special forces to be

were personnel and

1st Special

aircraft of the

Operations Wing

deployed before the

were able

7A
SAMs
1 1

those

"

employed

Air Force's

SOW) which had

start of the operation

and

when a USAF
bomber was shot down

to swing into action

stealth

"

fighter

over Bosnia early

involved

in

in

the

rescue operation were

MH-60K

(1

US

the campaign.

totally

F-

by

Among

successful

HH-53H Pave Low

III

pilot

and

helicopters, both specifically designed for

such missions.

Other special forces deployed included units

of varying

sizes

and

capabilities

from

France,

Germany, Norway, and the UK, although there

may
in

well have been others. French special forces

the Balkans included elements of

Dragoon Regiment, Marine

British sent in
It

3th Airborne

Infantry,

and

parachutists,

while the

was reported

working under cover

that British
in

and American

Men
to

elements of the SAS.

special forces

were

Kosovo with the Kosovo Liberation Army to

of the

US Army's Special Operations Forces undergo rigorous training

be ready for all-terrain, all-weather operations worldwide.

It

has been

reported that US S0F, together with other NATO special forces, have

operated

in

Serbia and

Kosovo.

13

Special Forces

14

Special Forces

Part

Special Forces
Most

countries have at

forces, although

one

least

unit

"elite"

armed

their

in

there are various types of

Some

elite.

are

selected and trained for a special role, for which conventional troops

do not have either the

are

elites

given

weapons or

special

meritorious performance

by

particularly

and are then expected to set an

battle

in

Other

training needed.

earned

designation

special

example which other elements should follow;

thus, for example, the

among

designation "guards" used by the British and Russian armies,

others.

Other

elites are

known

best

formed on an ethnic or

units of foreigners: the French Foreign Legion

However,
of

worth noting that both contain

it is

Frenchmen and Spaniards,

The majority of

which the

tribal basis, of

Two well-known

are the Gurkhas.

elites are

formed by

and the Spanish Legion.

a substantial

proportion

respectively.
units

special

however, associated

are,

with

countering modern terrorism, and there have been two events of

great significance

was the

First

in this

some members

publicity.

terrorists kidnapped

Israeli team and then forced the German

them with transport to a nearby airfield where

rescue attempt by the

considerable loss

which attracted huge

of the

authorities to provide

area, both of

972 Munich Olympic Games when

terrorists would,

of-

life.

German

and troops resulted

police

in

This gave the public the impression that

one way or another, achieve

their goal, but

also

it

spurred governments, armed forces and police into seeking an answer

to this increasingly powerful threat. This resulted
a

number

of totally

new

re-roling of existing units (eg, the British SAS).

that

some

in

the setting up of

German GSG

forces (eg, the

elite

It

9)

or

in

should be noted,

countries decided to place this role on their

the

also,

civilian forces,

rather on their military forces.

The second

significant

event was the British assault by the SAS on

the terrorists occupying the Iranian Embassy

place
it

in

was

the

full

glare of publicity but, unlike

London. This also took

many

earlier operations,

not only demonstrating the value of

totally successful, thus

special units but also giving

in

governments and the public some hope

that terrorists could be beaten.

Many
role, are

special forces, particularly those with a counter-terrorist

shrouded

except that they

existence

is

in

secrecy and

exist: indeed,

totally

little

is

known about some units

whose

there must be other units

unknown. This

is

for security reasons

if

no

other,

and to maintain their surprise and shock elements of their actions.

An assault team

of

the

Brazilian Army's

during a training exercise.

special

forces

to

In

1st

Special

Forces

Battalion about to rush a building

the absence of actual emergencies,

keep their units trained

in

it

is

major task

of

all

operations and use of weapons so that they

be at the peak of their performance when they are needed for

will

real.

15

Special Forces

Argentina
Brigada Especial Operativa Halcon
Argentina's

principal anti-terrorist unit

Special Operations Brigade

Falcon),

commander

answering directly to the

Apart from counter-terrorist

m
z
H
Z

duties,

of the police

The

unit

intelligence

wears

locally

& Koch HK G3

who

is

a police unit

are organized into five 15-man teams. The

negotiator -

medical -

and snipers -

manufactured uniforms and protective

Glock 17 and the Franchi SPAS

foreign and include

It

8 troopers and 7 specialists: communications

identically organized, with

explosives -

1986.

in

the national capital, Buones Ayres.

in

also responsible for VIP protection.

it is

Brigada Halcon has a strength of 75 men,

teams are

the Brigada Especial Operativa Halcon (=

is

which was formed

gear.

I;

2.

Weapons

are mostly

12 shotgun. The snipers use the Heckler

GS/I.

Australia

Special Air Service Regiment

Australian troops
Communist
British

in

the Malayan Emergency, the fight against the

insurgents which lasted from

1949 to 1961. During that campaign the

played a significant role

re-formed their Special Air Service

deep-jungle operations and the Australian

(it

Army

used

Company, on July
SAS Company was absorbed
I

(Royal Australian Regiment [RAR]), but separated again

Sarawak

in

in

for

into the regular infantry

964 and expanded to become the

Regiment (SASR) with three "Sabre" squadrons. Sub-units of the SASR

Special Air Service

took part

in

II)

model when it formed its first

957. With the termination of

this as a

special forces unit, 1st Special Air Service

the Malayan campaign, however, the

War

had been disbanded after World

Indonesia's Konfrontasi (= confrontation) campaign

Borneo, Brunei, and

in

the early 1960s, and then also took part, with other Australian troops,

in

the

Vietnam War, between 1966 and 1971.

Following disengagement from Vietnam one squadron of the
terrorist

bomb

not immune to such

activities

and on February 23 the SASR was formally designated the

national counter-terrorist unit.To help

in

SASR was disbanded, but a

showed that Australia was

attack on the Sydney Hilton on February 13 1978

meet the new

tasks the third squadron

was reformed

1982 and since then, while other elements of the Australian Defense Forces have been cut

back, the

SASR

has remained virtually untouched.

Recent operations have included the Gulf

deployed to Kuwait

in

War when one SASR

February-May 1991 where

it

squadron (110 men)

men from

joined with 23

the

New

ANZAC

SAS Squadron, which was part of a joint force with British

and US special forces. Another deployment was to Somalia, where a 10-man close-protection
group from the SASR formed part of the 67-strong Australian Contingent.
As of 1999 Australian special forces comprised:
Zealand SAS to form the

Special Air Service Regiment (SASR), consisting of 1,2, and 3 "Sabre" Squadrons, 152

(SASR)
1st

Squadron.

Signal

Commando

(Commando)

Regiment

Signal

(I

Cdo

Regt), consisting of

Squadron. These are reserve

Commandos

and 2

and 126

units, consisting of mainly reservists

with a small regular cadre.

4th Royal Australian Regiment,

Commando (4RAR Cdo)

(four companies), including

an air platoon.

In

Navy Clearance Diving Branch (two

regular and

one reserve clearance

diver teams).

addition, each state and the capital territory (Canberra) has a counter-terrorist force,

known

variously as "special operations groups" or

"emergency response teams."

Organization

Above: Australian

coming

in

to

Air parachute
silent

landings to

SAS trooper

land using a

and extremely precise

be

made. Note pack

under

16

Ram-

which enables

his

feet.

SASR is approximately 550 strong, with its main base at Campbell Barracks, Swanbourne,
Western Australia, and comprises a Regimental Headquarters (RHQ) and six squadrons.
There are three "Sabre" squadrons, which operate a thee-year training/operational cycle,
starting with a work-up year, during which volunteers are inducted and more experienced
soldiers attend advanced courses. The second year sees the squadron training for overt
commitments, including special operations in a conventional war, while in the third year it
trains for clandestine tasks, and forms the counter-terrorist Tactical Assault Group (TAG)
(see below). Base

Squadron provides administrative and

Support Squadron

is

logistic

responsible for specialist training and

support, while Operational

trials

equipment. The highly specialized communications needed by such

152 (SASR) Signals Squadron.

of

new

techniques and

a force are

provided by

Special Forces

ft

m
z
H
Z

Tasks
peace-time the SASR's main task

In

emphasis

in

is

counter-terrorism, which

2000. Prime responsibility for counter-terrorism

"Sabre" squadron

in

bombers,

assassins,

the third year of

its

lies

being given special

is

the run-up to and during the Olympic Games, being held

in

Sydney

with the Tactical Assault

operational cycle).

the year

in

Group

The enemy could

hijackers, kidnappers, or snipers. Tasks to be

(ie.the

include

performed against such

targets could include the neutralization and/or capture of individuals or groups

on the land

or at sea; the neutralization of hostile aircraft or ships; the safe recovery of hostages; and
terrorists

evicting

from

buildings,

an Australian interest

ships

installations,

captured. Such tasks could take place anywhere

or aircraft which they may have

continental Australia or overseas

in

Counter-terrorism training includes Close Quarter Battle (CQB)

using frame or

water charges, tubular assaults as

rise structures,

(OAT)

where

involved.

is

in

tactics,

explosive entry

vehicles, buses, trains, aircraft

and high

and room and building clearance operations. The Offshore Assault Team

TAG

where the

terrorist

incident could involve ships, or gas/oil platforms, of which there are appreciable

numbers

part of the

is

and

is

responsible for similar tasks, but at sea,

around the Australian coastline.

The SASR

is

trained

in

counter-insurgency operations which provides troopers with the

in wartime such as the SASR did in Borneo to

them gather information about the enemy or to help them fight the enemy.The SASR
trained in Southeast Asian languages, customs and traditions and has many Southeast Asian

skills

necessary to recruit indigenous people

help
is

experts

in

the regiment.

conventional war, most of the SASR's tasks

In

will

be

in

the enemy's rear areas, and would

include reconnaissance and surveillance, as well as ambushes, sabotage, raids

on important

HQs, airfields, communications centers), and target designation for air strikes.
The SASR works and trains in close liaison with US, British, and New Zealand special
forces. Since 1992 there has also been considerable, and politically more controversial,
targets (eg,

contact with the Indonesian special forces, Kopassus, which has included annual special
forces' exercises

in

the other's country.

Above:

for

Uniforms and Equipment

SASR

parade, working and

field

uniforms are the same as those of the Australian Army, but

Special uniforms (eg, black coveralls) are

worn according

worn by

the British SAS.

to the tactical situation.

M 6A3
1

or the F88 Austeyr

66, or

SR98 Accuracy

(locally

H&K PSG

International

manufactured version of the Steyr AUG), but could

Parker Hale 82, Finnish Tikka Finlander .223, Mauser SP

AW-F

sniper

rifles,

or Beretta or Remington shotguns.

For road transport specially modified Nissan Patrol 4-wheel drive vehicles are used, while

most
or

air insertions

Army UH-60

are

Black

done by

drink

atop a

helicopter, usually naval

Hawks or CH-47 Chinooks.

UH-60

Sea

Hawks or CH-3

getting the laden

pmnade

in

Seakings,

pack up must

have been quite a struggle. Note

the

Equipment includes the whole range of normal Australian weapons and equipment, but
with some specialist equipment according to the role. For example the normal rifle is either
include Ta'as 7.62 Galil,

the Australian Stirling Range;

with a sand-colored beret, cap-badge and wings similar to those

the

An SASR trooper adopts a

nonchalant pose, as he pauses

7.62mm

Self-Loading

Rifle

(SLR).

Top; All

special

courses are

more

forces'

selection

rigorous, but few

so than for these

members

of Australia's

Special Air Service

aspiring

tough

Regiment

(SASR)

17

Special Forces

Austria
Gendarmerieeinsatzkommando Cobra
n the

late

1960s and early 1970s there was a wave of terrorist

incidents, particularly in Europe, with the small, neutral

country of

Austria being particularly badly affected. At that time Jewish refugees

</>

were being allowed to

Union but they were not

leave the Soviet

permitted to travel direct to their ultimate destinations

Israel

(usually, either

or the USA) and the great majority staged through Austria.This

m
r

Austrian

09

occasion

led to several Palestinian terrorist operations

which resulted

in

the

government ordering the formation in

1973 of
Gendarmeriekommando BadVoslau (BadVoslau was the name of the
unit's base). It was put on high alert during several crises, once when
terrorists seized hostages but were allowed to leave, and on another

50

ft

when

OPEC

several

the international terrorist, Carlos Sanchez, seized

oil

The
assault

GEK operator with

Above:

SSG69 5.56mm

rifle,

Steyr

an Austrian

weapon proving very popular with

special

around the world.

forces

Gendarmerie Royale.At

terrorist
Italy's
fire

GIS (see

team
under

(left)

workshop" hosted by

(right)
fire,

comes

p.

the

into

34). As the

brings the bus

assault

action

team

from a

Games

first this

into forming

own

its

counter-terrorist unit as part of the

was given the cover-name "Diane" but although

changed to Escadron Special d'Intervention

used

(ESI)

European nations, Belgium was shocked by the terrorist attack on the

1972 Munich Olympic

rescue exercise at an "anti-

German GSG

Mogadishu showed that determined action

Escadron Special d'Intervention

Like many other

storm a bus during a hostage-

rescue mission at Entebbe and the

airliner at

by well-trained and properly equipped men could overcome even the

most fanatical terrorists. This led to a restructuring of
Gendarmeriekommando Bad Voslau in 1978 and the new unit was redesignated
Gendarmerieeinsatzkommando (GEK) (= police commando unit) "Cobra." The GEK's first
commander, Oberst Pechter, established close ties with other counter-terrorist units,
including, among others, the Israeli Sayeret Mat'kal and the (then) West German GSG 9.

Belgium
Below: Belgian ESI troopers

Israeli

on the

who were meeting in Vienna, but was paid

ransom and given a passage out of the country.

ministers

a multi-million dollar

(ESI) in

this

was

l974.The name "Diane" continues to be

unofficially.

ESI's

primary mission

is

counter-terrorist operations, but

also used to fight organized

it is

where the criminals are armed, and anti-narcotics work.Volunteers for the
ESI must undergo a two-week selection process, following which they attend a three-month
course. The ESI also has an amphibious capability.
Weapons used include the Heckler & Koch MP5 sub-machine gun. Remington 12-gauge
shotguns and the SakoTRG-21 7.62mm sniper rifle.
crime, particularly

Range Rover, with ladders being

extracted for use

in

entering the

Para

Commando

Brigade

target vehicle.

The
and

Belgian Army's

elite

military unit

is

the

Para-Commando

Brigade. Separate parachute

commando

were formed by the Belgian

Britain during World War

units

government-in-exile

and continued

in

in

II,

existence after the war.

they were amalgamated into the

Regiment, which continued

when,

in

the

in

1952

Para-Commando

existence

reorganization

In

and

following the end of the Cold War,

until

1991

realignment

new

units

were

added, enabling the regiment to be upgraded to

the

has

Para-Commando
a

peacetime

Brigade.

strength

The
of

brigade, which

about

3,000,

comprises:

NFANTRY
1st

and 3rd Parachute

Commando

Battalion,

Battalions and the

each

(despite the different titles

identically).

18

all

2nd

some 500 strong

three are organized

Special Forces

Reconnaissance: 3rd Lancers Parachutists Battalion

Para-Commando

Artillery:

Field Artillery Battery, 35th

Para-Commando

Anti-Aircraft

Artillery Battery.

>

Support: Engineer, Logistics and Medical Companies.

fZ>

The Para-Commando Brigade

part of Belgium's contribution to

is

and Rapid Reaction Forces, but also takes part

in

NATO's Immediate

50

national and United Nations missions.

09

Selection and Training

All

members

m
r-

of the brigade are volunteers and after a thorough medical examination they

commando course. On graduation they are entitled to wear the

They then proceed on a one-month parachute course, which involves
seven jumps, which must include at least one balloon jump, one night jump, one from a C130 aircraft and one with full equipment.To remain current every member of the brigade
must attend

commando

five-month

badge.

must carry out four jumps every

During World

War

part of the British

SAS

950s,

when

Battalion

is

II

the Belgian

Army

Brigade. The Belgian

converted to

it

directly

raised an

SAS Regiment, which was an

SAS was reduced

descended from

and wears the SAS Dagger as

this unit

integral

r-

to battalion size until the early

conventional parachute battalion. The present

05
-

year.

its

1st

Parachute

cap-badge, but

with the paratroopers' red beret.

The Belgian Navy

he Belgian

men

Navy operates

strong and similar

in

a small

frogman section, which

is

believed to be about 30-

organization and training to the British SBS.

Brazil

Left: Special

Brazil's

forces'

troopers of

Batalhoo de

Forcas Especials undergoing

training
areas.

in

fighting

One man

is

in

built-up

spraying

chemical smoke into a man-hole,

which provides access to an

underground sewage system,

in

order to flush out terrorists

sheltering there.

1st Special

The
I

in

st

first

Brazilian counter-terrorist group was formed

Special Forces Battalion,

other armies,

civilians direct,
is

Forces Battalion

was

raised

in

Batalhoo de Forcas Especials

983.

In

1st Special

but takes volunteers only from other units

very severe and

is

followed by

3-week

in

953 but the present

common

with

Forces Battalion) does not recruit

in

the

Army.The

(=

combat

Especiais

(GOE)

selection process

divers group).

Comandos Anfybios (COMANFI) (= amphibious commandos).

Comandos de Reconhecimento Terrestre (RECONTER) (=

PARASAR

unit,

units

training course.

Other Brazilian special forces units include:

Grupo de Mergulhadores de Combate (GRUMEC)

commandos).
Grupos de Operaces

CT

many other such

land

reconnaissance

(= special operations groups).

(paratroops).

19

Special Forces

Canada
Joint Task Force

The present-day Canadian special operations force

was formed

s?

z
>

in

responsibility of the Royal

which

2),

were the

Canadian Mounted

War

Below: A stick of paratroopers

descend from a Canadian

Lockheed

team awaits
ground. The

C-

30, as

their arrival

men belong
Task Force

marker
on the
to Joint

2, a

new

organization, which was raised

in

the mid-1990s as a successor to

the Canadian Airborne Regiment
(CAR), which

had been
disbanded.

(RCMP)

Special

Army

airborne

there were two Canadian

II

Parachute Battalion, raised at

F
m

Police's

Emergency Response

(SERT).

During World

o
X
O

Force 2" (JTF

"Joint Task

is

of the past 50 years special operations

prerogative of the "Special Service Force," with counter-terrorist operations being the

Team

m
z

most

1993. For

April

formed

later in

Camp

Shiloh

in

USA

the

in

units:

Canadian

1st

942; and 2nd Parachute Battalion,

Canada. Following the war the Canadian parachuting capability was reduced

when it was expanded and the Canadian Airborne Regiment (CAR)

was formed, which was intended to be a light, independent, all-arms unit for deployment in
low-intensity operations in jungle, desert or arctic warfare conditions. The capability was
later expanded yet again with the formation of the Special Service Force, whose "teeth"
elements comprised an armored battalion, an infantry battalion, the CAR, plus artillery and
engineer battalions, and communications and logistics support. It also included the Canadian
SAS, which had been formed in 1946 as a company-sized unit, closely modeled on the British
to cadre level until 1968,

SAS.

The

CAR was

elements during

disbanded

its

in

some
component

the mid- 990s as a result of an enquiry into activities of

1

participation

UN

the

in

operation

Somalia, and

in

its

three

companies were dispersed to form airborne companies

in

three

conventional infantry battalions.

Joint Task Force 2 (JTF 2)

US

of

come

Volunteers can

whom

may
government services believed that

(CSIS).

It

is

it

lines

maintains close contact.

only from those already within the Canadian

Forces (CF) and their tour length

is

on the

a counter-terrorist unit

is

Delta and British SAS, with

it

is

normally 4-5 years, although

also include people

eg,

it

from other Canadian

Canadian Security Intelligence Service

approximately 300 strong and

commanded by

is

lieutenant-colonel.

Volunteer Standards
Volunteer standards are not normally specified, but the Canadian

Forces

made

have

(CANFORGEN

requirements

their

JTF

for

078/97 Adm(per) 056 30I330Z

Jul

public

97) and these

are summarized below:

Ranks: Volunteers must be

soldiers

warrant

in

officer,

the ranks

of: officers

captain only;

sergeant, master-corporal, corporal,

private.

General qualifications: At
engaged for

years' service and

least three

re-

second three-year engagement; no known phobias

of heights, water or enclosed spaces); a valid civilian

(eg, fear

driving license; and a

demonstrated wish and

ability

to learn a

second language.

Physical requirements:

demonstrated

high standard of medical fitness

capability of: running

1.5

and a

miles (2.5km) inside

minutes; 40 consecutive push-ups; five consecutive overhand grip,

straight-arm pull-ups; 40 sit-ups

in

60 seconds; 1431b (65kg) bench

press.

Commanding

Officer's recommendation:

volunteer has achieved

assessment of

statement that the

the above requirements plus a general

his suitability for special forces, in

maturity, stability

all

lifestyle,

and

areas such

as:

financial.

Preliminary screening: by a qualified JTF recruiting team.

Phase

3:

course

Those passing Phase

in

which their

2 then participate

levels of physical fitness,

in

three-week

weapons

handling,

and confidence are improved, following which they undergo a one

week assessment

of suitability for special forces. Officers have an

additional four-day assessment of their planning and leadership

skills.

20

Phase

4: five

months of

training.

Special Forces

Operations
not known for certain where and when JTF 2 may have been deployed, although press

It is

reports suggest that elements were sent to (but not used

on stand-by for

Grupo

Grupo

operation

a possible

Operations) was formed

and

in

commitment

Especiales

is

UAT

to support the

(GOPE)(= Group

for

Special

forces/commando duties but

(see below)

counter-terrorist operations

in

it

in

Police

Its

also has a

government

O
z

and diplomatic buildings.

Unidad Anti-Terroristes (UAT)(= anti-terrorist

the National Police Force.

It

is

unit), also

known

approximately 120 strong and

teams, each led by an officer.The unit

based

is

as "Cobra," belongs to

divided into seven-man

is

German

currently believed to be approximately 100 strong.

to undertake military special

is

Chile

980. Chilean personnel were originally trained by

instructors and the unit

Israeli

principal task

was

crisis

Operaciones Policiales Especiales

de

Operaciones Policiales

de

Bosnia, and that the unit

in)

Peru during the Japanese Embassy hostage

in

s
SO

just outside Santiago.

comprise two groups:

Military Special Forces

BuzosTacticos del Ejercito (Army SF commandos).

BuzosTacticos de

la

Armada (Navy SF commandos).

Denmark

Jaegerkorptset

Left:

An observation post (OP)

manned

by

men

of the

Danish

Jaegerkorptset (Ranger Corps).

Faced

with a growing threat of international terrorism

Army

number

sent a

in

the

late

1950s, the Danish

US Ranger School and on attachment to the

960/6 .These officers were then used to raise a new body, the

of officers to the

British Special Air Service in

Jaegerkorptset (= Ranger Corps), which was trained for counter-terrorist duties

in

support

of the Danish police's Aktions-Styrken (Action Force) and for long-range patrol and sabotage
duties

in

conventional war.

The Jaegerkorptset

is

based at Aalborg

in

North

Jutland,

with other special forces, particularly the British SAS.

from the

British Royal Air

from Danish sources

Weapons known

H&K

MP5,

H&K

is

the

German Army,
Hughes MD-500
Force and

to be used include: pistols

MP53;

rifles

H&K G4

sniper

It

works and

and

trains closely

also receives helicopter

support

since the largest helicopter available

SIG P-210 7.65mm "Neuhausen;"

rifle

H&K

PSG-

7.62 sniper

SMC

rifle.

Froemandskorpset (Frogman Corps)

The

Royal Danish Navy's Froemandskorpset was created

diving

school,

headquarters
diving;

in

but

it

was taken

away

and

made

in

1957 as part of the naval

directly

subordinate

to

naval

970. The unit's tasks include: beach reconnaissance; boarding suspect ships;

underwater demolition; and ship underwater

the Gulf War aboard ships of the Royal Danish

security.

The

unit

was deployed during

Navy
21

Special Forces

Egypt
Task Force 777

Faced with
had

split

credible threats from extremists such as the

PLO

from the

in

strength of three officers, four

in

Si

Below: The aftermath of a rescue

attempt that went wrong. This

Egyptair Boeing 737 was
hijacked to Malta, where

50

assaulted

it

was
777.

by Egypt's TF

Scorch marks show where the

n
m

engineers blew a hole

roof, but

in

they added so

extra explosive as

the

much

went

in

the rear

cabin were killed. A further 37

passengers were killed

main

in

the

assault.

into action

and

on February

The

incident resulted

19 1978,

1977, with an

in

initial

PLO,

an Egyptian newspaper

killed

and then seized 30 hostages. Task Force 777

Guard and
in

in

actually reinforcements for the terrorists, an

police resulted

members ofTF

the deaths of 15

in

major row between the governments, with the Egyptians

accusing the Cypriots of a lack of cooperation and

accused the Egyptians of

777

the terrorists but then, due to misunderstandings on the spot

killed

attack by Cypriot National

777.

Nidal Organization (which

soldiers. They received an early baptism of fire

terrorists, claiming to represent the

Nicosia, Cyprus,

in

NCOs, and 40

which the Cypriots thought the Egyptians were

to inform

failing

killing their

them of the

troops, while the Cypriots

arrival of

Task Force 777 and of

blatantly disregarding their national sovereignty.

Unfortunately, even worse

insurance that

some 20 passengers

when Arab

1978

editor

Abu

1974), Egypt established Task Force

aftermath of the
airliner. Flight

was to follow

Achille Lauro hijacking

its

second operation

way.

October 1985

in

in

Palestinians hijacked an Egyptair Boeing

648, and forced the pilot to land at Luqa

in

the

737

Malta. Egypt promptly ordered the

knew that it
The operation was botched, however, probably due to pressure on
the commander of TF 777 to

despatch of Task Force 777 and

was on

in

when

this

time ensured that the Maltese authorities

effect

very rapid

solution.

Although TF 777 did not have

a plan of the internal layout of

the Boeing 737, even though

belonged

to

national airline,

create

to

blowing a

diversion

hole

would

which

was decided

it

in

the

distract

by
roof

the
thus

attention,

terrorists'

it

own

Egypt's

enabling the main attack to go

in

through

doors.

the

The

explosives team got on to the

roof without being detected

by

the

Unfort-

terrorists.

unately, they then

explosive

to

added extra

ensure

success

with the result that the blast

was so

violent that

passengers

immediately
killed.

At

this,

commenced

some 20

the

in

beneath

rows
were

the main attack

but the

TF 777

men used high-explosive grenades and fired indiscriminately into the interior of the cabin,
while some of the passengers who did actually get out of the aircraft were then mistaken for
fleeing terrorists byTF 777 snipers outside the aircraft and several were shot. The result of
all

these errors was that 57 hostages were

killed,

making

it

one of the most

costly rescue

operations ever undertaken.

failure of these two missions, however, it was clear that the Egyptian
were determined to take immediate and forceful action against terrorists and it
should be noted that there has been no major airliner hijacking incident since. Nevertheless,
Task Force 777 has been kept busy by Egypt's internal war against the "Brotherhood" in
which they have undertaken numerous actions and lost several men.

Despite the

authorities

Weapons and Equipment

Like

all

such

units, Task

Force 777 maintains a "rapid reaction force" at very short notice to

move, with further elements

Westland

Commando

Task Force 777

is

at longer notice. The unit

is

supported by

number

of dedicated

troop-carrying helicopters at similar degrees of notice.

known

to have received training from

US

special operations forces

(Delta and SEALs) as well as from European forces, including the British SAS, French

and the

22

German GSG

9.

GIGN,

France
HAS TRADITIONALLY

FRANCE

created

armed forces
50 years the two

groups within

elite

and over the past

its

groups have been the Legion

leading

Etrangere (Foreign Legion) and

paras

/es

There are also a

number of "marine" units, which despite
(the

"paratroops").

their

name

as

are not amphibious troops

understood

American and

in

British

usage, but are elite units which

Century were raised

19th

One example

for overseas land service.

er
Regiment

de

is

Marine

de

d'lnfanterie

Parachutistes

size

in

Armed

Parachute

(6th

Regiment of the Marine

French

the

in

specifically

Infantry).

The

Forces are being reduced

and reorganized according to Plan 2002. While

have

this will

some

on the

effect

size

of the Foreign Legion and the Paras, they will be affected less than other parts of the army.

The French

police counter-terrorist unit

the Groupe

is

d' Intervention

de

la

Gendarmerie

whose most recent success was the rescue of hostages from

airliner at Marseille-Marignane airport in December 1994.
French military special forces are under the command of Commandement des
Speciales (COS) (= Special Operations Command), which was formed after the
Nationale (GIGN),

War, and comprises units from Army, Navy, and Air Force.
of the Joint
er
(

special force

1991 Gulf

answerable direct to the Chief

the Premier Regiment de Parachutistes d'lnfanterie de

is

most respects to the British SAS.This is not surprising,

stem from the French SAS units raised in England during World War

RPIMa), which

similar in

is

II.

Missions include counter-terrorist operations

below) and special operations

SOFD-Delta and the

commando

in

in

conjunction with

GIGN

and RAID (see

conventional war, similar to those conducted by the

US

SAS.

British

forces

special

(GROUFUMACO)(=
of four assault

in

a specially adapted training

house. A grenade has been

board by the man

the

in

center,

while his two colleagues cover

doorway, ready

the

arrest or

to

shoot anyone emerging. GIGN,

since their traditions

Naval

French

the

of

GIGN attack a simulated target

thrown into an understair cup-

Operations

Staff.

The primary Army

Marine

It is

a hijacked

Members

Above:

Nationale,

terrorist

known

Groupement des Fusiliers-Marins

which is composed

Commandos

one

is

professional

of

designated

are

part of France's Gendarmerie

of

units,

its

the most

counter-

of all

most recent

success being the

rescue

hostages from a French

airliner at

Marseille

1994.

in

Commando Group)

Naval

commandos

(= teams or companies), plus a special

of nageurs de combat (- underwater swimmers). Their

missions and tactical methodology are similar to those used by

SEALs and

British SBS, with

The Gendarmerie

whom

Nationale

is

US

they have frequent exchanges.

a national paramilitary police force

administered by the Ministry of Defense. This organization includes

its

own

special

Gendarmerie

forces,

Nationale

Groupement

(GSIGN)
which

Gendarmerie),

National

Speciale

(Special

has

d'lntervention

de

la

Action

Group

three

company-sized

of

the

components:
Groupe d'lntervention de
strength of 87, the

la

Gendarmerie Nationale (GIGN). With

GIGN

is

commanded

by a

commandant

(major).

Groupe de Securite du President de

la

Republique (GSPR) which

is

responsible for the personal safety of the president.

Escadron Parachuttste d'lntervention de

la

Gendarmerie Nationale

(EPIGN).

RAID

Above: Marines

naval

RAID

is

a highly secretive group,

among

formed

in

1985, and appears to counter the general

special

of the

French

forces

GROUFUMACO (Groupement de

counter-terrorist forces by recruiting direct from the public, rather

Fusiliers-Manns

Commandos)

than from already-trained soldiers or police. The unit has a strength of 60: headquarters and

coming ashore

in

support

dinghy. These

practice

10

each.

0; special

elite

task group (negotiators, explosives disposal, etc)

The normal operational uniform

is

black coverall and

0;

four assault teams

mask (hence

their

roles

an

inflatable

men have

similar

the US SEALs and

to

nickname "Black Panthers") and the operators are permitted to make personal selections of

British

weaponry, either foreign or French. The selection tests are very severe and are followed by

conduct frequent training.

SBS, with

which they

nine-month training course.

23

Special Forces

Legion Etrangere

The

Legion Etrangere (= Foreign Legion) forms

soldiers at the center of the French

Army.

In

core of highly professional

solid

March 1988 the French government

announced the outcome of a thorough review of the nation's defense requirements, as a

result of which the Army is being reduced from 200,000 to
36,000 (-47 percent). Of this,
however, the Legion's share of the cut is only from 8,300 to 7,500 (-10 percent), although
Legion units will withdraw from many overseas bases. The Legion continues to attract
I

and according to current

recruits,

the national origins of

statistics

roughly divided into: Eastern Europe - one-third; France

itself

its

manpower

can be

one-third; and the rest of the

world (103 nations) - one-third.

Training the Legion

The Legion

is

responsible for

its

own

administration, including recruiting, recruit training,

specialist training (eg, radio operators),

To achieve
er
l

this,

there are

NCO

training,

career management, and discharges.

two regiments:

Regiment Etranger (IRE) (1st Foreign Legion Regiment). Located at Caserne Vienot

in

RE is responsible for the administration of the whole Legion. It also runs the band
and the museum, and administers the large training camp. Of even greater importance, RE

Aubagne,

the senior regiment of the Legion and the custodian of the Legion's traditions and keeper

is

of

its relics.

For the individual legionnaire,

service begins and ends at Aubagne.

his

4 er Regiment Etranger (4th Foreign Legion Regiment [4RE]).

where

responsible for recruit and

it is

NCO

4RE

is

based at Castelnaudary,

training.

Below: Foreign Legionnaires at

range practice with their

5.56mm
The MAS
normally

FA

is

MAS

unusual

fired

assault
in

that

rifles.

it

is

using the built-in

bipod, which compels the firer

to

There are
2

er

five

major combat

units:

Regiment Etranger d'lnfanterie (2REI) (2nd Foreign Legion Infantry Regiment). Stationed at

Nimes,

France, 2REI has had a very busy time.

in

virtually

It

was

raised

in

1841 and has served

firing

3 er Regiment Etranger d'lnfanterie (3REI) (3rd Foreign Legion Infantry Regiment)

than with other

rifles.

at

Note the flash suppressor at the

Kourou

although

it

in
is

French Guyana.

composed

carrying handle/sight protector,

French missile launching

handle beneath.

er
I

the

of

specializes

It

normally reinforced by a

end of the barrel and the long

with the prominent cocking

in

every one of France's colonial campaigns since then.

adopt a rather higher

position

24

The Combat Units

two

infantry companies,
site,

in

fifth

whose

is

company from another Legion

basic responsibility

plus an air defense

is

company and an

unit.

in

eme

3REI

is

that of the security of the

administrative company.

Regiment Etranger de Cavalerie (IREC) (1st Foreign Legion Cavalry Regiment)

two armored regiments

stationed

jungle warfare and consists of four companies,

Division Legere Blindee (6th Light

Armored

is

one of

Division) and

SPtCIAL roRtts

Leu:

Combat frogmen

of the

Detachment d'lnter/ention
Operationelle Subaquatique, a
special

forces

manned

unit

by

engineers from the Legion's 6th

Engineer Regiment. One frogman

is

SB
S

Z
m

P5

checking their direction with

his

compass, while the other

stands guard, carrying a

standard FA MAS
assault

is

stationed at Orange, France.

consists of three

It

5.56mm

rifle.

armored car squadrons and an APC-borne

infantry company. It is one of the spearhead units for the French rapid deployment force.
er
Regiment Etranger de Parachutistes (2REP) (2nd Foreign Legion Parachute Regiment) is a
2

rapid

deployment airborne-commando regiment, stationed

The regiment

is

form of combat, although there

particular

are six companies:

mountain and

Company

Company

is

Company

sabotage,

sniping,

is

island of Corsica.

specially trained in a

between companies. There

regular cross-training

night combat, anti-tank, urban

warfare; 3

arctic

demolition,

on the

at Calvi

divided into specialized companies, each of which

combat; 2

Company

Below: Like other special forces,

the

Foreign

operate

in

Legion

terrains. In

this

amphibious warfare, combat swimmers; 4

desert, the

legionnaire

unconventional

warfare;

HQ

Company

carries

but the second

support company.

and

5 er Regiment Etranger (5RE) (5th Foreign Legion Regiment). The Legion's 5th Regiment

7.62mm

in

Indochina, but

labor duties on French islands

in

where French nuclear weapons

tests

6 eme

Regiment

Regiment)

is

recently as

the

Etranger

1984, although

it

is

former 6 eme Regiment Etranger

when

it

in

man

armed with
sniping

is

front
rifle,

a sniper

French

rifle.

security and

Mururoa

were carried out.

de Genie (6REG) (6th Legion

the most junior unit

France, until recently

now performs

Pacific, including

is

rock-strewn

an FA MAS assault

administration, communications, medical, maintenance, and supply; and reconnaissance and

served with distinction

ready to

is

a wide variety of

Atoll

Engineer

the Legion, having been raised as

in

the bearer of the traditions of the

d'lnfanterie.

moved

which was formerly the base for

6REG was

based at Nimes,

camp on the Plain d'Albion,

the French IRBM missiles. 6REG
to the

maintains engineer detachments overseas and includes Detachement

d 'Intervention

Operationnelle

Subaquatique

which

is

responsible

for

combat swimmer operations and underwater explosive ordnance

disposal.
It

It is

the engineer regiment for 6th

DLB

(= 6th Light Division).

consists of five companies: three field engineer companies; a bridging

company; and command/support company.

I3 eme Demi-Brigade Legion Etrangere

the Foreign Legion)

"Horn of

is

stationed

Africa," a location of

in

(I3DBLE) (13th Half-Brigade of

the Republic of Djibouti on the

major strategic importance.

13

DBLE

armored car squadron; an infantry company; and a

headquarters and support company, armed with mortars and anti-tank

consists of an

missiles (Milan),

and

medical section.

Detachement de Legion Etrangere a Mayotte (DLEM) (Foreign Legion

Detachment
the Indian

Mayotte).

Ocean

The DLEM

is

responsible for the security of

island of Mayotte, in the

Comoros group

of islands,

an important staging post on the route to the Pacific.

Selection and Training

Legionnaires come from any country

except,

in

theory, France

always contained a large proportion of Frenchmen,

claiming to

who

itself.

However, the Legion has

circumvent the regulations by

On enlisting the new recruit is

whose use is mandatory for three years. If he survives the first
and he may either leave or be expelled in that period - he is then

be Belgians, Swiss or French Canadians.

immediately given an

alias,

three weeks of training

25

Special Forces

remaining

a legionnaire for the

lasts for

one

year, being

island of Corsica.
it is

five

years of his contract. Training

conducted by 4RE

Great importance

camp

at a

at Bonifacio,

extremely thorough and

is

on the southern

claimed, goes through Legion training without soaking his socks

in his

own

once. Forced marches are frequent and a high standard of marksmanship

live firing

two days

taking place

tip

of the

placed on obedience and physical condition; nobody,

is

week

is

blood at

least

required, with

for 13 weeks.

39

and Advanced Training

Specialist

Once

the basic training has been completed selected legionnaires proceed to advanced

training (for example, as a

communicator or

one of the

as an engineer) at

special schools in

or near Castelnaudary. Potential non-commissioned officers must attend the Corporal's

course, which

lasts for eight

demanding courses

week course

weeks and

considered to be one of the physically most

is

any army. The successful corporal would then expect to attend a 14-

in

prior to promotion to sergeant.

Uniform
The Legion wears standard French Army uniform, but with
famous of which are the greatly prized

most
worn on parade, and

several special items, the

kepi blanc (= white hat),

which

is

the green beret used for daily and operational wear and by the Legion's paratroops,

not wear a red beret. The kepi blanc

is

actually a standard blue kepi, with a red top

badge, but with a white cloth cover, which

officer.

is

who do

and gold

permanently removed on promotion to sous-

Special items of parade dress are the kepi blanc, green shoulder-boards with red

tassels, a

green

waistcoat.

tie,

white belt over a blue sash, and white gauntlets. Officers also wear a green

Members

of the assault pioneer platoon also

wear

a white, hide apron, carry a

ceremonial axe with a chromed blade, and are permitted to grow a beard.

Paratroops

Below: French paratroops

deploying from a
helicopter. Apart

Puma

from conducting

more operational parachute

parachute corps

drops than any other army, the

with others since

French paras also pioneered the

detriment.

tactical

use of helicopters

in

ground wars during their

campaign against the Algerian

FLN

26

The French paratroops have probably carried out more operational jumps than any other

in

the

late

1950s.

in

(eg,

the world

in

their campaigns

Kolwezi).They have also

They were among the

units in the French

156 operational drops, but were defeated

in

at

in

times

campaign

Indochina, Suez (1956) and Algeria,

become
in

Indochina and carried out

the battle of Dien Bien Phu

Following the Indochina ceasefire and the French withdrawal

went to

Algeria, arriving just as the

heavily politicized, to their

war there

started.

in

in

some

1954-55.

955, the paratroop units

Special Forces

n
m

Left:

French special forces on

a running civilian.

patrol, passing

Note the black helmets with the

built-in

radio, giving

communications

to

every

man

in

the unit. The black uniforms,

covered faces, and aggressive

attitude are
a

intended to present

daunting impression.

was virtually
two months restored control. Their methods were
seriously questioned, however, and there were many allegations of torture. To this day, an
element of distrust of /es paras remains; for example, the number of years an officer may
In

January

957

Oth Parachute Division took over the city of Algiers which

the hands of the FLN, and inside

in

serve with paratroop units

now

is

limited.

war the paratroops returned to France, but the French have

After the Algerian

maintained a strong parachute capability, and have regularly used these excellent troops

overseas

in

what

pursuit of French diplomatic policies. Units of

Division have served

in

Zaire, Mauretania, Chad, and Lebanon,

now

is

among other

Nth Parachute
locations.
Below: Close-up of a French

Organization

special

The approximately 14,000-man Nth Parachute Division is based atTarbes.At least one-third
of the Division is abroad, either on training missions of one kind or another, or maintaining
a visible

presence

in

Africa or the Indian Ocean.

force, together with 9th

It

is

part of the French rapid-intervention

er RPIMa)

is

under

trooper. Note

his

the

large

silencer

on

his

sub-

machine gun.

Marine Light Infantry Division, 27th Alpine Division, 6th

Armored Division, and 4th Airmobile Division. Nth Parachute

comprises two brigades, with seven battalion-sized parachute units, one
Light

(l

forces

face-mask, personal radio, and

Division
of which

and has a para-commando/special forces

divisional control

role.

The other

six units are: 3,

paratroop

units);

parachute

unit).

6 and 8

RCP

and 9

RPIMa

(equivalent to the former "colonial"

(chasseurs or light infantry); and 2

REP

(the Legion

Selection and Training

All

French paratroops are volunteers and undergo the same sort of selection

and training as other parachute forces. The standard of training

certain volunteers can
er
l

go on to

join

high and

is

one of the para-commando

units (eg,

RPIMa).

Weapons and Equipment

For many years the French
have

FA

now

MAS

receive

Army was

using the

MAS

re-equipped with the revolutionary short,

"bullpup" assault

rifle,

49/56 7.5mm
light

rifle,

but they

but effective

5.56mm

with the parachute units being

among

the

first

to

it.

Uniforms
French paratroops wear standard French
is

Army

uniforms. Their parachute status

indicated by their red beret (except for Foreign Legion paras

green beret). Para wings are large and

in silver,

and are worn on the

who wear

right breast.

27

Spk

ial

Forces

Germany
GSG

AN

appropriate characterization of the special operations forces

"defensive," both with respect to

and

company),

reconnaissance

Grenzschutzgruppe 9 (GSG

The Fernspahkompanie,

Army

C5

corps.

It

is

paramilitary

its

in

Germany would be

Fernspahkompanie (long-range

military elements,

its

border

national

arm,

police

the

9).

said to

be about 140-150 personnel,

assigned to each

is

German

oriented toward stay-behind operations against forces that have passed

beyond them, or insertions behind

enemy

reconnaissance, they

out sabotage missions

Apart from

lines.

performing

long-range

30
Below: GSG 9 troopers descend

from a balcony using an ikar

descender during a training
exercise.

The

men

are

all

wearing "flak jackets" and carry

MPS sub-machine
in

GSG

guns. The

men

are required to be

physically very tough, but also

receive
in

intense academic training

subjects as diverse as law

and

terrorist theory

and

practice.

can

carry

also

required.

if

US

operational concepts closely parallel those of the missions of the

Forces. Basic training
training

is

conducted

is

conducted

parachute and ranger course

at the

Special Operations

in

Schongau. Further

Long Range Reconnaissance Training Center

at the

their

fact,

In

at

Neuhausen ob

Eck.

West

Following the Black September terrorist attack at the 1972 Munich Olympics, the

Germans

created

new

totally

group,

counter-terrorist

Bundesgrenzschutz (the Federal Border

and designated

Police),

but

part

as

of

the

Grenzschutzgruppe 9

it

(GSG 9). This unit proved itself in October 977 at Mogadishu in Somalia when a team of 27
men took part in a six-minute assault on a hijacked Lufthansa airliner and released all 87
1

GSG

no overt

hostages. Since then there have been

9 operations, although there have been

rumors of clandestine successes.

Organization
The

was 180 strong at the time of Mogadishu and as a result of

it was decided to increase it to 300, but recruiting
difficulties kept the strength at about 160 to 200 for some time.
unit

that operation

GSG

is

combat
unit; a

the process of increasing the unit strengths of

in

units to

42 each. Overall,

GSG

communications and documentation

training unit that can be used as another

flight

unit.

of three helicopters and

GSG

pilots

unit;

9/3 specializes

GSG

an engineer

combat

unit; a

9/2 specializes

GSG

in

unit; a

a supply

9/1, the counter-

maritime operations;

airborne missions. Total strength

in

four

helicopter

and mechanics; and

9 has three operational sub-units:

terrorist assault group;

GSG

its

9 consists of a headquarters

about

is

250.

Selection and Training

All

members

Police or
first

of

GSG

Border

leave the

9 must be volunteers from the ranks of the

Police. Thus,

Army and

22 weeks long and

is

weeks are devoted to

any soldier

join the

Border

who

wishes to join must

Police. The training

course

The first 13
weapons skills,

directed at mind and body.

is

police duties, legal matters,

and karate.
Training takes place

in a

variety of locations as befits a unit which

does not necessarily know

in advance where it will be committed.

The second part of the course comprises a detailed examination of
terrorist movements combined with a final development of

individual

skills,

communications

including
industries.

new developments in
The students become

the optics and

acquainted with

sharpshooter tools such as night vision devices, observation glasses

and the

like.

Failure

Evasive driving techniques are also taught.

rate

on the course

stronger emphasis on academic

is

about 80 percent. There

work

than

in

is

most such counter-

terrorist units.

Weapons and Equipment

A

wide variety of weapons are used, but the basic weapon is the
- the Heckler and Koch MP59mm

standard police sub-machine gun

-

but
,

when used

sniper missions.

28

by

GSG

it is

fitted

Mauser SP-86. and Mauser SP-66,

The men

with a silencer.The

7.62mm

H&K

PSG-

caliber,

are used for

are allowed to select their

own model

all

Special Forces

pistol, a rare

9mm

P7

release

degree of choice

pistol

and the gun

it

such

in

units.

Most unusual

of the

weapons

is

the

H&K

P9P

which features a unique cocking device operated by gripping the gunframe

totally safe!

is

Below:

GSG

position

building. His

silenced

Uniforms
GSG 9 members wear standard Bundesgrenzschutz uniform a green battledress with a dark
worn, together with
green beret. On operations the standard German paratrooper helmet
a flak jacket where necessary. No special unit identification is worn, although the wearing of
-

is

at

parachute qualification badge by a policeman may be an indication of

his role.

trooper

in

fire

corner of a

the

weapon

Heckler

is

& Koch MP5,

one of the most widely used

special

pages

forces'

weapons

(see

116-117).

Bottom: Unusual

ball-mounting

in

the armored-glass windscreen of

KOMMANDO

SPEZIALKRAFTE

Mercedes-Benz

enabling an

Kommando

Spezialkrafte (KSK) (= special

became operational
year 2000. Unlike

wartime

GSG

in

1997, although

9, this

it

a military unit,

is

commando

unit)

not reach

its full,

will

was formed

which serves two functions. The

military function of long-range patroling, with surveillance, sabotage,

missions against command-and-control and logistics targets deep

second, however,
conflict

is

in

1994 and

trained strength until the

in

first

is

and disruption

hostile territory.

German

the peacetime mission of protecting or rescuing

the

The

citizens in

zones overseas, with special emphasis on rescuing hostages or downed aircrews.

gun

to

of the

field-car,

MPS sub-machine

be fired straight ahead

vehicle

(the

distance

between the mounting plates

shows how thick the glass
This

mounting would be

great value
driving

into

when

is).

of

deliberately

a terrorist position.

The KSK was formed by removing the commando companies from the
two of the three independent long-range

three airborne brigades and

reconnaissance and

(LRRP) companies, one of which had been

patrol

allocated to each corps (the third

a brigadier-general, will

company,

reconnaissance
logistic

was disbanded). The KSK, commanded by

comprise four
a

commando

companies, a long-range

headquarters/communications

company, and a training center. Within the

companies the organization

The KSK

will

be the

company, a

commando and LRRP

be based on four-man teams.

will

German

equivalent of the

US

Delta and British SAS,

with similar organization, and selection and training procedures. The unit

will

probably use the black operational outfit pioneered by the British SAS and

German weapons, although the

German adaptation of the Accuracy International AW
(known in Germany as the G22 Sniper Weapon System).
The difficulty with GSG 9 has been that it is a unit of the German

will

be armed with predominantly standard

sniper

rifle will

be a

Bundesgrenzschutz
interpretation of the

though

it

however,

(Border

German

Security

Police)

and

thus,

undertook the Mogadishu operation). Being

KSK overcomes

German government and

Delta and the SAS.

by

strict

Law, ineligible for overseas missions (even

this legal nicety.

It

will also,

military

unit,

of course, enable the

military to deploy a direct national equivalent of

^K

St

29

Special Foiu is

Hungary
Police Special Force

The Police Special Force (PSF) was formed

two

1991 with

in

terrorist activities, and, second, to aid conventional police

crime. The PSF

service,

who

is

recruited only from police officers

are physically and mentally

and, as

fit,

who

have given three years unblemished

usual

is

counter any

roles: first, to

their fight against organized

in

in all

such forces, pass stringent

security checks.

The PSF looked to Israel for

much Israeli equipment.

help

in

forming and training the

which, as a result,

unit,

now

uses
30

India

AS

IS

TO

BE expected in such a large

also large, with 1,100,000

and every one of them

Below: Special forces of India's
National Security Guard

Sikhs'

Since Independence

a volunteer.

Kashmir to numerous

involving terrorist tactics. Finally, there has

in

many such

to

action,

10.000

1947 the Indian

in

India are

the Air Force,

in

Army
its

has seen a
traditional

enemies, Pakistan and China. There are also numerous internal problems, ranging from the
long-running dispute

As

the Navy and

in

great deal of active service and aggressive confrontation, particularly against

Golden Temple at Amritsar

operations they are awaiting the

call

and populous country, the armed forces of

the Army, 55,000

on deployment outside the

May 1988.

in

1NSG1

in

including operations
Indian

armed

in

in Sri

many

internal anti-guerrilla campaigns,

of

them

been a variety of other military commitments,

Lanka and the Maldives.

not surprising, therefore, that the

is

It

number

forces should have given birth to a large

of special forces.

which sometimes

Commandos

Para

can be a long time coming and,

without good leadership, can
result

in

a loss of morale

here are three Parachute/Commando battalions, the

and

efficiency.

T:Cdo Bn

in

966, followed by

Cdo Bn

0th Para

in

converted from

Cdo Bn

0th Bn

st

Some

mid-1970s.
Para

to be raised being the 9th Para

first

967; the third, 1st Para

in

the

years after being formed 9th

specialized

desert warfare and

in

mountain warfare, but

in

Cdo Bn.was

Parachute Battalion

Cdo Bn

Para

has not specialized and remains as a strategic

reserve.

The primary mission

battalions

in

operations

in

disrupt

his

of the Para

wartime

Commandos

conduct covert

to

is

the enemy's rear areas

and

operations

command-and-control and
peacetime their mission

order to

in

attack

to

logistic

enemy
In

facilities.

to serve as a highly

is

capable and flexible, rapid-reaction force.

All

the para

Commandos
part

of

commandos saw

active service in

Indo-Pakistan war. 9th and

the 1971

deployed to

the

beleaguered

Indian

Lanka

Sri

government's

government

in

in

0th Para

1987-88 as
aid

to

the

Colombo, where

they conducted several heliborne assaults, albeit

with varying degrees of success. 10 Para
also

took part

in

the Maldive islands

commandos

have also taken part

in

numerous

Cdo Bn

the peace-keeping operation

in

November

988.

in

The para

internal security operations including the

1984 attack on the Sikh Golden Temple, although they lost 17

and many wounded.

killed

National Security Guards

The National
forces groups

Security Guards
in

(NSG) were

raised

in

1985 and form one of the largest special

the world, with a current strength of

whereas other countries have

units

which are either

all

some

7,000.

military

or

It

all

also unusual
police, India's

in that,

NSG

is

two elements: the Special Action

Rangers Group (SRG).The SAG, which is slightly the larger of

a mixture of the two. In overall

terms

it

is

divided into

Group (SAG); and the Special

two and composed entirely of soldiers, is responsible for offensive action, while the SRG,
whose task is to support the SAG, particularly by cordoning off the area of the intended
action, is entirely composed of policemen. Men serve with the NSG for 3-5 years and are
the

30

l^^^H

Special Forces

then rotated back to their parent

The main
operations

in

NSG

of the

tasks

many other modern units they wear an

them the nickname of the "Black Cats."

unit. Like

operational uniform, which has earned

counter-terrorist

include:

to an incident depends upon the

SAG

and so on. The

which

on

commanded

is

in "hit

hijacking

by a captain. The

one occasion has

visits.

The

specialist.

NSG

scale of

SAG commitment

of terrorists, the surrounding situation,

teams," each of which

support

a technical

number

the

site,

committed

is

and

pairs,

at least

resolving

the air or the ground, rescuing hostages, explosive ordnance disposal (EOD),

VIP protection, and anti-sabotage checks prior to VIP

two-man

action,

all-black

Four

"hit

is

composed

of five men:

can, however, deploy in

much

larger units and

fielded an entire battalion.

most

other countries and

some

are

Indian Navy's Marine

(MCF) was

known

maintains close links with similar organizations

to have visited Israel for additional training.

in

Army paratroopers

await to emplane for the

the

flight

Maldives, following the

attempted coup

in

October

1988. Indian armed forces have

been involved

in

many

operations since Independence

in

1947, with the special forces

being kept particularly active.

Commando Force

Marine

The

NSG

special forces, the

J*
Below: Indian

to

Three occasions when the NSG is known to have deployed were twice against the Sikh
Golden Temple in Amritsar in 1986 and 1988 when they deployed in considerable strength,
and once in an aircraft hijacking incident at Amritsar in 1994 where a lone hijacker was
successfully overcome.
Like

two

teams" make an "action team"

raised

for special operations

Force

elite

force

maritime environment,

in

Commando

1987 as an

in

with tasks which include reconnaissance, raids,

and

operations

counter-terrorist

coastal,

in

beach, and riverine environments.

MCF

Volunteers for the

month

following
training

over a period of

which

start

they

course. This

operational

followed

is

on

unit

undergo further

on

posting

probation
which,

training,

to

an

where they
they pass, ends

if

qualified

fully

some

after starting.

Strength of the

over

by

with them being declared

two years

undergo arduous

nine-month

physical tests

MCF

is

believed to be well

and these are divided into three

1,000

each naval command:

groups, one with

West

(Bombay); South (Cochin), and East (Vizag). Each

group

includes

Reaction

Quick

platoon-sized

small

(QRS), responsible

Section

the

for

counter-terrorism commitment.

One

of the

unusual

MCF

elements of the

is

undertaken

roles

sabotage, for which they are equipped with

two-man

submarines

by

harbor attack and ship

capable

of

carrying

explosive charges or magnetic anti-ship mines,

and being delivered to the operational area by

conventional,

MCF

diesel-electric

submarines. The

can also deploy using the Indian

Navy's

small force of landing-ships, landing-craft, and air-

cushioned vehicles, as well as helicopters.

Group

Special Protection

The

not without
lost

its

two prime

Gandhi

in

Group (SPG)

Protection

Special

responsible

guarding

for

difficulties in a

VIPs,

is

task

country which has

ministers by assassination: Indira

1984

and

Rajiv

Gandhi

1991.

The SPG numbers approximately

who

are

believed

to

come

principally

in

3,000,

from

the police.

31

Spicial Forces

Indonesia
KOMANDO PASUKAN

The 6000 strong

KlHUSUS

Komando Pasukan Khusus (KOPASSUS)

command)

(= special forces

has been at the center of Indonesian counter-terrorist activities, recent operations

including those

in

the disputed territory of Irian Jaya.

Movement (FPM) kidnapped

months of negotiations
although the terrorists

number

1996 the Free Papua

January

In

of Indonesian citizens and foreigners and after four

was successful

special forces attacked the terrorist hideout. This

killed

two of the Indonesian

hostages.

Republic of Ireland
Army Rangers Wing
he

Defence Forces started to send

Irish

t:number
Army

the early 1970s.

in

the

establish

Rangers

Some

US Army Ranger

conventional warfare and

Missions

operations

roles can

fully

operational

be divided into

counter-terrorist missions.

conventional

in

were used to
Airm (= Army

an

Wing [ARW]), which became

March 1980, The ARW's

war comprise

hostile territory, such as raids,

in

small

of these

Fianoglach

Sciathan

branches of the Army,

all

Air Corps, and Navy to the

School

in

men from

of

offensive

ambushes,

sabotage, and the capture of key personnel, as well as

long-range
gathering.

surveillance,

patrols,

and

the counter-terrorist role

In

intelligence

ARW's

tasks

could include: VIP protection; anti-hijack operations

Above:

Men

of

the

forces, the

Irish

special

Army Rangers

Wing, on exercise
Irish

in

the

Republic.

operations; pursuit operations; and the

offshore gas/oil rigs or buildings. The

in

other countries, including

GIGN

in

buses or trains; hostage rescue; search

ships, aircraft,

recapture of terrorist-held objectives such as

ARW

is

regular contact and trains with similar units

in

GSG

(France),

9 (Germany), and Royal Dutch Marines

(Netherlands), although political sensitivities probably exclude contacts with the British SAS.

The ARW uses the same weapons as the Irish Army, in particular the Austrian-manufactured
5.56mm Steyr Aug A assault rifle, which came into service in 988. The sniper rifle is the latest
1

Accuracy International .308-caliber AI96, which

is

an improved version of the L92AI.

Zahal

As A

result OF

experiences, Israel has devised

its

an organization

units

placed

are

which

in

counter-terrorist

its

one

into

of

three

functional

categories:

"First-on-scene" units are those with a secondary

counter-terrorist function, but which, because of their

geographical spread, are

likely

terrorist incident. Their task

control

in

to arrive

first

pending the
scene" unit

possible, to

arrival of
is,

stabilize

an "assault"

the

situation

"first-on-

unit.

however, allowed to take direct action

the terrorists actually start

killing

hostages before

the arrival of an "assault" unit. There are nine

on-scene"

at a

to exert immediate

the general area, to cordon off the scene,

and, wherever

if

is

units,

three

in

each of Zahal

(Israel

"first-

Defense

Forces [IDF]) territorial commands. "Assault" units

are those with counter-terrorism as their principal
task and
action.

32

they

will

normally carry out the direct

There are three known

units

in this

category:

Special Forces

Sayeret Matkal, which

and

chief-of-staff,

Included within
the cover

name

Shayetet 13

is

is

ranks

its

known

also

is

as "Unit 262,"

most important,

given the

is

is

under the direct control of the IDF

highly classified,

a specialist counter-terrorist

and

difficult

missions.

and hostage-rescue team with

O
Z
m

Commandos and

>

"Unit 269."

the

Israeli

the qualifying course

is

Navy

elite unit.

It is

known

also

as the Naval

reputed to be even more exacting than that for land-based

units.

As with Sayeret Matkal, there is an integral hostage-rescue and counter-terrorist team.

Yamam, a civilian-manned group under police command.
The basic division of responsibilities is that the civilian Yamam group undertakes

operations inside

borders; Sayeret Matkal external land operations; and Shayetet 13

Israeli

external maritime incidents.

Not

Weary

left:

paratroops

in

Israeli

Sidon

front of a Centurion

passing

in

m
a
e
CD

tank and

an armored personnel carrier.

"Support" units provide direct on-scene support to the "first-on-scene" and "assault"
units.

50
Below

surprisingly, these units are highly classified, although several have

been

identified.

They are heavily armed with a

variety

weapons, including

of

53

Sayeret Yael

is

an engineer corps special unit which provides "hot entry," demolition, and

explosive ordnance disposal support to the IDF's "assault" units, Sayeret Matkal and Shayetet

There

13.

is

similar,

trooper from front) the

(third

Israeli-built

communications, and electronic warfare.

Below: Naval
Shayetet

Other

Elite Units

the IDF maintains three regular paratroop brigades (202nd, 890th and 50th

Na'ha'l) as well as three reserve brigades.

branch that the proliferation of

sayeret (reconnaissance) units,

were

outgrowth of regular paratroop

command

unit of the paratroops. Sayeret

elite units

has taken place.

formed for

originally

units.

within these formations and the infantry

It is

They are

Tzanhim

Most of these are designated

border defense, and were an

set up according to their roles

of the brigade. Sayeret

Orev

is

in

special

the reconnaissance anti-tank

the unit employed

is

13

rifle.

commandos
are

among

most highly trained

special

operations under the

assault

but separate, police-manned unit which supports Yamam. Other

specialist units provide intelligence,

Today,

Galil

in

forces. All

are

of

of

the
all

Israeli

armed

33

with the Russian AK-47 assault

rifle.

Special

variety

of

forces use

a wide

weapons, partly

to

obtain the best weapons, but

also

to

avoid leaving a

"signature."

the

capacity of "shock troops"; and the Sayeret Shaldag handles infiltration

and demolition.

There are numerous other paratroop-trained

connected to the paratroop brigades, one of which
which
in

manned by Druze Muslims and serves

is

units that are

not

Sayeret Hadruzim,

is

as a reconnaissance unit

border areas under the IDF Northern Command.

sensitive

Selection and Training

There

a six-month basic training course for

is

the training for those

training

geared

is

proficiency. In the

in

the sayeret units

towards physical

is

all

regular paratroops and

similar.The

fitness

and

first

phase of the

personal

two months of the second phase, the

weapons
soldier

is

assigned his role within the unit (machinegunner, ammunition carrier, or

in that task, and learns to apply it. APC
and helicopter training are introduced - with heavy emphasis on night

whatever), becomes proficient

fighting

and urban area combat. The

Nof Jump
becomes

phase of training

paratrooper. Advanced training

a full-fledged

with the units and

it

is

is

at this stage that the relationship

commanding

soldier and
first

last

is

at the Tel

School. After five static line jumps the soldier earns wings and
carried out

between the

addressed by their

officer relaxes. Officers are

names.

For the
infiltration,

HALO

Naval

Commandos,

training

given

is

in

Scuba

diving,

demolitions, sabotage, intelligence gathering, parachuting and

techniques. Medical techniques and driving

skills

are also taught

at an intense pace.

Air Force Special Operations Units

The

Israeli

One

is

Air Force maintains at least four special operations units.

Unit 5101,

whose primary mission

is

laser designation of

targets for air attack, with a secondary, counter-terrorist capability.This

believed to have been responsible for marking the targets during

unit

is

the

Israeli

669, which

attack
is

on an

Iraqi

nuclear reactor

responsible for rescuing pilots

in

98

downed

1.

in

Another

is

Unit

hostile territory.

33

Special Forces

Italy
Gruppo d'Intervento Speziale
Italy's primary counter-terrorist team, the IOO-strong Gruppo
d'Intervento Speziale (GIS) (= Special Operations Group) was
raised

in

1978 and

is

found from volunteers from the paramilitary

police force, the Carabinieri.

groups

any

in

It

is

having

country,

one of the most experienced

been involved in numerous

operations against the Red Brigade, the Mafia and,

more

recently,

northern separatists. The most recent known event took place

in

May 1997 when

in

St.

Mark's Square

group of separatists occupied the belltower

in

Venice.

Selection
The

selection

process

rigorous

is

and,

with

as

any

elite

organization, starts with an exhaustive security check, which

is

followed by a stringent medical examination and an interview

with a panel of GIS officers.

More

unusually,

it

also includes an

interview with a psychiatrist. Successful candidates then undergo

two-week

selection board and the relatively few

who

pass that

hurdle then attend a 10-month training course.

Weapons
GIS operators have a large choice of weapons for their counter-

& Koch
weapons such as the Beretta
and the Beretta Model 92 SB 9mm automatic pistol. Some

terrorist operations, including the widely used Heckler

Above: Italian

GIS troopers carry

out a simulated building assault

MP5 sub-machine gun

SC70/90 5.56mm

family.

assault

rifle

The group

also uses

Italian

& Wesson .38 caliber and .357

& Koch PSG-I, Mauser SP86 7.62 rifle and the

in

a training area, using

operators prefer revolvers, using such types as the Smith

specially

adapted Range Rovers

magnum. Sniper

with ladders to climb the wall.

Barret

M82

.50in

rifles

include the Heckler

(12.7mm)

caliber.

Note the helmets and army

COMSUBIN

combat uniforms. Some are

armed with Beretta SC90

assault

rifles,

others with

MPS

The USE OF swimmers

in

ancient times. But the

sub-machine guns.

combat
Italian

can rightfully be considered

is

anything but

new -

it

has been a part of warfare since

Naval Assault Divisions of World

among

the pioneers of

War

modern warfare

and World

War

II

of this type. Their

record at Trieste, Pola, Suda Bay, Gibraltar, and Malta only serves to under-score the point.
Heirs to this legacy are the
as

and Raiders Group.

Right:

COMSUBIN trooper

immediately after landing from

an Italian Navy Agusta-Sikorsky
AS-61

Sea King.

COMSUBIN

descended from the

Navy's

Oth MAS,

is

Italian

known

as

"Decimo," one of the most

successful

special

World War

II,

forces unit in

which had many

spectacular raids against British

targets

34

to

its

credit.

Italian

Commando Raggruppamento

Navy's current special operations force,

Subacqui ed Incursori

(COMSUBIN), or

known

formally

the Navy Frogmen

Special Forces

Left:

A major development
sniping business

the

in

this

is

command

station, using Sinco

and

equipment, which

Elbit

takes video feeds from

individual

sniperscopes to enable the

commander

to

control

and

coordinate his men's shooting.

is

It

being used by GIS; note their

black balaclava helmets, black

uniforms, and the distinctive GIS

unit shoulder badge.

As

operations force,

special

missions

its

and underwater obstacles from

explosives

include

mines,

clearing

waters; landings

Italian

on

friendly or foreign territory for reconnaissance purposes; clearing beaches

commando

of obstacles prior to amphibious landings; and

ships,

Rumors
surface

was

raids to destroy

dry-docks, and fuel storage areas.

of a counter-terrorist role for

COMSUBIN

1978 and were substantiated the following

in

out when a hijacked

called

Involvement

in this

deployed on

Italian

from Beirut was brought to Rome.

role continues: for example,

vessels near

COMSUBIN

Elements of

airliner

COMSUBIN

Lebanon during the

have taken

part

headquartered

COMSUBIN

elements were

Achille Lauro incident.

recent operations

in

Albania, the Lebanon, Persian Gulf, Ruanda, Somalia, and

Organ ization
The 200-man strong

came to the
when the unit

first

year,

reports to the Navy Chief of Staff and

just outside La Spezia.

From an

in

former Yugoslavia.

is

organizational standpoint,

Group has responsibility for offensive operations,

Group provides Italian coastline support. Personnel for
are drawn primarily from the crack San Marco naval infantry
the 1,000-man Italian "marine corps."
San Marco battalion

the Raider Operations

while the Frogman

both units
battalion

personnel receive general

commando training from the COMSUBIN but

when they volunteer for service with The
-

they must leave the battalion

Operations

Raider

it.

Group (Gruppo Operativo Subacqui) support

is

provided by a schools group, research and study group, and a special naval
group.

Selection and Training

Currently, the all-volunteer Incursori (mostly from the San

Marco

battalion)

are required to complete a 10-month training course. Rigorous physical tests are a part of
it

and,

in fact,

remain

in

are required every three

the

months

for everyone

in

the unit for as long as they

The program includes ranger, parachute, hand-to-hand combat,

weapons training, of course. These are in addition to Scuba and other

unit.

demolitions, and

swimming skills.
Those who go on to be part of the Raiders Group get an additional 42 weeks of
specialized training with emphasis on parachuting, mountain climbing and vigorous physical
endurance tests. This is capped off with a six-week command course. The COMSUBIN unit,
not surprisingly,

The

9mm

is

rated quite highly by those

Incursori use the

Model

12

same weapons

sub-machne gun

as

who

other

have observed
Italian units in

a particular favorite

because of

it.

the main, with the Beretta

its

compactness.

Above:

COMSUBIN troops on

training

range,

armed with

ubiquitous Heckler

the

& Koch

5.56mm MP5 sub-machine

gun.

Most COMSUBIN personnel come

from the San Marco marine

battalion,
in

some from elsewhere

the navy, but

volunteers and

all

all

are

must pass the

very demanding entry tests and

training course.

35

Special Forces

North Korea
Communists ruling North Korea is
number of special forces, estimates of

he paranoid nature of the

t:reflected
whose

by the large

vary from 50,000 to 100,000, the width of the bracket

size

knowledge about

reflecting the lack of

most

this

secretive regime.

Within the Ministry of Defense there are two bodies involved

Infantry Training

The

Guidance Bureau.

Bureau

Reconnaissance

responsible

is

each (normally divided into 2-10

brigades,"

six

Staff

some

men teams) and

supporting units.

which are airborne, two amphibious and

of

appears much more

for

self-

10 battalions

Directorate controls the efforts of 14 "sniper

conventional. These brigades could,

battalions

collecting

and small teams. The bureau also controls four

contained reconnaissance brigades, consisting of

The General

for

which involves despatching and controling both

strategic intelligence,
individual agents

in

Reconnaissance Bureau and the Light

special forces operations: the

would disperse

that they

likely

independent

six

theory, fight as an entity, but

in

The

operations.

it

their

5-10

airborne

and

conventional brigades are approximately 3,500 strong, but the two

amphibious brigades are somewhat stronger

men
Above: A
forces'

is

kept afloat

by flotation bags. The hatches

were sealed from inside and the

South Koreans eventually gained
access through the

torpedo

all

occupants dead; most

had been
colleagues, while

killed

supported by

suicide.

Below: South Koreans struggle to

keep the captured Sang-0

in

class

September

war

for

engineered" Yugoslav prototypes

six

purpose" brigade, with,

enemy

infiltrating

communications and
submarines

in

These

positions,

and

one

addition,

in

"special

"special

purpose" battalion

purpose" troops would be responsible

attacks

in

enemy command-control-and-

on

logistics facilities.

Navy: There are a

number of

naval special forces units, including those

which operate

support of Reconnaissance Bureau operations.

Selection and Training

The North Korean
and 21, and

combat swimmers.

soldier

is

a highly disciplined

Korea since childhood, he

will

remain

in

is

likely

and well trained

fighter.

Indoctrinated

to be conscripted between the ages of 17

service until the age of 27. Annual training

is

between March and

August and consists of a month-long basic training program. Once assigned to

his unit,

the

trainee goes through further basic unit, small unit and large-scale unit training exercises.
Soldiers

1996. These small submarines

were developed from "reverse

and carry

a "special

allocated to each infantry division.

against South

submarine afloat

the "special purpose" units are roughly

levels

by their

the final few

committed

tactical

equivalent to the "Spetsnaz" units of the former Soviet Army. Each forward corps would be

tubes to find a gruesome scene

with

approximately 5,000

with one brigade on each coast.

Corps: At the operational and

North Korean special

submarine

each

in

the special warfare units get special emphasis on

gathering, sabotage,

infiltration, Intelligence

underwater demolition, hand-to-hand combat, night operations, surprise

attack and political education. Specific indoctrination and information sessions on

of

communist ideology are carried out on

all

aspects

a daily basis.

Weapons and Equipment

Equipment

Common

flexible

is

to

all

pistols, including

9mm

and varies considerably.

are a dagger and/or bayonet:

the silenced versions of the

Browning automatic and the Soviet

Tokarev 7.62mm automatic; the AK-47 or

MI6

rifle;

hand grenades and demolitions;

rocket launchers, either the

3

Sagger; and

60mm

RPG-7 or

the AT-

mortars.

Uniforms
The

light

infantry,

during

are

training,

provided with the same standard uniforms as

the infantry of the North Korean People's

Army. However, during combat operations

they can be attired

Korean

Army

in civilian

uniforms

clothing.

(usually

South
with

incorrect ranks for the personnel wearing

them), mottled

camouflaged

summer, and an

all-white over

winter.

36

uniforms

garment

in
in

Special Forces

Republic of Korea
707th Special Missions Battalion

ROK Army first

The

raised "special warfare" units

but the dedicated counter-terrorist

O
1958,

in

707th Special

unit,

was not formed until hostage-taking at

the Munich Olympic Games showed the need for such a unit.
The unit was on stand-by throughout the Seoul Olympics in
1988, but was not used. The unit is about 200 strong and
Missions Battalion,

comprises

headquarters, support and specialist

two companies, each

Warfare"

come from elsewhere

and

all

men

undergo

and

organization

Once

selection and training procedure.

particularly tough

00

and

re

the

00

m
o

consisting of four 14-man teams.

Volunteers for the unit must

"Special

staff,

in

rigorous

the unit, training

in

is

are trained as underwater

swimmers.

707th Special Missions Battalion uses Korean weapons

wherever

Daewoo

and

Daewoo 9mm

the

including

possible,

and K2 assault

Kl

so

pistol

However, foreign

rifles.

weapons, such as the Heckler & Koch MP5 sub-machinegun,

are also used.

National Police Unit 868

IN

ROK

the lead-up to the 1988 Seoul Olympics

National

Force formed a special counter-terrorist squad,

Police

868, intended

Unit

designated

counter-terrorist

for

hostage rescue missions. Strength

about

is

and

00, with the bulk

organized into 12 seven-man teams.

Special

Warfare Brigades

Above:

Korean special forces,

S.

having come ashore from

The

ROK

has seven special warfare brigades organized on the same

whom

forces groups, with

brigades are often used

in

there

is

a close

working

The

enemy

lines as

The

US

special

battalions of these

the ranger role for the destruction of tactical targets. These

ROK

continuous guerrilla operations from bases

special forces units are capable of using either

within

relationship.

canoes, ascend a
soldier

is

cliff

armed with

face. Lead

Uzi

SMG,

designed for police and special

forces

use.

Below:

All

or carrying out single operations from bases within friendly territory.

territory,

usual allocation of the special forces

is

one

battalion to each

Army

corps.

members

of the

South

Korean special forces must

Selection and Training

reach "black belt" standard

Following the usual physical and psychological tests, the volunteers undergo a hard training

the

traditional

course which includes weapon handling

Do

or similar martial

All

ROK

similar martial art,

skills

to a very high standard and parachute training.

troops must also reach black belt standard

special forces

and when not on operations some four to

They are

practise of such arts.

also trained

five

in

Tae-Kwon-Do or

hours

day are spent

a
in

are

required

several

to

in

Korean Tae-Kwonart.

practise

They

for

hours every day.

in

tough, realistic exercises for dangerous missions

along the

DMZ,

such as clearing North Korean

tunnels. They have also

when North Korean

been used

as pursuit units

raiders have infiltrated the

South.

Uniform
Normal uniform

is

with the SF badge

equipment are

all

combat suit.The
mark is a black beret

a camouflage

Special Forces distinguishing

in silver.

of

US

Weapons and

origin.

sometimes worn for each brigade:

special

warfare

Brigade's; a

7th's;a

patch;

an

dragon on the

winged cat on

a lion

on the

on the 3rd
Pegasus on the

eagle

5th's; a

a parachute

bat over a lightning bolt on the

panther on the

personal

Pocket patches are

on the
I

Ith's;

9th's; a

and a

3th's.

37

Special Forces

Mexico
Force

m
x
n
c

Force

is

an all-volunteer

unit of the

Mexico City

Police and

was formed

in

the early

1980s as a specialist unit to counter drug-related crime and armed gangsters, but has
since also been tasked with counter-terrorist and hostage rescue missions.

between 300-400 strong, and

is

It is

quite large,

divided into three special-to-task elements, responsible for

explosive disposal, snipers and assault missions. The unit has the nickname "The Zorros."

Netherlands
a

Right:

The Royal Dutch Marines

are one of the most efficient

marine troops

in

NATO and,

together with the British Royal

Marines, form the Anglo-Dutch

Amphibious Warfare Group. Here

they assault over dunes on the

North Sea coast, watched by

observers

in

a Dutch Navy

Westland WG.I3 Lynx.

BlJZONDERE BlJSTANDS EENHEID

The main
Special

Dutch counter-terrorist group

Support Unit) which

is

is

the Bijzondere Bijstands Eenheid (BBE) (=

part of the Royal Dutch Marines'

a small

man

specialists,

teams.

The

unit includes the usual

explosives experts, but

is

also

known

complement of

the Royal Dutch Marines

week course.
The BBE uses

who must complete

a variety of

headquarters and

to include psychologists, trained

terrorists, particularly in hostage-taking situations. The

BBE

is

Amphibious Combat

st

Group. The unit has three 30-man platoons, organized into

five 5-

such as snipers and

in

communicating with

composed

of volunteers from

the usual selection process, followed by a 48-

weapons, although

it

has a publicly declared policy of seeking

possible. Weapons used include

Lawman .357 revolver or SIG-Sauer P-226 pistol, and the almost inevitable Heckler
& Koch MP5 sub-machinegun. Snipers use either the Heckler & Koch G3 MSG or Steyr SSG.
The BBE has seen action on a number of occasions. In 1974 it regained control of

to solve terrorist situations by non-violent means,

wherever

the Colt

Scheveringen prison from armed Palestine terrorist prisoners, using only stun-grenades and

hand-to-hand combat.Then.on June

1977, they rescued hostages

who

South Moluccan terrorists. Six terrorists and two hostages were

hostages were released. Small elements of the
ships to the Adriatic

38

in

the early 1990s.

had been seized by

killed,

but over 200

BBE were deployed aboard Royal Dutch Navy

Special Forces

Amfibisch Verkennings Peloton

The Royal Dutch Marines have

working closely with the

British Royal
is

mission and structure to the British Special Boat Service (SBS).The Dutch unit

is

similar

in

strong and

25

a long tradition of

Marines, and the Amfibisch Verkennings Peloton (amphibious reconnaissance platoon)

divided

is

teams for boat-handling; underwater

mission-oriented

into

operations; and counter-terrorist operations.

As with the

British

SBS, the

responsible for the security of Dutch passenger-carrying vessels and

and for intelligence gathering and sabotage missions

including

Glock and Browning

the Steyr

SSG

sniping

war.

in

Uzi and Heckler

pistols,

s
c

oil

variety of

Dutch

rigs in

unit

is

X
m

peacetime,

weapons

& Koch MP5 sub-machine

is

used,

guns, and

so
Left:

Dutch marines storm

ashore under simulated artillery

rifle.

fire.

Mk2.

The landing craft

>
D

an LCA

is

which can carry either 25

troops or one vehicle (Land-

Rover or BV-202 tracked over-

snow transporter) and a

number

of

lesser

men. Alongside the

LCA are two inflatable two-man

canoes.

Below: A

New Zealand

SAS

moment

trooper at the

his

drogue parachute deploys. This

unit has

carried

out

many

overseas deployments, for

example,

to

Emergency,

Malaya during the

to

Thailand and

South Vietnam during the

Indochina War, and to Saudi
Arabia during the Gulf War.

Many exchanges
(eg,

New Zealand

Special Air Service

initial

in

Malaya. As

volunteers were taken straight from

accepted from a

some

of

list

they were trained

when

Squadron was formed

SAS

to join the British and Rhodesian

New

in

and

Zealand from June

until

954

38 were

800. With 40 regular officers and

were sent to Singapore

the survivors

in

Rhodesia, the

in

civilian life

take place

New Zealand

Special Air Service

The

also

with the British SAS).

NCOs,

November 1955
complete their

to

parachute and jungle training. They soon deployed onto operations

and spent

7 months out of the next

two years

in

the jungle,

own soldiers.
New Zealand in November

killing

26 terrorists for the loss of just one of their

The squadron returned to

be disbanded, but was resuscitated

men was

sent to Korat

support of SEATO.
Squadron,

New

In

in

in

August 1958.

Thailand from

1957 to

troop of 30

May to September 1962

1963 the unit was redesignated

1st

in

Ranger

Zealand Special Air Service, and shortly afterwards

Borneo where it served, once again, along-side

from time to time with Britain's
SBS. 4 Troop NZSAS served in Vietnam from November 1968 to
February 1971, where it served with the Australian SAS Squadron.
The unit is now stationed near Auckland, New Zealand. It has five

the unit deployed to

the British SAS.

It

also operated

troops, a headquarters, and a separate small training establishment.

Its

task

is

to

operations and,

commitment

New

support
like

the

New
SAS

in

Zealand

defense

forces

in

their

the United Kingdom, has a major

to counter-terrorist missions. The uniform

is

standard

Zealand Army, but badges are similar to those of the British

Special Air Service.

39

Special Forces

Norway
Army

o
so

Forsvarets

Spesial

Kommando

(FSK) (=

Armed

Commando)

Forces' Special

the Army's

is

manned mainly by former members of the Fallskjermjeger

Kommando (parachute-hunter commando) and the Marinejeger Kommando (naval hunter
commando). The FSK has close links with the British SAS. Its roles include hostage rescue
and the protection of North Sea oil rigs.
counter-terrorist team, and

is

Navy

Marine
v

Jegere (= naval hunters) are equivalent

British

function and organization to the

in

whom

SBS and US Navy SEALs, with both of

they regularly

enemy

missions are deep penetration reconnaissance and sabotage on

and during the Cold

War

their main targets

train.

would have been Soviet Northern

on and around the Kola Peninsula. They can be delivered to

submarine or canoes.

Their main

naval installations

Fleet bases

their targets by parachute,

o
H
e
>

Police

There

ISA special unit of the National Police Force which specializes

and hostage-rescue missions.

Pakistan

It is

Group

Special Services

Since the acrimonious

India
spilled

split

when

counter-terrorist

in

designated the Beredskaptrop.

the

two countries obtained

independence

their

in

1947,

and Pakistan have maintained a state of armed confrontation, which has sometimes

over into actual warfare. This has dominated Pakistani defense thinking for the past

50 years, but problems on

its

northern and western borders have also begun to merit

made

greater attention, and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan

paramount geostrategic importance. Pakistan has developed

its

Pakistan

country of

special forces in this context,

although the long periods of military rule have also affected the way

in

which such forces

have developed.

There

is

one

Special Forces

terrorist company.

The

Group

of three battalions and an independent counter-

tasking of these units

is

the responsibility of three top-level bodies:

the Army's Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence

Intelligence

Bureau

[IB].

Military Intelligence [Ml],

(ISI),

and the

Ever since their inception there has been a large degree of overlap

between them. A further complication has been that they have tended to become involved
in political

Poland

1999 and

March

equipment

is

military

its

becoming Western-

permit.

GROM's international

and

1994.

Democracy

in

Haiti

estimated

is

number

rescue

and VIP

are trained as

Despite

appearance

their

on

GROM

are

the

the

trained

40

994,

in

including

protection.

combat swimmers.
recent

relatively

counter-terrorist

participated

the USA's

in

Operation Restore Democracy

1

great

four-person

techniques,

counter-terrorist

hostage

in

The

some 300

women,

whom work

The operators

teams.

scene,

have

to

including

majority of
in

Przez-

Commando

(1st

Regiment) and combat swimmers from

members,

Restore

PSK)

in

from

7th Lujcyka Naval Assault Division.

when

provided VIP protection

forces'

of volunteers

consists

(I

unit

during the US-led Operation

armed

Polish

Komandosow Specalnego

Pulk

naczenia

reputation was strengthened

it

the

counter-terrorist unit was formed

1991

in

oriented as rapidly as finance

will

GROM,

and AK-74 assault

Poland joined NATO

rifle.

Grom

paratrooper with

Right: Polish
flak jacket

matters, particularly during the periods of military rule.

where one of their main

in Haiti in

roles

was

in

Special Forces

VIP protection.

It

also believed that approximately

is

50 members of

GROM

accompanied

o
-

the Polish battalion to Bosnia.

Weapons
Tantal

5.45mm

assault

& Koch MP5

Heckler

include

rifle.

Sniper

rifles

sub-machine guns and

Polish-designed

the

are usually either the Mauser 86 or Heckler

& Koch

PSG-I

Portugal

o
so
H
ft

Grupo De Operacoes

Especials

Above: Four RIBs (rubberized

inflatable

Portugal took

several years to absorb the lessons of the 1972 Munich Olympic

disaster and did not start to

Operations Group)

until

groundwork, most of

it

form

its

Grupo De Operacoes
becoming

1979, with the unit

in

fully

Especiais

operational

in

(GOE) (=
983. The
1

Games

its

relatively

Following the end

careful

colonial wars, Portuguese forces

Personnel are
they

undergo

an

all

intensive

eight-month

training

course. This

aircraft, buildings, buses,

and

covers

their

off,

and special forces (Grupo de

Operacoes Especials) are now
totally

volunteers and after the usual rigorous vetting and selection process

techniques against targets such as

of

short existence.

believed that close ties with Israeli special forces have also been established.

It is

of the

Special

close liaison with the British Special Air Service (SAS), did pay

however, and the unit has established a fine reputation during

boats)

Portuguese Marine Battalion.

committed

to

national

and NATO missions.

hostage-rescue

trains, as well as

maritime

assault and VIP protection.

Weapons used
PSG-I sniper

rifle,

include Heckler

although

some

& Koch MP5 sub-machine guns and

Israeli

weapons, such

may also be used.

The only known GOE operation was

the

same company's

as the sniper version of the

7.62mm

Galil,

terrorists holed-up in the Turkish

terrorists

blew themselves

Embassy

a
in

hostage rescue attempt against a group of

Lisbon. This

ended unsuccessfully because the

up, apparently by accident.

41

Special Fori

>>

Russian Federation

Right: Russian

deplane from a

en

>
z

n
m
O
m
30

armed

helicopter

Spetsnaz troops
Mi-8

Mil
in

"Hip"

mountainous

country. The (then) Soviet

Army

brought such operations to a

high degree of efficiency during
the

war

in

Afghanistan, even

though they

overall

lost

the

campaign.

Below: Spetsnaz troops

undergoing urban warfare

training. These

troops established

a fearsome reputation during

the latter years of the Cold

War

Spetsnaz

and would have been a major

threat to NATO,

particularly to

HQs and nuclear

conflict

units,

had

broken out.

During the

970s,

when

the Cold

War was

at

its

height, the

West became aware of the

known as

existence of Soviet Spetsnaz troops, which were grouped into what were
'diversionary brigades." Today, although the
still

part of the

Cold

War

is

long since ended, Spetsnaz units are

order-of-battle, although

Russian

their

missions have

changed.

Spetsnaz (Spetsialnoye nazranie = troops of special purpose) were

raised as the troops of the

Glavnoe razvedyvatel'noe upravlenie (GRU) (=

main intelligence directorate [of the General

Staff])

and

in

the

1980s

numbered some 30,000. These were deployed: one Spetsnaz company per
Army; one Spetsnaz regiment in each of the three "theaters of operations";
one Spetsnaz brigade in each of the four Soviet Fleets; and an independent
Spetsnaz brigade in most military districts of the USSR. There were also
special Spetsnaz intelligence units, one to each Front and Fleet: total 20.
A Spetsnaz company was 135 strong, normally operating in 15
independent teams, although they could also combine for specific missions.
A Spetsnaz brigade was 1,000-1,300 strong and consisted of a
headquarters,

three

or

four

parachute

company, and supporting troops.

It

battalions,

communications

also included an anti-VIP

company,

composed of some 70-80 regular troops (ie, not conscripts) whose mission
was to seek out, identify and kill enemy political and military leaders. A naval
Spetsnaz brigade had a headquarters, two to three battalions of combat
swimmers, a parachute
also had a

It

battalion, supporting units,

and an anti-VIP company.

group of midget submarines, designed to deliver combat

swimmers to distant targets.

The existence of Spetsnaz was a closely guarded secret within the
Warsaw Pact and individual troops were not allowed to admit membership,
to the extent that army Spetsnaz wore standard airborne uniforms and
insignia, while naval Spetsnaz wore naval infantry uniforms and insignia.

Spetsnaz in 1999
Some of the republics which

broke away from the old Soviet Union took

over the Spetsnaz units within their borders or have converted parachute
units to the Spetsnaz role. Within the Russian Federation Spetsnaz units are less well trained

and equipped, at

lower strength, and at a lesser degree of readiness than during the 1970s

and 1980s. Despite

that,

they continue to exist, although their numbers are not

known

for

certain.

Naval Spetsnaz also continue to serve

in

the Northern, Baltic, Black Sea, and Pacific

fleets.

Most of these are subordinate to the Fleet commanders, but some are under the direct
control of the Naval Commander-in-Chief in Moscow. Again, their manning levels are not
known and it may be that, like other areas in the Russian armed forces, they are seriously
under strength.

42

Special Forces

Missions
Although Spetsnaz units may be used for other purposes during peacetime, their primary
to carry out strategic missions during the

role

is

war

itself.

These wartime tasks would

days prior to

final

war breaking out and

deep reconnaissance of

include:

in

strategic targets; the

destruction of strategically important command-control-and-communications (C3)

facilities;

50

the destruction of strategic weapons' delivery systems; demolition of important bridges and

transportation routes; and the kidnapping or assassination of important military and political

Many of these missions would be

some even before war had actually broken

carried out before the

leaders.

enemy could

C/5

react and

out.

m
D
m

Uniforms
The Russian Federation now acknowledges the existence

t:

of Spetsnaz units and, as a result,

<6

special

badges are

now worn,

identifying such troops.

Weapons
On

Below: Russian airborne troops

operations the majority of Spetsnaz soldiers would carry

5.45mm

PRI automatic pistol. All would also carry

designed for Spetsnaz troops.

One

such design

is

combat

5.45mm AKS-74
knives,

rifle

which are

and

specially

the NR-2, an ingenious device which

in

by clipping the scabbard and knife

7.62mm caliber barrel in the handle and is fired

together to give some control. Quite when such a weapon

would be used instead of

or

addition to the blade incorporates a short

trained

in all

a knife

a pistol

is

open to question. Spetsnaz troops are

also

types of foreign weapons.

(note the

blue

Despite the

conduct

beret)

unarmed combat

training.

post-Cold

War

rundown the Russian Federation

maintains several parachute
divisions, together with

massive air transport

the

to

deliver them.

Training
Those

joining Spetsnaz with

no previous

the normal recruit's basic training

handling and range work.
training,

Once

however, the pressure

military experience

must be given

weapon
moves on to proper Spetsnaz

discipline, marching, fieldcraft,

in

the recruit

ap

intensifies:

cr
jicKOMyMmw*#zw
5k,/

weapon

handling,

the

including

use

of

foreign

weapons and

marksmanship;
emphasis on endurance and strength;

physical fitness, with an

tracking, patroling, camouflage,

survival

in

a variety of harsh

and surveillance techniques, including

environments;

hand-to-hand combat, both unarmed and with knives (both hand-held

and throwing), and assassination of designated targets;

sabotage and demolitions;

language training and prisoner interrogation;

infiltration

by

air,

including parachuting for fixed-wing aircraft, and exit

from helicopters by parachute or ropes.

Naval Spetsnaz must,

in

addition, learn

combat swimmer techniques, the

use of underwater weapons, canoeing, arrival and exit over beaches, exit and
entry to submerged submarines.

Other Spetsnaz Troops

During the 1970s and 1980s special operations troops became increasingly the vogue
various ministries of the (then) Soviet Union. Further, such

was the

in

large and disorganized

were
Committee for State
(MVD). These special troops went under

nature and wastefulness of the Soviet system that similar bodies with similar missions
set up by different parts of the

Security

(KGB) and the Ministry

the generic

title

same

ministry, particularly within the

of Internal Affairs

of Spetsgruppe and

were

paramilitary forces which received special training

and indoctrination for a variety of missions. Many of these units served

in

the

war

in

Afghanistan but for most of them a defining

reached during the 1991 coup,

when

in

personal control

ministries.

Many

to have been

they were forced to take sides, or at least to refuse to

take action. After the coup had been defeated President Yeltsin transferred
his

a variety of roles

moment seems

but they have since been transferred yet again

of the groups have been involved

in

most

of

them to

back to various

the recent conflicts

in

the Russian

Federation, including Chech'nya.

Spetsgruppa

"Al'fa" (= special

group A) was set up by the KGB's Seventh Directorate

1974 and appears to have been inspired by the British SAS and

US SFOD-D

in

(Delta) as a

43

Spe<

ul Forces

counter-terrorist and hostage-rescue group. Al'fa

that attacked the

palace

Presidential

murdered President

Amin and

Hafizullah

generally credited with being the unit

is

his

family. Al'fa

the USA's FBI. Current strength

Moscow and

Vympel whose mission was to

The
the
(if

in

time the

this

controlled by the FSB

general terms, equivalent to

in

the federation.

Chief Administration, was Spetsgruppa

First

the KGB's wartime role of assassinations and kidnapping.

fullfil

After the collapse of the Soviet Union

FSB with

in

estimated to be about 300, with the main group

is

three smaller groups elsewhere

Also raised by the KGB, but

now

is

(Federal'naia sluzhba bezopasnosti = Federal Security Service)

30

December 28 1980 and

Kabul, Afghanistan, on

in

it

was transferred to the

MVD

but

is

now

with the

a primary responsibility for a hostage rescue.

Ministry of Internal Affairs also has at least

Omsn

(= black berets),

which were

necessary) hostage rescue at the 1980

two groups of

special troops

known

Moscow

Olympics. Since then they have been used

armed

for counter-terrorist activities and defeating

as

and

originally raised to provide additional security

criminals,

and are currently involved

in

campaigns against drug cultivation.

Symbolizing the disorganized nature of contemporary Russia

Below: During the Soviet era, the

Naval

Infantry

pekhota

morskaya

was a large and

well-organized force, with superb

equipment, including the

class

Company, which is a
Federal Government.

is

GROM

the

Security

quasi-private organization working under exclusive contract to the

GROM

word for "thunder" and with no relationship to

manned by former troops of the various KGB special

(the Russian

same name)

the Polish group of the

is

forces and provides security for selected government personnel and buildings, as well as for
trains

and

aircraft.

Aist-

air-cushion vehicle and

Naval Infantry

PT-

76 amphibious tank shown here,

some
service. All

of

which remain

found from volunteers serving

units

of

in

Russia's Naval
emphasis

naval Spetsnaz are

the

in

naval infantry.

is

Infantry, "morskaya pekhota,"

it

graded as a "Guards"

is

placed on the elite status this confers, a status reflected

and accoutrements. Like many

elite

"Polundra," which roughly means,

forces the Russian Naval Infantry has

unit,

and great

special

in
its

own

uniform

battlecry:

"Watch out below."

Organization
The

basic amphibious assault unit

composition was described

motorized

infantry

is

in

the battalion group, and

Russian

detailed

battalion

to

its likely

journal

military

operate

as,

"A

advanced

as

detachment was reinforced with an artillery battery, an ATGM battery,

AA, frogman and engineer platoons. It also included reconnaissance
and obstacle-clearing parties, road-building teams, communications
facilities,
transport vehicles, and landing craft to perform
transportation missions. The advanced detachment was to be
supported by

aviation, tactical airborne troops,

support ships and

minesweepers."

Selection and Training

While some members of the Naval
are conscripts, although, as befits
is

its

Infantry

may be

elite status as a

also

know something about

life

on board

Physical training for the Black Beret

wrestling,
training

is

drill

is

in

like all

it

in

marines, must

emphasized during routine

program

is

devoted to

with the bayonet, and the techniques of knife attack.The

identical for

both officer and enlisted man. Marines are also

required to undergo training

country rush; a swim

unit,

ship as well.

unit training. Forty percent of the training

skills

"Guards"

allocated high quality men. Units and individuals are highly trained

amphibious operations and land warfare, and,

master the set of

most

volunteers,

in

the Military Sports

offered there, such as horizontal bar work; sprint

uniform with assault

rifle;

and

in

Complex and

uniform; a cross

a longer version of the cross

country

rush.

Weapons and Equipment

In

the platoon the

while the

APC

officer,

NCOs

driver has the

and most marines are armed with the

AKMS

AKM

assault

rifle,

folding-stock version. Each squad also has an

RPK

machine gun and an anti-tank rocket launcher. Sniper teams are armed with the
effective

44

SVD 7.72mm Dragunov

sniper

rifle.

highly

Special Forces

50

m
O
m
-

Frogmen from a Naval

Left:

Infantry

Such

unit.

be the

men would

ashore

first

an

in

J*
amphibious operation, being
responsible for beach

reconnaissance; the location,

and demolition

identification

of

beach obstacles; destruction of

enemy

positions

interfere

setting

to

up beacons

guide the

to

waves of the assault onto

first

the

likely

with a landing; and

correct beaches.

Uniforms
The uniform

of the Naval Infantry

is

unique embellishments of their own.

combination of

Combat

type blouse and calf-length black leather boots.

appropriate fleet badge on the buckle.

standard with
officers

anchor

and
is

all

Army and Navy

items, with a

black leather belt

is

men wearing
the

the "Guards" badge.

left

worn, with the

also

horizontally striped blue and white T-shirt

forms of dress. The usual range of metal award brooches

worn on

few

dress consists of black fatigues, with a "bush"

is

worn, with

is
all

round cloth badge with an embroidered

sleeve just above the elbow.

Various items of headgear are worn.

In

assault operations a black steel helmet

is

worn

with a large five-pointed red star on the front, and a stenciled anchor inside a broken anchor

on the

left.

On

other occasions

ear; the

the

left

for

NCOs and

main badge

is

a soft black

a large

beret

enameled

worn with

is

naval

a small

anchor badge above

badge for officers and a small red star

marines.

Amphibious Shipping
The Naval

Infantry

would be of

limited value without special-role shipping, and a

of purpose-built craft has been developed. Largest of these

ton Landing Platform

Dock

(LPD), of which one

is

now

capable of carrying a complete battalion group with

There are also some Ropucha

class

and Alligator

all

class

some 4,500 tons displacement, and a number of smaller

been made in the area of air-cushion landing craft

is

in

service and

its

whole range

the Ivan Rogov class of 14,000-

two

are

in

reserve,

vehicles and supporting arms.

Landing Ship Tanks (LST), both of

vessels. Particular investment has

and

Above: Confident

men wear
Infantry

the

alert, these

Naval

typical

uniform of black

coverall, black

boots, blue

calf-length

leather

and white striped

T-

"guards" badge, and black

shirt,

beret.

Left:

Naval Infantry trainees

emerge from a tunnel complex

wearing camouflage pattern
coveralls, rather

than the

considerably more menacing

black. Training standards

among

Russian units has dropped since

the end of the Cold
the

dissolution

Union, but

elite

War and

of the

units

Naval Infantry are

still

Soviet
like

the

forces

to

be reckoned with.

45

Special For< is

Spain
many YEARS

FOR

following

War

Civil

its

Spain held

apart

itself

from the rest of Western Europe, but following the accession

democracy

of King Juan Carlos and the restoration of

become
is

to

increasingly integrated.

NATO,

but

it

has

primary defense commitment

also has to deal with internal strife involving

it

Basque

long-running

the

Its

movement, which

separatist

has

frequently employed terrorists tactics, and also has a national

commitment

to the defense of

two remaining enclaves on

its last

the North African coast at Ceuta and Melilla.

The Spanish armed

special forces.

Some

forces and police maintain a

number

of

of these are either earmarked or assigned to

the Fuerza de Action Rapide (FAR) (= rapid action force), which

NATO's

part of
Above: A Spanish

legionnaire

through an assault course

crawls

under

live

fire

from instructors.

The men are carefully selected

special

Rapid

Allied

operation forces include the army's Brigada Paracaidista (BRIPAC)(=

brigade) and the Navy's Unidad Especial de Buceadores de Combate

here two specific organizations

(UEBC)

parachute

(= SEALs), but

be covered: the Spanish Legion and the Garda

will

is

Corps (ARRC). Such

Reaction

Civil's

Unidad Especial de Intervention (UEI).

and highly trained and the

Spanish Legion has

somewhat

ethos. Although a

foreigners

are

number

admitted to

some 90 percent

ranks,

men

Spanish Legion

own,

its

idiosyncratic, military

are of Spanish

of

In

of

its

nationality.

contrast to the better-known French Foreign Legion, the Spanish Legion

almost entirely (90 percent) of native Spaniards. Following the Moroccan

its

War

consists

(1920-27),

the Legion continued to guard Spain's remaining African possessions. These included
small enclaves
still

Melilla

and Ceuta -

in

based today. Ultimately, the decolonization process played

battles

out,

itself

erupted with the Algerian-backed Polisario Front, and by 1981 the

monuments commemorating African

two

northern Morocco, where Spanish Legion units are

last

armed

conflict

of the Legion's

was dismantled.

Organization
The Spanish Legion
of which is named
man

Below: Legionnaires

Spanish-manufactured version of
the

German 7.62mm MG3

machine gun, which,

setting,

light

in

this

mounted on a tripod

is

and has the butt removed

use

in

which
of

for

the sustained-fire role, in

it

has an effective

range

2,400yd (2,200m). This highly

effective

development

weapon
of the

is

a direct

World War

II

7.92mm MG42.

is

approximately 7,000 strong and

person famous

after a

banderas (battalions), each of a

number

in

is

made up

of tercios (regiments), each

Spanish history. These are

addition, Legion headquarters, stationed at Almeria,

is

of four
In

responsible for the selection, training

and administration of the Legion, but also provides the operational

staff for

Brigada de

la

committed to the FAR. This brigade would comprise VII, VIM and
Banderas, supported by artillery, logistics, and communications elements. The permanent

Legion Alfonso XIII,

made up

of companies, depending on the unit's role.

which

elements of the Legion

IstTercio

Gran Capitan

and consists of

is

is

are:

stationed

in

the Spanish enclave of Melilla on the north African coast

Bandera Legionaria Mecanizada (1st Legion Mechanized Battalion),

Motorized

Legionaria Motorizada (2nd Legion

Battalion), each of three

rifle

Bandera

II

companies, a

headquarters company and a service support company. There is also an anti-tank company
armed with MILAN missiles. Its primary mission is the defense of Melilla.
2nd Tercio Duque de Alba is stationed at the second Spanish enclave of Ceuta. It is organized
the same as 1st tercio, with one mechanized battalion (V Bandera)
and one motorized battalion and an anti-tank company.
3rd Tercio Juan de Austria
distant

Canary

Islands.

It

is

stationed at Fuerteventura

earmarked for the FAR, although

time for

in

the

consists of VII and VIII Banderas and

it

is

would obviously take some

to return to the mainland prior to an operational

it

redeployment.
4th Tercio Alejandro Farnesio, which

of which,

XIX

Bandera,

is

is

Bandera, has the additional

Especiales

(BOEL)

(=

assigned to the

is

FAR,

is

two banderas, one

parachute-assault unit. The second unit,

stationed at Ronda, Malaga, and

composed

title

of

of Bandera de Operaciones

operations

special

amphibious, mountain, parachute

and

battalion)

long-range

and

has

patrolling

capabilities.

Weapons and Equipment

The Spanish Legion uses
the 7.62

46

CETME Model

68

basic infantry
rifle,

the

9mm

weapons, which include

Star

Z-70B sub-machine

Special Forces

60.7mm ECIA

gun, and the

AML-90

mortar.

armored cars, as well

Rovers, and Nissan 4x4 field cars.

The Legion also has M4! and AMX-13 light tanks, and
number of American eight-ton trucks, British Land

as a

light

Selection and Training

Enlisting in the Legion

an easy and relatively straightforward process. A passport

is

or the applicant need only certify to the information he

or government building, police station or

a military

Spanish national territory or

city within
is

its

years

five

minimum

desired. Training

if

guard station at any port, airport or

Ronda and

takes place at

upon being

term he can expand to four or

short, intensive and strict. The Legion's objective

is

includes

drill,

the usual training period

physical courses

traditions and disciplines of the Legion. Discipline

work,

After a thorough briefing, the candidate

obligation of three years

basic military skills in as short a time as possible

will

he need only go to

given the option to quit; however, after passing a medical examination and

accepted, he incurs a

It

civil

islands.

gives. To enroll,

is

is

is

to

instill

three months.

and familiarization with the

harsh and based on

fear.

Offenders are

liable

to find themselves

in

prison (not a desirable thing since prisoners sleep on concrete

slabs

and can be beaten

at

whim

head for poor shooting at

punishment

is

mild

by the guards), or the recipient of a rain of blows to the

standard target. All things

compared to

earlier times

being

relative,

however,

this

when, under some circumstances and for

certain offenses, the legionnaire could be shot.

Much time
rough terrain

devoted

is

either

the

in

field

to the route march. Long distances are covered over

order or with heavy pack, depending upon the individual

light

in

commander.

The

however,

and

things as navigation, tactics

modern forms

of warfare

first aid in

the

field.

His training

his officers for

in

such basic

advanced weaponry and

something that may change with the anticipated

negligible,

is

dependent upon

heavily

is

modernization of the Army.

To become an

officer,

it

one can be promoted

as a legionnaire

become
is

a Spanish citizen.

The

highest rank

that of major.

The caps

are specially designed and

and hood for cold

collar

versions found

nights.

the rest of the Spanish Army.

in

collar.

Breeches

wear gauntleted gloves and white-lined capes with a fur

Webbing straps and belts are used instead of the leather

jodhpurs, and legionnaires

like

uncompromising

motto: "Todo Por La Patria"

cap

the hallmark of the

is

Legion,

with a red tassel and chinstrap.

have a small red tassle. Short sleeve blouses are worn, which are open at the
are

Legion's

him the arch carries

Below: Spanish special forces

the traditional color of the Legion's uniform.

is

barrack

front of the

gate. Behind

the

Spanish Legion

of the

in

(death for the motherland). His

necessary to

first

is

Uniform
Green

member
stands

typical legionnaire,

to which

A very smart and confident

Above:

their

face

camouflage

in

helmets,

masks, and body armor. The

soldier

on the

a Heckler
silenced

left

& Koch

SMG

while the

Unidad Especial de Intervencion (UEI)

suits,

with

man on

is

armed with

9mm MPS

SD4

night-sight,

the right

carrying a Mossberg

is

12-gauge,

automatic shotgun.

Unidad

The

Especial de Intervencion

(UEI) (Special Intervention Unit)

elite

unit of the

Guarda

any

Civil

is
is

the

the

country's premier counter-terrorist unit.

is

It

responsible for countering any foreign

who may commit

terrorists

Spanish

territory,

but also

crimes

has

on

major

domestic commitment in the continuing

war against the
Basque
separatist
movement, ETA. Although its strength is
secret

it

50 men,
Civil

believed to be

is

who

in

the region of

volunteers from the Guarda

all

have passed stringent selection

tests.

The
February

Guarda

unit

Civil

operations,
black

was

officially

formed

in

1982 and troops wear normal

uniforms, except

when they

Nomex

will usually

coveralls

counter-terrorist squads.

wear the

adopted by most

Weapons

usual mixture of Uzis, plus

and Mauser sniper

when on

Heckler

are the

& Koch

rifles.

47

Special Forces

Sweden
ONI

Below: Sweden has a very long

coastline, for

m
O

special

whose defense

troops are

special

trained

and

These soldiers are coming ashore

from a Stridsbat (combat boat)

r-

90H, which
carrying 20

is

capable of

fully

equipped

ONI

(= national rescue unit)

is

part of the Stockholm City Police Force and

estimated to be 50-strong, divided into

five

intelligence-and-negotiating team; a sniper team; and

The Stockholm
unit,

two

it comes under the direct orders of

way to change this. Even if changes are

but on deployment on a counter-terrorist mission

the Prime Minister, although discussions are under

made, however, the Prime Minister

unless the lives of the hostages are perceived to be

speed of 30

onto a beach over the bow

ramp, as shown here.

assault teams.

Police Force has overall responsibility for the day-to-day running of the

km) range

at a

is

teams: a command-and-control team; an

troops over a 240 mile (385

knots and then discharging them

m
a

The

equipment procured.

will

remain the sole authority for the use of weapons,

in

immediate danger, when a

local

decision could be taken.

Weapons

include SIG

guns, and Heckler

& Koch

P226 automatics, the

sniper

inevitable

Heckler & Koch

MP5 sub-machine

rifles.

Turkey
Turkey

has large armed forces to face up to

number

shared borders with Armenia, Azerbajan, Georgia,

problems with Kurdish separatists

Right: Turkish

amphibious troops

come ashore

in

rubber

dinghy. Turkey has a very long

coastline facing the

Black,

Aegean, and Mediterranean Seas,

the latter two being areas of
potential conflict.

48

in

of major threats. These include;

Iran, Syria,

and Greece; the continuing

the east; and confrontation with Greece on the island

Special Forces

of

Cyprus

well over

Mediterranean and Aegean seas. The

as well as in the

500,000 and

it is

armed forces number

total

not surprising that these should include a large number of special

forces.

Army

The Turkish Army

strong.

It

Commando

Brigade,

underwater defense). This

150

SAS

brigades:

whose mission

unit

is

and

similar characteristics

commando

and US Delta.There are also three

1st

some

capabilities to British

has at least one counter-terrorist special forces battalion,

may be assumed to have

based

in

described as Su

is

Alti

Savunma (SAS) (=

Kayseri, but has recently operated

in

Southeast

Anatolia against separatist terrorists.

Commando

2nd

underwater attack)

Commando

3rd

infiltration

and

its

is

described as Su Alti Taaruz (SAT)

(=

based at Bolu.

Brigade

from the

whose mission

Brigade,

is

is

responsible for conventional amphibious operations, including

sea, intelligence gathering,

and sabotage.

wartime missions could include operations against

It

based at Foca and Izmir

is

island targets

eg, in

the Aegean

and Mediterranean.

Air Force

Above: A Turkish

soldier

crossing

a single rope bridge. Turkish

number of Turkish
Cougars, have been

force

air

fitted for

UH-60 Blackhawks and AS-90

And Rescue) missions and are also

helicopters, including

CSAR (Combat

Search

used for covert insertion and extraction.

evident.

The

and 1816, which resulted

two short wars

fought

Gurkhas

against the

mutual respect for each other's martial

qualities.

As

a result

self-

1813

three battalions of

Gurkhas were immediately raised (1815) and Gurkhas have served the

Crown

is

in

very hard-won British victory and considerable

in

and would make

of Nepal with the

hills

are slightly difficult to understand, but their strength

British in India

trained,

United Kingdom

The bonds which link the legendary Gurkhas from the

Army

well

formidable opponents.

Gurkhas

British

troops are tough, loyal and very

British

ever since.

Organ ization
The

original three battalions

basically there have

been

of the Gurkhas' history.

and 9th Gurkha

Rifles

expanded and changed

titles

over the years, but

regiments (of varying numbers of battalions) for most

In

947 when the

went to the

Indian

British left India, the

Army, and the balance

st,

4th, 5th, 8th

2nd, 6th, 7th, and

Gurkha Rifles - to the British Army. Still serving in the British Army are the
Gurkha Rifles (IRGR) stationed in Brunei (and paid for by the Sultan)
and 2RGR in Shornecliffe, England. Individual battalions are on the standard British
Army organization, with some very minor amendments to comply with
1

0th

1st

Royal

Regimental custom.

The

infantry battalions have very

Queen's Gurkha Officers

who

few

British officers, the great majority being

have worked their way up through the ranks to

Warrant Officer before being commissioned. The most senior is the Gurkha
Major, a figure of immense prestige, who is the Commanding Officer's adviser on
all Gurkha matters.
In

addition there are five

Gurkha

infantry companies,

one each attached to 2nd

Battalion Parachute Regiment, 1st Battalion Royal Scots, and 1st Battalion Prince

of Wales's Royal Regiment, plus Demonstration Companies at the Royal Military

Academy Sandhurst and the Infantry Training Center at Brecon in Wales. There are
also Gurkha-manned engineer, signals, and transport regiments.

Selection and Training

Above: British Gurkha troops

Gurkhas are recruited from the

signed up at the age of

hill

tribesmen

in

the Himalayan kingdom of Nepal. They are

7 by itinerant gallah-wallahs (ex-Gurkhas

successful sign-up) and serve a

minimum commitment

Instead of being called by name,

who

get a bounty for each

of 15 years.

Gurkhas are referred to by

serial

rapelling from

Washington

numbers

the

last

two

US Army UH-I

during training at Fort Lewis

state.

in

These soldiers

have a reputation second

to

none.

49

sin

ial

Forces

o
o
Right:

A British Gurkha infantry

company headquarters on
in

the

company commander
right

patrol

Brunei jungle. The

(note his

M 6
1

is

on the

rifle),

while

the operator sends a message

over the company radio net.

Although they come from a

mountainous country, Gurkhas

have proved especially adept as
jungle fighters.

digits of this
life.

number becoming "nicknames." Gurkha

tribal

names are

left

concept called kaida, which translates into a system of order,

officers

and each other that

unquestioned,

is

might be expected, boot camp

from an often
world's

illiterate

most unusual

is

is

Gurkha

and barefoot mountain tribesman into

-

and loyalty to

the secret of their training and fortitude. As

rigorous and transforms the

and ferocious

new

behind for the

ritual,

a solid

recruit

fighting forces. Recruits arrive in the

months
one of the

nine

in

member

of

UK

in

January

of every year to begin training.

Uniform and Weapons

Gurkhas wear

their

own

of British

variations

Army

uniform.

Combat

kit

is

standard

camouflage pattern smock and trousers, with green canvas webbing, except, of course, for
the addition of the famous kukri weapon. Parade uniform

and white

in

is

rifle-green in

temperate climates

the tropics, with black, patent-leather waist belts for soldiers and cross-belts for

Buttons and badges are black. Soldiers wear a black pill-box hat on parade or the
Gurkha slouch-hat, and a green beret in other forms of dress.
The kukri is the subject of many myths. The knives come in various sizes, but the doglegged shape is constant. The rear edge is thick and blunt, making the knife quite heavy, but
the cutting-edge is razor sharp. The kukri is in no way a throwing knife, but it is quite
excellent for hand-to-hand fighting and is the Gurkhas' preferred close-combat weapon. It is
therefore always carried in war and there are many stories of its use against Germans,
Japanese, and Malayan Communists, to mention but a few of the Gurkhas' more recent
officers.

enemies.

The Gurkhas' Future

It

would be

Crown

very sad day were the

ties

between these legendary

they have served so well to be severed.

relationship

more

clearly described than

in

(of

language dictionary compiled by Sir Ralph Turner

words, my thoughts return to you

peasants of Nepal.

Once more
trenches, now
I

Once more

see you

in

who were my

all

Nowhere

soldiers and the British

the depth of

this

some 70

years ago: "As

write these

hear the laughter with which you greeted every hardship.

wet and

cold,

fires,

now scorched

on forced march or

by a

pitiless
last

in

the

and burning sun.

your unwavering

smoke and wrath of battle. Bravest of the brave, most generous

generous, never had a country more faithful friends than you."
Or, in the words of a Gurkha commander, "They are just bloody good soldiers."
50

last

comrades, the stubborn and indomitable

Uncomplaining, you endure hunger and thirst and wounds, and at

disappear into the

unique

places) the introduction to a Nepali

your bivouacs or about your

shivering with

is

lines

of the

Special Forces

The Parachute Regiment

The very name of The Parachute

Regiment (the "Paras") has come to

of soldiering and a certain "style"

would,

seems, always need to be fighting against heavy odds and either succeed

it

or suffer glorious defeats: the one performance that

It

both

signify

was Winston Churchill who demanded that

German model, and

corps of parachutists on the

was formed in late 1940.

There was a major reduction

a type

dramatic, forceful and with panache, Paratroops

never allowed

is

a slightly reluctant

after a

somewhat

is

brilliantly

an indifferent one.

War

Office establish a

hesitant start the first

m
3

unit

again

in

parachute troops

the immediate post-war years, and

in

the 1960s and 1970s. 16th Parachute Brigade existed

in

when

in

Aldershot from 1949 to

a
a
c

was redesignated 6th Field Force in one of the British Army's endless series of
reorganizations, and only one battalion of The Parachute Regiment was left in the parachute
1982 6th Field Force became 5 Infantry Brigade and included among its
role. On January
units 2nd and 3rd Battalions The Parachute Regiment.
With the South Atlantic War in 1982, these two battalions were hived off to 3
Commando Brigade and sent south with the Marines. In the Falklands these two units
performed very well, and at Goose Green 550 men of 2 Para took on ,400 Argentines and
defeated them utterly, even though their commanding officer, Lt. Col. "H" Jones, died in the
1977

it

men, personally leading an attack

battle. In

the finest Para tradition he died at the head of

against a

machine gun position that was holding up the entire

his

attack.

He was posthumously

awarded the Victoria Cross.

December 1982

In

Below: British paratroops

the British Secretary of State for Defence, Michael Heseltine,

announce

to Aldershot to

went

person that 5 Infantry Brigade was to be redesignated 5

in

reaffirmed

reputation

high

their

during the

1982

Falklands War.

The long-awaited British Strategic Defence Review was

expected, The Parachute Regiment featured, although the
effects of the Review on it were much less significant than had been feared in some quarters.
The Review stated that "we can no longer identify circumstances in which Britain would

These

men

guard

in

need to undertake parachute operataions

general-purpose machine gun

Airborne

Brigade

published

in

forthwith.

1998 and,

July

smaller battalion-level

as

capability,

at greater

than battalion-group

level.

which confers important operataional

Maintaining

flexibility,

and

modernizing the role of the remainder of The Parachute Regiment to take advantage of their
unique

As

skills

and ethos, has been central to the Review."

new 24 Airmobile

a result,a

Brigade

helicopter regiments, equipped with

being created, which

is

new

conditions; the
right

is

Para are on
Falklands foggy

soldier

armed with

on the

7.62mm

(GPMG), while the man on the

left

carries

9mm

Sterling, a

sub-machine gun with

will

consist of three attack

Apache AH-64 attack helicopters and two

The Parachute Regiment, which, together with parachute-capable support

the

of

typical

battalions of

units, will

enable

notoriously poor stopping and

penetrating power except at

very close quarters.

brigade to undertake a single battalion-

group parachute assault.A third battalion of The

Parachute Regiment
will

will

also be retained, but

be employed elsewhere

normal infantry
turn to serve

in

the

battalion, although

it

Army
will

as a

take

its

24 Airmobile Brigade.

in

Organization
There are currently three battalions of The
Parachute Regiment

in

the British Regular

Army

(1,2 and 3 Para), and a further three battalions

in

the Territorial

Army

(4,

10 and 15 Para).

Two

of the three regular battalions are part of 24

Airmobile Brigade.

parachute battalion

is

organized similarly

to a standard infantry battalion, with three

companies and

rifle

support company. However,

it

has a far lighter scale of transport. Because the

battalion

depends on the

fighting efficiency of

placed

physical fitness

the men,

upon selection and

and

more emphasis

is

effective training.

Selection and Training

All officers and men must volunteer

for

The Parachute Regiment. Prospective

undergo thorough mental, educational, and psychometric tests

recruits

and then only the most

educationally and mentally alert are selected as candidates for the Regiment.

51

Special Forces

paratroopers on

Right: British

patrol. Despite

berets, the

the tactical

wear

setting, they

their red

symbol of their

prowess, high standard of

3
O

training,

and excellent morale.

Below: Soldiers of

1st

Battalion,

(I

Para) on

Parachute Regiment
exercise

(note the

para wings

on their right shoulders). The

tripod-mounted weapon

M2HB

is

a US

0.50-cal heavy machine

gun with a blank-firing

attachment (BFA), which enables
the

weapon

realistically

to

during

be used semiField

training.

The extremely arduous training course of 23 weeks is similar in many ways to that for
Commandos. The first eight weeks follow the lines of what is laid down for
recruits for the Army: drill, weapons training, everything on the double, plenty of exercise,
and map reading.The 12th week is the dreaded "P Company" week, in which members are
selected for further training. About 80 percent of the recruits who have gone this far will
Royal Marine

pass.

Following

completion

battalions.

men,

of training, the

"Spearhead of the Army" and on their

to fight

ability

who
in

on

themselves

pride

any terrain and climate,

Only 35 percent of those who started the course

will

the

being

will join their

have gained their "wings."

Weapons and Equipment

When

there was an independent parachute force (16 Parachute

demand for it to be economical

When the commitment was reduced in

Brigade)

there was

to produce special equipment for paratroop units.

sufficient

the past few years to just

two

battalions

in

the

parachute role, with virtually no back-up from parachute-trained and -equipped supporting

arms and
Individual

equipment

services, such special

currently use standard British

Weapon, an

weapon

excellent

UK

parachute units

such as the

5.56mm L70AI

virtually disappeared.

Army weapons and equipment,

Thus,

using the "bull-pup" design. This

rifle

is

neat,

compact and well-balanced and has proved very popular in service. ObviouslyThe Parachute
Regiment is also able to take full advantage of advanced weaponry and equipment as it
enters service with the British Army.

Uniforms
The

British paratroops' red beret has

their nicknames of

been adopted around the world and has given

"The Red Devils" and "The Red Berets." (History has

it

rise

to

that Major-

General Browning and another general were arguing over the color of

a beret for the

paratroops and, unable to agree, they turned to the nearest soldier to ask

his views.

"Red,

worn only by members of The Parachute

Regiment (throughout their service) and by members of other corps who are parachutequalified, but only when on service with a parachute unit. The sleeve badge is a winged
sir,"

came the

instant answer.)

The

red beret can be

Pegasus.

Royal Marine Special Boat Service

TO

A large extent, the whole of the

Marine would certainly claim

number
is

of smaller and

more

it

7,

so.

000 Royal Marines is an elite force in itself; every

However, within the Royal Marines there are a

select groups of

which the best known and most

highly trained

the Special Boat Service (SBS), the Royal Marines' equivalent to the British Special Air

Service (SAS).

It

has

its

roots

in

the special units raised

in

World War

II

for raiding and

reconnaissance on the shores of the European mainland. The techniques evolved so painfully
in

war were,

fortunately, preserved

in

peace, despite

Amphibious School of the Royal Marines

"Small Raids Wing," which
"Special

52

was

Boat Squadron," but

it is

at

many cutbacks and amalgamations. The

Eastney (now at Poole

later redesignated the "Special

known

in

Dorset) included a

Boat Company" then the

as the "Special Boat Service."

Special Forces

The SBS
Its

the headquarters for the Special Boat Sections which are deployed under the

is

command

operational

Commando

of

units,

but can also act autonomously on special tasks.

and organization are always secret. The mission of the SBS can roughly be

activities

Men

Left:

equated with that of the Spetsnaz

in

the

Marines'

Russian Federation and the SEALs

in

the

(SBS)

US

Navy. They are responsible for coastal

underwater

reconnaissance

beaches

landing

potential

Royal

of

before deploying

onto a hostile shore, a task

of

in

which they have much

enemy

and

British

Boat Service

emerge from the hatch

a submarine

sabotage operations and ground, surface,

or

of the

Special

experience.

coastal facilities.They also have particular

responsibility for security of Britain's off-

shore

and gas

oil

100 strong and

rigs.

it is

The

now

is

about

located at

Whale

unit

Below: SBS canoeists

collapsible

Portsmouth.

Island in

The SBS

Oman,

in

the

were

the SBS

fitted

is

which

is

tightened

early

internal

buoyancy bags are

inflated.

The canoe

from

latter,

UK

the

C- 30 and then
submarine in the South

parachuted to a
Atlantic.

in

for

The submarine took them

of

close

maximum

skin,

when the

ashore on South Georgia, having flown

In

z
a
o

tough rubber and polyester

Borneo, and during the Falkland Islands

War.

canoe has a wooden

frame over which

has seen action

in

Klepper canoe. This lightweight,

is

stability

designed

and ease

handling, both afloat and

ashore.

inshore and they then completed their

long journey

The SBS

Gemini boats.

inflatable

in

also

is

rumored to have put

on the Argentine mainland,

patrols ashore

landing from the conventional submarine,

HMS

Onyx, although this has never been

confirmed, The SBS and SAS operated on

the Falkland Islands

amphibious

before the

12 days

and

landings,

San Carlos Bay. They

SBS

the

reconnoitred the actual landing

at

sites

welcomed the

first

landing-craft to reach the shore, and also

silenced

on

outpost

Argentinian

the

Fanning Head, overlooking the landings.

the

The way in which the SBS fits in with

much larger SAS organization is a

matter for speculation, particularly as the

SAS

is

similar

SBS.

known

to have a Boat Troop, with

equipment and

capabilities to the

Nevertheless, there

friction

between the two

therefore

assumed

be

responsibilities

is

units,

are

not

no known
and it must
the

that

problem

in

practice.

Selection and Training

Recruitment to the SBS
Royal Marine

is

from volunteers

Commandos. All such

and psychological

tests,

officer

who

have already had

followed by a three-week selection

go on a 15-week training course

in

two

years' service

in

the

and Marine volunteers undergo the usual physical

test. Successful

candidates then

reconnaissance, demolitions, diving, and use of the

Klepper canoe or Gemini craft.They then complete a four-week parachute course, following

which they

SBS

join

officers

some other

an operational Special Boat Section.

and Marines are not compelled to leave the SBS after a set period, but

special forces they are usually forced to leave

if

like

they wish to obtain promotion

past a certain point.

Uniforms
The SBS wear standard Royal Marine uniform and the Commando green
indication

in

parade and barrack dress that

man belongs

to the SBS

is

beret.

The only

the wearing of Royal

Marine parachuting wings on the right shoulder and of the "Swimmer Canoeist" badge on

53

Special Forces

the right forearm. The latter has a

crown above the

parade dress both badges are embroidered

letters "SC," flanked by laurel leaves. In

gold on a black backing. Officers of the SBS

in

wear the wings, but not the "SC" badge (even though they are

wear

qualified to

it

by having

passed the course).

Weapons and Equipment

The SBS four-man

half section patrols are usually

armed with the US MI6A2 Armalite

rifle

and M203 grenade launchers, although a special silenced version of the Heckler & Koch MP5
is

also used. Included

in

the patrol's equipment are plastic explosives, laser designators, and

burst-transmission radios.

SBS reconnaissance patrols

belt,

and pack). Very

survival devices
fishing line,

some

little is

and equipment hidden

water

and have three-layered

travel light

known about
and

bottles, snares,

the escape and evasion

kits
kit,

(escape and evasion,

which presumably has

clothing and other equipment,

in

food pouch are

in

the belt

kit.

handgun,

The pack

knife,

contains

kit

extra food, dry clothing and a waterproof poncho.

Boats used by the SBS include paddle-boards (akin to surfboards), specially produced

Klepper Mark 13 collapsible boats, and the somewhat larger Gemini boats powered by
40bhp outboard motors. The SBS can also be transported by "Rigid Raider" boats, a
militarized version of the glassfiber "Dory" fishing-boat, powered by outboards of up to
I40bhp, operated by the specialists of the Royal Marines' Rigid Raider Squadron, with the
capacity to carry 10 personnel. There
small

enough to be attached to the

dropped

separately, the Kestrel

suits

and dry

sacs.

The sacs are

weapons, explosives, ammunition,

and provisions, thus enabling

marines to arrive ashore

"ready to

which

is

9.5hp motor, which

is

three-man

Powered by

collapsible,

by carbon dioxide.

Special Air Service

Rubber dry diving

invaluable for protecting

the

also the "Kestrel," a

inflated

is

Above: Royal Marine SBS use

these Avon

is

leg of a parachutist.

fight." This

carrying a US model

commonly used

marine

by the

is

rifle,

British

SAS and SBS.

with the appropriate motto "Who Dares

SAS was formed early in World War
Wins" at a time when many "special" units were being raised. Known originally as "L
Detachment," the unit grew to 390 men in 1942 and was redesignated 1st Special Air Service
Regiment (I SAS). After various reorganizations and a period of further growth, an SAS
Brigade was formed in Scotland in January 1944, consisting of two British regiments (I and
2 SAS), two French regiments (3 and 4 SAS), a Belgian squadron (later 5 SAS), and a signal

The

II

squadron.

At the end of the war in Europe the British Army divested itself of "private armies" (SAS
among them), and it appeared the British Army had washed its hands of the "SAS idea"
forever. It takes more than that to keep a good idea down, however, and within months it

was decided that there would be

conversion of a Territorial

Regiment

(21

reversing the

Army

SAS) (Artists)

a future

(TA)

unit,

role for SAS-type activities. This led to the

"The

Artists' Rifles," into 21st Special Air Service

number 21 being obtained by combining and

wartime SAS regiments (I and 2 SAS).

(Volunteers), the

numbers of the two

British

During the Malayan "Emergency" (1948-60) the "Malayan Scouts (Special Air Service)"
quickly built up to regimental size.

In

1952, the Malayan Scouts

was formed and were

redesignated 22nd Special Air Service Regiment (22 SAS), thus marking the

official

return of

SAS to the regular Army's order of battle.

The SAS carried out successful operations following which they moved to the UK where,
after a short period in Malvern, they settled down in their now-famous home base at
Bradbury Lines, Hereford. But by now they had been reduced to an HQ and two "sabre"
the

squadrons.
Far East soon beckoned again, however, with the "Confrontation Campaign"

The

Borneo, and a squadron of SAS arrived there

demands
involved

in

regiment as

963. Their success led to

in

more

SAS and the third squadron was re-formed in mid- 963. All three were
in Borneo and Aden during 1964-66 in a period known in the
the "happy time." By 1967, these two wars were over and the SAS had a short

for the
in

January

campaigns

period of consolidation and retraining.

1969 the

In

situation

in

Northern

Ireland

exploded and the SAS began

acquaintanceship with the Province. Simultaneously, renewed problems

Oman
1983

in

long

Malaya and the

The SAS remained in the Oman for many years and in August
was disclosed that the SAS was training a similar unit for the Sultan of Oman's

led to a return there.

it

"Special Force."

The anti-guerrilla campaigns of the 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s were succeeded by a
new role in which the SAS quickly built up an unrivaled expertise - counter-terrorist actions.
54

Special Forces

Spurred on by operations

Army

Republican

Irish

Army (INLA).the SAS

in

Northern

(IRA) and

Ireland against the

National Liberation

Irish

has developed techniques which are

copied throughout the Western world. This has led to the

SAS not only being consulted by overseas governments

and special forces, but also

being directly involved

in

in

some "foreign" operations. Thus, in October 1977, two

SAS men were with the West German GSG 9 unit at the
attack to recapture a hijacked German airliner at
Mogadishu, and SAS members were also involved in the
Dutch operation against the Moluccan

earlier

who

m
O

terrorists

had taken over a trainload of hostages.

c
c
2

Most famous of all UK episodes was the London

Iranian Embassy siege of May 1980 when the SAS had
perforce to conduct the operation

TV

cameras.

In

strict

in

front of the world's

compliance with English

Metropolitan Police conducted the operation

law, the
until

the

murdered one of the hostages and threw his body out on the street. The police
then requested the SAS to take over, and the troops stormed in, using special weapons and
tactics. The hostages were rescued, four of five terrorists killed, and not a single SAS man

Above: SAS soldier during the

was

operated deep inside Indonesian

terrorists

This spectacular success, while a godsend for the hero-hungry world media, gave

lost.

more publicity than it liked.

By 1982 the SAS seemed to be settled in a counter-terrorist role when the FalklandsWar
broke out with Argentina. 22 SAS was immediately involved, being given the opportunity to

the

SAS

far

remind the world that they are

first

and foremost professional soldiers, trained for war.They

spearheaded the return to South Georgia

helicopters had to be aborted

boats and most

to

men

in

island,

truly appalling

got ashore.

One

compromise the operation by

although the

boat, however, broke

calling for help

eastwards and were later rescued by helicopter.

headquarters and one troop of

submarine Santa Fe to rush

in

first

reconnaissance landing

weather.The second landing was by

down and

in

inflatable

the soldiers refused

on the radio and were blown

rapidly

Borneo campaign
In

this

1960s.

the

in

"small war" the SAS

territory, causing

disruption

considerable

the

to

lines-of-

communication. They also

the local

rallied

people, such as Ibans

and Dyaks, thus ensuring that

they remained

government

loyal

the

to

newly formed

of the

Federation of Malaysia.

Meanwhile, at Grytviken, the squadron

Squadron took advantage of the crippling of the Argentine

and overwhelm the garrison, and South Georgia was quickly

back under British control.

The first SAS soldiers were ashore on East Falklands by May and remained there, close
enemy and in foul weather, for some 30 days. They provided vital intelligence on troop
movements and deployments, and also targeted enemy aircraft and naval gunfire support.
On May 14 the SAS raided Pebble Island and blew up
Argentine aircraft; they also
reportedly operated on the mainland of Argentina itself, although this has never been
I

to the

confirmed
Their

officially.

final

role

in

the Falklands was to carry out a noisy and valuable diversionary attack

on the eastern end of Wireless Ridge on the day before the Argentine surrender.

Left:

the

SAS troops on the roof of

Iranian

moments
their

Embassy

successful

hostages and

the

terrorists
first

London

operation to free

the

was the

in

they launched

before

kill

or arrest

holding them. This

time the

operational gear of black

coveralls, hood,

and respirator

had been seen

in

use spread

public and

its

rapidly.

55

Special Forces

Right: SAS

of

scramble out

soldiers

Army Westland Scout

British

helicopter at Bluff Cove, during

the Falklands War. The battles

H
O

^
Z

against the Argentine

Army

showed that the SAS was

capable
it

was against
that

influence

as

conventional war as

in

it

terrorists,

and

could exercise an

on the campaign out

of all

proportion to the

numbers

it

deployed.

SAS teams were

also inserted into Iraq during the Gulf

War

of 1991, their primary

missions being to seek out and destroy Scud missile launchers, to report on

movements from road watch

destroy

enemy

patrols behind

Iraqi military

and to locate, report on, and

lines,

communications systems.

Iraqi

Also during the

990s,

reported that SAS teams operated behind Serb

it is

down

providing intelligence reports and calling

on Serb armor,

air strikes

lines in Bosnia,

artillery,

and

anti-

aircraft positions.

As these examples make

clear,

the principal

sabotage, raids, intelligence gathering, etc.

counter-terrorist mission

and rescue forces when

Army

secondary SAS mission

is

in

SAS mission

one of

is

special operations

denied areas. Contrary to popular

not the sole province of the SAS;

have been seized

facilities

against the Irish Republican

UK

the

in

in

the

UK

belief,

the

provides assault

it

proper and operates covertly

(IRA).

to organize and train friendly resistance forces, as well as to

is

provide specialized security assistance training to friendly nations.

Organization
The present organization

One

regiment (22 SAS)

is

includes three regiments of approximately

all-regular,

while the other

belong to the Territorial Army. There

(63 (SAS) Signal Squadron) with

is

two

a regular signal

theTA.These

(2

SAS

600 to 700 men each.

(Artists Rifles)

and 23 SAS)

squadron with 22 SAS and another

units are controled by Director Special Forces

whose headquarters are in London.

Each SAS regiment is composed of four squadrons, each having around four 16-man
troops that work, operationally, in patrols of four. Some variations in size exist, of course, to
accommodate special requirements for elements such as the Mountain Troop and Boat
(DSF), a brigadier

Troop.

There
(Artists)

is

is

outstations

very close relationship between 22 SAS and the Territorial regiments. 21 SAS

based

in

London, with four outstations, and 23 SAS

Manchester,

in

Leeds,

regiments have a strong cadre of regulars,

maintained, and

who

who

based

in

Birmingham, with

Glasgow. Both Territorial

ensure that professional standards are

pass on the benefits of recent operational experience.

22 SAS has been based

Credenhill.a former

is

Newcastle, Dundee, and

RAF

Hereford for 40 years, but

at

station,

which

is

it

is

moving to

new

base at

only a short distance away.

Selection and Training

No

officer

come from

or soldier

enlists directly into the regular

accusation that the regiment

officers

regiment (22 SAS). Instead, volunteers

the other regiments and corps of the British Army, which sometimes leads to the

and soldiers.

All

is

"poaching"

some

of the best and

volunteers for the SAS must

first

most enterprising young

pass the selection course, which

is based on the regimental depot at Hereford. The tests take place in the Brecon area of
Wales and consist of a series of tasks designed to find out whether the individual has the

qualities of
spiritual

mental resilience, physical stamina,

The process

starts with

bring everyone up to the

allowed to write

down map

its

basic standards. Typical of such training:

references or to fold
is

followed

by

10

maps
days

in

way

independence, and

missions.

10 days of fitness and map-reading training

same

are concerned with. This

56

self-discipline, initiative,

toughness which the Regiment has found necessary for

in

groups of 20 to

SAS members are not

that will reveal the area they

of solitary cross-country marching,

Special Forces

culminating

They must
at

40-mile (64km) march

in

who

two. Those

least

in

20 hours carrying

551b (25kg) Bergen rucksack.

At the end of

badge, and are at long

courses

be expected to

members

last

parachuting, and other military

know
now

parachute course and combat

phase the survivors are presented with their beret and

this

of the SAS, although the training continues with

medicine, demolition, shooting,

languages, field

signaling,

in

will

have not either voluntarily or compulsorily withdrawn

undertake 14 weeks' continuation training which includes

survival training.

specialist

demonstrate an aptitude for languages, since they

also

Even after

skills.

a soldier

becomes

a fully fledged

free-fall

member

of

m
O

the Regiment, there can be periods of high-intensity training for roles such as counter-

commandos.
SAS the emphasis today

revolutionary warfare

Unlike the earlier years ot the

is

on

pulling

and encouraging

men

to get through the tests and course, but without relaxing the high standards, Nevertheless,

the pass-rate

only about 20 percent, although

is

must be appreciated that only

it

there any reason for any of the other 80 percent to

are, of necessity, looking for a

can be developed

Once

fully in

in

feel

ashamed; the

fact

very special combination of talents which

is

is

that the

is

SAS

possessed by or

only a few people.

the Regiment, the normal tour of duty of several years

is

followed by return

to the parent regiment or corps. This ensures that the Regiment does not
introspective and also serves to spread around the rest of the
ideas and training

rarely

Army

become too

that curious blend of

which constitute the SAS.

Weapons and Equipment

In

SAS used standard

the past the

variety of

weapons, foreign

British

or to blend

in

with

developed for SAS use

damage

some

arms but now

addition, the

SAS

it

regularly uses a

specialize

in

wide

training and

of local "scenery." Special "stun" grenades have been

bit

which the

in

small

In

weapon, either to take advantage of some particular

using virtually any type of foreign

attribute,

Army

as well as British.

blast effect has

been maximized

at the

expense of

potential.

the

in

1992 Gulf

War, with their faces blanked

out for security reasons. The

Since 1984 the

SAS have used two

Italian-built

Agusta 109 helicopters captured from the

Argentinians during the Falklands War. The aircraft, operated by the

up to seven troops and are equipped for many

The SAS have incorporated

verify the

Below: British SAS troopers

desert during the

Army

Air Corps, carry

roles.

"high-tech" into their arsenal of tricks: thermal imagers to

presence of personnel

buildings, satellite

in

communications systems, infrared night

equipment, and a host of surveillance, target acquisition, and sensory devices.

mission of "SCUD-busting"

in

the

Arabian desert harked back to

the

function for which they were

originally
aircraft

formed, destroying Axis

on the ground

in

the

Sahara.

Uniforms
The SAS wear standard

Army

British

operations, though they do not

wear

uniforms on

insignia of rank,

with only the customary "regimental" items permitted

under

British practice.

The three

basic distinguishing

marks of the SAS are the sand-colored beret, the

capbadge

(a

shoulder.
officers'

black.

In

"Who

winged dagger with the motto

Dares Wins")

SAS-wings worn

and

on the

parade dress (No. 2 Dress)

Sam Browne

Combat

dress

belt, gloves,

is

right

buttons,

and shoes are

standard British

Army

all

pattern

with either the sand-colored beret or the peaked

camouflage hat with no badge. With

there
that

is

he

this latter hat

nothing about a soldier's uniform to

is

idiosyncracy

member

of

of the

SAS uniform

is

SAS.
that

One
in

on

shew
small

"pullover

worn in barracks) the rank

worn on the shoulder straps,

order" (the popular dress

chevrons of

NCO

are

not on the right sleeve.

unique combat uniform

anti-terrorist operations. This

with a black flak-vest,

belt,

is
is

available for use

on

an all-black outfit,

and boots. The standard

(made of black rubber) and gray antihood complete the outfit. Every item of this

issue respirator
flash

dress

is

effect

is

worn

for strictly practical reasons, but the

awe-inspiring.

57

Special Forces

United States of America

HE United States has a long and rich history of military

which predate the Revolutionary

special operations

War. However, the

truly integrated

first

operations organization

when

begin until April 10 1952,

H
S
H
m

Center was

established

psychological

warfare

modern

special

Army

did not

the United States

in

at

the Psychological Warfare

Fort

NC.

Bragg,

Army

the

in

consisted of unconventional warfare

also

legacy of the

Notably,

time

the

at

special operations of the Office of Strategic Services

(OSS)

Donovan during World War

The Special Forces were resuscitated in the early
1950s, with 0th Special Forces Group being activated at

headed by Gen. "Wild

Bill"

II.

Fort Bragg on June 20

m
F

1952, followed by 77th Special

Group on September 25

Forces

numbering

1953. (The

appears to have been entirely at random.) These were

followed by

1st Special

June 24 1957
Above: Lead

scout of a Special

patrol group,

Forces
a

5.56mm

assault

Colt

rifle.

armed with

Commando

Special

are also trained

soldiers

Forces
in

the

use of foreign weapons, enabling

them
their

use such weapons

to

own

are

damaged

if

or,

even

worse,

lost.

58 men of the South Vietnamese

train

association

between the

Army

in

Forces Group, which was raised on

Okinawa. This group sent

NhaTrang during

at

a small

team to

that year, beginning a long

Special Forces and the Republic ofVietnam. Next, 5th Special Forces

Group was raised on September 21 96 initially at Fort Bragg, but later

and became responsible for all Special Forces activities in that country.
1

it

moved

to Vietnam

President John F. Kennedy was fascinated with the Special Forces and visited Fort Bragg,
where he authorized the wearing of the distinctive and symbolic headress - the green beret
- in
96 1. Also a result of the Kennedy visit: the first troops of the Special Forces deployed
1

to South Vietnam

in

November

1961.

would wage guerrilla operations against

enemy troops in a conventional war. It soon became clear, however, that in Vietnam
enemy himself was a guerrilla, forcing the Special Forces to revise their basic concepts.

The

original idea

was

that the Special Forces

regular
Below: Special Forces trooper
blends into the background on
a jungle
raised

in

operation. Originally

order to use guerrilla

tactics

against conventional

forces, Special

trained to fight

war,

in

all

Forces
in

terrains,
all

all

are

now

types of

and against

types of enemy.

the

One

of the principal programs was the raising and training of Civilian Irregular Defense
Groups (CIDG).with more than 80 CIDG camps being set up in the years 1961-65.
The Special Forces eventually operated throughout South Vietnam in a variety of roles,
some of which have yet to be revealed. They had more extensive dealings with the ARVN
(South Vietnamese Army) - and particularly with the Montagnard, or mountain people - than
any other element of the US forces. They received awards for heroism and for dedication to

duty far out of proportion to their numbers. Despite

elements of the US chain-6f-command was not always

sometimes

this, their

and suspicion

interfering with their operations, an

Vietnam

in

too

all

elite force. The last soldier

frequent problem for any

Special Forces left South

some

relationship with

easy, with mistrust

of the

March 1971.

The Special Forces have always operated throughout

the US areas of responsibility. An early deployment was to
Bad Tolz in Bavaria, Germany. Other groups operated in
the Panama Canal Zone. Special Forces have also long
been involved

in

"advising" friendly armies in Asia, Africa,

Central and South America, as well as

in

other parts of the

world. They have thus tended to be always just on the edge

of the limelight.They are

Army's order of

battle

now

very firmly a part of the

and are

likely

US

to remain so.

Organization
There are currently
(Airborne)
Ft.

Lewis,

Station,

five

1st Special

Wash, with

known Special Forces Groups

Group (Airborne) (SFGA),

Forces
IBn/l

forward-deployed to

0th SFGA,
two Army National

Campbell, Kentucky; 7th SFGA, Fort Bragg; and

Fort Carson, Colorado.There are also

Command is exercised
Command (Airborne).

Guard groups.
Forces

The

Torii

Okinawa; 3rd SFGA, Fort Bragg; 5th SFGA, Fort

traditional

organization

by

pattern

US Army

Special

of the

Special

Forces has been based on the Operations Detachment A,

more
58

popularly

known

as

the

"A Team." While the

Special Forces

individual

elements that make up the profile of a

to time, the group profile

commanded

itself

does not.

by a major, with a further

typical special

Ideally, five

five officers

A Teams

group may change from time

commanded

are

by a B team,

and 18 soldiers.

Selection and Training

All officers

trained

and soldiers

in free-fall

have at least
demolitions,
trained

in

two

in

in

the Special Forces must be airborne qualified, and

specializations, eg, engineering, intelligence,

Many must

a
m
O

also be

foreign languages.

Training for the Special Forces

including political.

With the

special forces, this decline

in

also

weapons, communications,

addition to the primary or military occupational specialty.

both thorough and tough. To some extent, the normally

is

rigorous training standards declined following the Vietnam

(now

many are

parachuting and/or for swimming roles. All enlisted personnel must also

is

for a variety of reasons,

>

many Western

m
-

the process of being reversed and training attrition rates

in

the 60 percent plus range) are about

Further, like

War

increasing emphasis of recent years that has been placed on

what would be anticipated

US Army

special troops,

for a special force.

Special Forces troops frequently

attend courses with other armies; other armies also train with them.

Their training

is

designed to

them

fit

for six missions: Foreign Internal Defense (FID);

Special Reconnaissance; Direct Action; Unconventional Warfare; Counter-Terrorism (CT);

and Coalition Warfare. Particular emphasis

is

placed on the

ability

to operate with foreign

troops.

Weapons and Equipment

The US

Special Forces are tasked to be the repository of

arms, and they are therefore trained on virtually every

operations anywhere

in

MI6A2

rifle

but

not see service

will

the world. Their

(the "Armalite"). Other,

until after

more

own

knowledge on the world's small

Below: Green Berets "A-Team"

weapon

speeding towards their objective

likely

on
the famed

to be found

personal weapon, however,

is

esoteric small arms are on the drawing boards,

the year 2000.

on board a River Patrol Boat

(PBR|. These waterjet-powered

have a

craft

maximum

speed of

24 knots and some 500 were

Uniform
The

built, principally

basic hallmark of the Special Forces

Kennedy, and has given

is

worn on the

scroll

rise

surrounding the dagger

show

the green beret, which was approved by President

to the "Green Berets" monicker. The Special Forces crest, which

flash in a beret,
is

combines crossed arrows with

"De Oppresso

reflects their mission. This crest

groups. Officers

is

their rank

is

in

remain
are

Liber" ("Freedom from Oppression") which

the

normally set on a patch

the flash

The motto

the

itself.

a dagger.

whose

in

colors vary with the

use

for

in

the

Vietnam War, although many

an

in

service. All

armed with Ml

man

6s

men

except for

with a helmet

M60 machine gun

large

the

who

has

with a

night sight attached.

59

Spk.ial FORCtS

As with other
particular items

special forces the basic uniforms are those of the

may be added to

fit in

with a role. The Special Forces are

US Army,

although

fairly high-visibility

troops and tend not to act or dress covertly, leaving that to other and more recently formed
units.

m
-

1st Special

Forces Operational Detachment (DELTA)

Detachment - Delta (ISFOD-Delta), more familiarly

was the brainchild of Colonel Charles (Charlie) A Beckwith, US Army,
who, as a major, served on an exchange posting with the British SAS in 1962-63. On his
return to the United States he sought to form a new unit with the same organization, ideals
and functions as the SAS, and eventually overcame the resistance of a very conservative
chain-of-command, with Delta being officially formed on November 9 977. Its credo, as laid
down by Charlie Beckwith, was "surprise, speed, success."
The title of this unit sometimes causes misunderstandings. ISFOD-D was a totally new
unit and had nothing to do with the "Delta Project (Detachment B-52)" set up by the US
Army Special Forces in Vietnam in the mid-1960s (and was, at one time, commanded by
Beckwith), which was a totally different organization and concept. The reason for the name
of the new unit was, in fact, quite simple. At

1st

a
m

Special Forces Operational

known

as "Delta,"

m
B

that time, according to

Beckwith, there

were

Special

three

already

Detachments,

(commanded by
and

major),
colonel).

Charlie

natural progression
call

Alpha

Bravo (by

captain),

(by

in

titles

Beckwith, a

and ranks to

new detachment "Delta" and

commanded by a colonel.

the

to be

was always intended

Delta

lieutenant-

was, suggested

It

Forces

designated

overseas, although even then

it

for

it

use

for

could only

be deployed at the invitation of the host

government, which,

as

be seen, has

will

not always been forthcoming. The main

mission

and

counter-terrorism,

is

priority tasks are hostage rescue,

man

covert

"snatches,"

its

wanted-

reconnaissance,

and explosive ordnance disposal.

Organization
Delta

is

based at Fort Bragg,

well-protected

Not

Stockade."

in

a large

known

area

as

the

surprisingly,

Delta

reflects

the

brought back to the

United

States

organization

Colonel

of

Beckwith. Thus,

composed

of a

and

"The

the

ideas

unit

Unarmed combat

essential

skill

for

most

an

is

special

forces. Delta volunteers

also

have to be highly proficient

many other

in

such as

skills,

signals, medical, engineering,

weapons handling,

of

two or more

troops, each of four

4-man squads. There are

squadron, a communications squadron, and a covert troop using special equipment and

The main

techniques.

aviation support for Delta

Aviation Regiment (160

SOAR)

comes from 160th

but Delta also has

helicopters with civilian color schemes and registration

SAS with

its

two Agusta A

its

in

own

Special

aviation

a similar

Operations

troop which uses

manner to the

British

22

09s.

name but

a few.

Selection and Training

Delta is manned by volunteers who can come from anywhere within the US Army, although,
in practice, the majority come from the Green Berets and Rangers. Under Colonel
Beckwith's

command,

Delta's selection and training processes

those used by the British SAS, although

it

is

were

essentially similar to

reasonable to assume that these have been

refined and adapted over the intervening 20 years to

changed conditions.

60

is

also a support

resisting

interrogation, and escape/

evasion, to

composed

is

headquarters and three

operational squadrons, each of which

Above:

by

meet the demands of a

larger

army and

Special Forces

H
m
r

H
m
</>

Left:

Modern operational

scenarios seldom

permit a

lengthy acclimatization

period, so

US Special Forces must be able

to

go into battle almost as

soon as they arrive

in

new

theater. So, regular training in

such

conditions
is

Deployments
some

some

of which have appeared

in

of which have been learnt about through other means; there have also

deployments which remain

doubtless been

operations have been unsuccessful, but

in

totally

classified

to this

Some

day.

of the

most the aim has been achieved. Among the known

deployments have been:

rescue of the

US

memorial wall

hostages

in

deaths, as does

has been

own

and
space which

the

carefully

compound

left

for

future

in

OPERATION URGENT FURY

Air Garuda Boeing 737 (March

four

its

980. The attempted

the Embassy

Teheran.

killed

tells

story of deployments

casualties.

Operation Eagle Claw (24-25 April

team

swamps

Below: The US Special Operations

Delta has undertaken a host of operational deployments,

the press and

these

as

essential.

hijackers

1981).
at

single

Bangkok

GRENADA

4-man

airport,

OPERATION JUST CAUSE

successfully releasing the hostages.

PANAMA

Brigadier-General Dozier rescue (January 1982). Dozier

was taken hostage by Red Brigade terrorists. A Delta

team deployed to Italy, but the Italians carried out the
rescue, which was successful.
Operation Urgent Fury (October 25 1983). Delta and
Seal Team 6 took part in the US invasion of Grenada.
Olympic Games, Los Angeles (1984). Delta played a
major role

in

TWA

SOMALIA

OPERATION PROVIDE COMFORT

NORTHERN IRAQ

was the security consultant.

847 hijack (June 1985). Having been hijacked

was flown to Algiers, where two US
passengers were murdered. Delta was deployed to

the

OPERATION RESTORE HOPE

the security arrangements for the Los

Angeles Games, for which Colonel Beckwith, by then

retired,

OPERATION DESERT SHIELD/DESERT STORM-SOUTHWEST ASIA

Flight

aircraft

OPERATION UPHOLD DEMOCRACY

HAITI

LATIN AMERICA

Europe but the Algerian government refused permission

for

them to take

action.

(October 1985).

Achille Lauro Incident

Atlanta City prison

riots

deployed

quell

to

help

MIDDLE EAST

(1987). Delta forces

the

riot,

but

were

prisoners

surrendered before they arrived.

989). Delta and Seal Team 6 took part in the invasion of Panama,
was to apprehend President Noriega.
990- ). Delta deployed to Iraq, where they worked alongside
Operation Desert Storm
British, Australian, and New Zealand SAS units in seeking out and destroying "Scud"

Operation Just Cause

where

their prime task

missile launchers.

"Branch Dravidian" siege (1993). Delta teams were sent to Waco, Texas, to join the FBI

and other agencies

in

breaking the siege of the religious sect's headquarters. Delta was

not used, possibly due to disagreements with the

FBI.

61

Special Forces

Operation Restore Hope (1993). Delta was deployed to Somalia where

embroiled

it

became

the attempts to arrest "General" Aidid.

in

Operation Uphold Democracy (1994). Delta took part

in

the peacekeeping operation

in

Haiti.

Atlanta Olympic

incidents at the

Games

Bosnia (1996-1999).

H
m

was

on stand-by to deal with

again

It

is

terrorist

SEAL Team
was to arrest the

believed that Delta teams (possibly accompanied by

Six)

have deployed to Bosnia on several occasions.

war

criminal

that Delta

c/>

1996. Delta

Games.

One

possible mission

Radovan Karadzic, although, in the event, this has never happened. It is likely
was involved in the rescue of the pilot of the F- 7 shot down over Belgrade.
1

O
US Army Rangers (Airborne)

General

Creighton Abrams, former US Army Chief of

as follows:

battalion

in

"The Ranger battalion

to be an

is

the world, a battalion that can do things with

anyone. Wherever the Ranger battalion goes,

The US Army Rangers

Robert Rogers,

it is

Staff defined the

elite, light
its

Ranger mission

and the most proficient infantry

hands and weapons better than

apparent that

is

it

the best."

are the spiritual descendants of the old Indian fighters led by Major

woodsman from New Hampshire,

a tradition

the pre-Revolutionary colonial army,

in

which was revived

Merrill's

Marauders

Rangers

in

World War

in

Burma, and

in

Europe. The

units

remained

battle until the

were

in

end of the

quietly disbanded and

by

six

the United States

in

and which fought with distinction

Ranger

II

Darby's

comprised

latter

battalions raised and trained

by

in Sicily

and

Italy.

US Army's order of
Korean War, when they

the

most of

their tasks

were

picked up by the special forces.

In

the post-Vietnam trauma, the special forces

were reduced

drastically

and devoted most of their

energies to simply fighting for existence. The Ranger

School

had

been

operating

for

many years

maintain a high standard of leadership

and

in

1975

it

in

the

to

Army

was decided that two Ranger

perform a number

battalions should be reformed, to

of unique missions.

The Rangers were prepared

Iranian hostages rescue mission

are important to

Above: Medals
all

soldiers, such

as

these

men

2/75th Rangers receiving

of

their

awards immediately

following their return from

Operation Urgent Fury

Grenada

Right:

Men

in

of

/75th Rangers

board a USAF C-I4I

Army

Airfield

in

November 1983.

in

at

Hunter

Georgia. They

are deploying to take part in

Operation Just Cause

in

62

in

Panama

December 1989.

to take part

in

the

and were about to

Special Forces

H
H
m

m
s
J*

Left:

US Army Rangers. The

trooper
a

in

5.56mm

front
Colt

is

armed with

Commando

(note

the large cylindrical flash

suppressor). The soldier behind

wears the
which
into

the

fly

into Iran

operational

when

the mission was canceled due to the disaster at Desert One. Their

opportunity did

therefore, arise

not,

spearheaded the landing on Port Salines

variety of missions including the
in

airfield.

US operation

in

Grenada

until

in

1982,

will

full

sniper outfit

enable him to blend

the background awaiting

chance to

fire.

first

when they

Since then they have deployed

in

wide

Panama and the United Nations operation

Somalia.

Ranger tasks are quick strike and shock action deep

ambushes,

raids, interdiction,

mission for Rangers

is

in

enemy

territory.

and temporary seizure of priority targets.

These include
less

common

the recovery of captured personnel and equipment.

Organization
Today there are approximately 2,500 Rangers

in

one Ranger regiment, consisting of three

battalions, with a further three training units.

Headquarters 75th Ranger Regiment

Benning, Georgia, with

Hunter Army

st Battalion

/75) at

Field,

Washington, and 3/75 also with the regimental headquarters

is

at Fort

Georgia, 2/75 at Fort Lewis,

at Fort Benning. Each of these

three battalions has a battalion headquarters and three combat companies, each with three

63

Special Forces

rifle
in

platoons and a weapons platoon. All

men

in

these units are volunteers from elsewhere

the Army, have passed the Ranger course and remain with the Rangers for a standard two-

year tour, which can be extended by six months, subject to recommendation by the

commanding

officer.

Selection and Training

The US Army Ranger School is an

unusual institution which has existed for

has continued to function even at times

Army.This

a
m

for

units.

The second, however,

many years and

there were no full-time Ranger units

because the course serves two functions, the

is

Ranger

when

first

of which

is

in

the

to train soldiers

to spread the "Ranger code" and training

is

excellence, and to improve the standard of self-confidence and leadership not only within

the

US Army and

within the other three

US services, which send a small number to Ranger

whose students take up some 20 percent of the

School, but also of friendly foreign armies,

places

on each course.

To achieve

this

the course covers the whole gamut of Ranger

navigation, patrolling,

weapons

skills,

including land

handling, hand-to-hand combat, survival, and mountaineering.

During the course the trainees do not wear the rank badges they are normally entitled to
and

all

take

it

in

turns to serve

the overall pass rate

The

is

in

various leadership positions. According to unofficial figures

about 35 percent.

selection and training process starts at the 4th Ranger Training Battalion at Fort

Benning. Having qualified there the trainees

Below: Special forces' instructors

around the world take intense

pleasure

in

devising ever

more

challenging obstacles for their

trainees

ladder

is

to
at

cross. This

the

Rangers base
at

64

huge

Fort

Bragg.

move

Dahlonega, Georgia, where they receive training

Ranger Training Battalion

at Eglin Air

Force Base

warfare. Training exercises are conducted

all

in

in

to 5th Ranger Training Battalion

mountain warfare and

Florida for training

in

in

finally

to 6th

jungle and

swamp

over the United States, and abroad wherever

possible, with the aim of training in different climates and environments.

At the end of the course many return to

their units, but a small

number

of carefully

selected go to join the Ranger battalions for a two-year tour, which can be extended by six

months

if

the

commanding

officer agrees.

Special Forces

e
z
H
rn
-

H
S
H
m
cr
O
Left:

Using the "buddy" system,

US Rangers paratroops at Fort

Bragg pair-up
other with the

final

preparations

before a parachute jump.

essential

in

specialized

units

as

team

place

for

It

is

such highly

work

>
2

each

help

to

that soldiers
-

there

is

no

"loner."

Uniform
During their time

at

Ranger School trainees wear jungle fatigues and patrol

soldiers, regardless of unit,

"Ranger"

on their

pass Ranger School are entitled to

right sleeve for the

wear the

cap.

Then,

all

highly prized

remainder of their military service. Within the

wear normal Army uniform and accoutrements and the "Ranger"

the only other outward sign that they are full-time Rangers being the black beret with

Ranger
flash,

flash

who

units the soldiers

Ranger capbadge.

Current Missions
Today's Rangers have to prepared to conduct a wide variety of missions and must train

constantly to maintain their standards

75th Ranger Regiment

Operations

Command

is

an

in

unit,

month

example, on the

but operationally

at a time,

the world within 18 hours.

to operate on their

mountain, urban, and amphibious warfare.

it

comes under the

(JSOC) and each of the three battalions takes

"Ranger Ready Force" for

anywhere

Army

arctic,

in

own

ill-fated

On

which requires

it

it

in

Joint Special

turn to be the

to be ready to deploy

deployment, the Ranger units can be required

or as part of a larger force

made up

Teheran Embassy rescue mission.

of different units,

as,

for

Below: A competition between

teams representing the Rangers

and 82nd Airborne Division. Such
competitions are essential to

improve

skills

and

to

foster a

healthy spirit of friendly rivalry,

especially

when

there

are

no

operations under way.

65

Special Forces

Land (SEAL) Teams

Sea, Air

e
z
o

H
>
H
m
O

(/>

Above:

unidentified

Members

of an

SEAL team return

an amphibious ship after a

recent exercise. The aircraft

is

Boemg-Vertol CH-46, a type

which entered service

in

the

1960s, and this actual aircraft

men

hopping" operations

it

is

transporting.

US Navy

the

in

the Pacific campaign,

in

started

in

1943 during the "island-

where Naval Combat Demolition Units

were formed to reconnoitre and clear beaches prior to an amphibious landing. In the late
1940s these evolved into Underwater Demolition Teams (UDT) which were employed
during the Korean War in the same role - for example, in clearing beaches prior to the
Inchon landings.

War

Faced with the problems of the Vietnam

is

almost certainly somewhat older

than the young

The story OF special operations units

to

coupled with the increasing intensity of the

Cold War, US forces sought some of the answers

in "special operations forces" to which one

was the SEaAir Land (SEAL) teams. The first of these were
formed in January 1962: SEAL Team
in the Pacific and SEAL Team 2 in the Atlantic. SEAL
units became deeply embroiled in the Vietnam War, where they performed vigorously and

of the navy's major contributions

successfully

in

and other areas. Their missions included intelligence gathering,

riverine

sabotage, ambushes, and other counter-insurgency activities.

train

They helped to organize and

South Vietnamese special forces, and then frequently worked with them.

In

Naval Operations Support Groups were renamed Naval Special Warfare Groups
as

involvement increased

in

limited conflicts and special operations. In

reconnaissance and underwater demolition became

UDTs were

remaining
Naval

control

SEAL

1967, the

(NSWGs)

983 the hydrographic

missions, as a result of which the

absorbed into the SEAL organization.

over the

(NAVSPECWARCOM),

which

SEALs
is

exercised

is

by

Naval

Warfare

Special

Command

co-located with the Naval Special Warfare Center at the

Naval Amphibious Base, Coronado, California.

NAVSPECWARCOM's

mission

is

to prepare

Naval special warfare forces to carry out their assigned missions and to develop special

operations strategy, doctrine, and

NAVSPECWARGRU
Fleet.

and

is

tactics.

There are two Naval

with the Pacific Fleet and

There are currently seven SEAL teams, of which SEAL Team 6

is

Warfare Groups:

2 with the Atlantic

in a

special category

dealt with separately (see below).

A SEAL

team

is

typically

made up

of 10-12 platoons, each consisting of a

squads. There are also three Special Boat Units and

Delivery to the operational area can be by

effective

the team

66

Special

NAVSPECWARGRU

is
is

air,

two SEAL Delivery

Swimmer

of

parachute or surface warship, but the most

by submarine; these take the team to the destination and then

taken ashore by

number

Vehicle teams.

Delivery Vehicles (SDVs).

lie

offshore,

where

Special Forces

m
O
H
m
Left:

Members

of a

US Navy

SEAL team, who have

down from
inspect

roped

>
m

deck cargo of ISO

containers on
in

just

helicopter, start to

the Adriatic

merchant ship
in

September

1995. Such inspections form an

essential

part of blockade

operations.

Selection and Training

Volunteers for the SEALs must

come from elsewhere

in

the Navy; there

is

no

recruitment. Having been accepted for training they then undergo a gruelling

course,

most of which

is

conducted

at the

Naval Special Warfare Center at Coronado, and

involves indoctrination, mental and physical toughening and extensive instruction.

and enlisted

men undergo

added responsibility of
attrition rate

is

identical training, the only distinction being that officers

As with most special warfare

between 55 and 70 percent.

class leadership.

high, varying

direct

15-week
Officers

bear the

training courses, the

SEALs receive extensive training in combat swimmer techniques, advanced demolitions,

field communications, and weapons handling and must also qualify as parachute jumpers. This
expertise, combined with the basic skills, ranging from gunner's mate to signalman, which
Navy SEAL into a
they bring from their previous "regular naval service," molds the
combination of frogman, paratrooper, and commando.

Right:

During Operation Desert

Storm

in

members
final

the
of a

Gulf

War

in

1991,

SEAL team make

preparations prior to

deploying. Note the unusual

helmet worn only by SEAL

teams.

67

Special Forces

Naval Special Warfare Development Group

Operation

Eagle

the debacle,
training.

H
H
m

SEAL Team 6 in October 1980 as a

became operational in April 1981. At this
designated Mobility Team 6 (known as "Mob 6"), was

unit,

and

SEALTeam

6 was an offshoot of

it

2 and had been developing counter-terrorist

techniques before Eagle Claw, but for a variety of reasons

disband

it

changed

rather than to develop

to

the

cover

(NAVSPECWARDEVGRU),

Below: The pilot's compartment

Vehicle

of a

role,

it is

it

into the

name
although

new

Naval
it is

unit.

Special

it

proved more practicable to

SEALTeam
Warfare

quite clear that, while

it

was subsequently
Development Group
may have a developmental
6's title

basically an operational unit.

submerged SEAL Delivery

(SDV), with

the

the pilot at

and a SEAL

controls

returning from a mission. The

US Navy has about

which are carried

IS

SDVs.

special

in

Dry

Deck Shelters on a number

of

SSNs and converted SSBNs. Latest

version

is

SDV Mk

which carries a

Mod

I,

maximum

of

VIII

eight SEALs, each wearing a self-

contained underwater breathing

apparatus (SCUBA).

68

Mob

special operations and, following

to the creation of

this led

maritime counter-terrorist

disbanded.

US

a true turning point in

point an earlier counter-terrorist unit,

(/)

>

Claw was

services reviewed their counter-terrorist organizations, capabilities, and

Within the US Navy

specialist

all

Organization
NAVSPECWARDEVGRU

is located on the east coast, at Little Creek, Virginia, where it

comes under the command of Naval Special Warfare Command (NAVSPECWARCOM)
although operationally it comes under Headquarters Joint Special Operations Command
(JSOC) which is located at Pope Air Force Base, North Carolina.The strength of the unit has

never been published, but a reasonable guess would be about 2-300, organized into troops

which specialize
(headquarters,

in

the unit's different roles.

logistics,

The

unit will

also

need

its

own support

medical, supplies, etc) which probably accounts for another 2-300.

Operations
It

seems reasonable to assume that SEAL Team 6/DEVGRU has been involved

in

covert

operations, particularly involving submarines, which have never been publicly acknowledged.

Special Forces

H
m
-

m
c/>

Left:

Another method used by

SEALs

the

is

(Inflatabe

IBS

Boat,

m
50

Small). These

can

craft

be

musclepowered, as here, or
propelled

by a small

(7hp),

silent-running outboard

motor.

The IBS was originally deployed

during the Vietnam

many

used on

However,

it

individuals,

is known that it has been involved in operations targeted at extracting

some of which have been successful, including rescues of deposed, legal

War and

missions since.

specific

rulers

Scoones of Grenada (1985) and Aristide of Haiti (1991) - and the capture of Panamanian
ruler, General Noriega (1 989). The unit is also reported to have been involved in attempts
to capture alleged

war

criminals

in

the former Yugoslavia, although, as far as

SEAL Team 6/DEVGRU

of these has as yet been successful.

operations

for

which

never took

NAVSPECWARDEVGRU

known

is

place,

the Achille

including

is

known, none

has also deployed several times

Lauro

incident

(1985).

to cooperate closely with units of other nations with a

similar role, including the British Special

Boat Service (SBS) and

Italy's

COMSUBIN.

160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne)

One

Claw was

of the major lessons of Operation Eagle

assemble

operated and trained with each other

modes

that

it

was

inviting trouble to

and individuals needed to have

a force for a specific operation. Instead, the units

so that they understood their respective

regularly,

of operation, capabilities, strengths, and weaknesses. This particularly applied to the

helicopters and

in

the aftermath of the Teheran rescue debacle the

aviation unit to provide just this type of support.

It

came

formally

16 1981, designated 160th Aviation Battalion, but in

May 1990

it

US Army formed

into existence

new

on October

was reorganized, expanded

and redesignated 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (Airborne) and assigned to
the
part

US Army Special Operations Command (SOCOM). Aircraft of 160th SOAR have taken
in US operations in Grenada, the Persian Gulf, Just Cause, Desert Shield/Desert Storm,

and recent actions

in

Somalia.

Above:

A SEAL team member,

with camouflage cream liberally

applied,

Organization and Aircraft

160th SOAR comprises three aviation

battalions, with

1/160 and 2/160 at Fort Campbell,

Kentucky, and 3/160 at Hunter Army Airfield, Georgia Special operations helicopters are also

operated by

The

1st Battalion,

245th Aviation Regiment of the Oklahoma

smallest helicopter

use with 160th

in

Bird," the latest in a long line of

is

known

SOAR

is

OH-6 developments

to serve with 2/160 and, considering

its

in

addition, the

Army

National Guard.

the McDonnell Douglas MH-6J "Little

for special operations use. The

small size,

can be fitted with FLIR and a laser designator, and can be

0.50-cal Brownings;

comes ashore, ready

anything. He

it

is

MH-6J

a highly capable aircraft.

It

armed with 7.62mm Miniguns or

MH-6J is so stable in the hover that it can be used as a

rifle. The tail can be folded for transportation in a fixedcan carry a crew of two and six special forces operators

Colt

is

Commando,

lighter, carbine

M 6 assault
1

armed with

the shortened,
version of the

The US Navy's

rifle.

SEALs have proved to be

the

most

highly
Special

efficient

respected

for

among

and most

of the

US

Operations Forces

community.

platform for a sniper using a 0.50-cal

wing

aircraft,

while the MH-6J

itself

SOAR

on each side

externally.

WARDEVGRU

for maritime operations such as assaults

160th

The Sikorsky MH-60K is

US Army, with deliveries to

also

provides

MH-6s
on

in

support of

the definitive special operations version of the

l/l

60th starting

in

late

1992.

NAVSPEC-

oil rigs.

The

aircraft

is

UH-60

for the

comprehensively

69

Special For( is

equipped for night/low

I6B FLIR,

level

operations with

Stinger and Hellfire missiles and

Largest helicopter

is

AN/APQ-7

and

a night-vision imaging system,

4 terrain-following radar and

moving map

display.

Weapons

AAQ-

can include

two pintle-mounted M2HB 0.50-cal Browning machineguns.

MH-47E (SOA) (= special operations aircraft) which has

the Boeing

terrain-following radar, FLIR, and an extensive array of early-warning devices. Defensive

Below: US Marine Corps Force

armament

Recon troopers help each other

helicopter

up a

cliff

a
m

face

in

undoubtedly an
taken part
since

it

larger
all

its

is

force, has

elite

in

every US war

was formed

and today

sandy terrain.

The Marine Corps, which

in

1775

ground force

and better equipped than

Marine Corps Aviation

dwarfs the majority of national

air

is

Brownings and Stinger

probe and

also fitted with an in-flight refueling

The

air-to-air missiles.

deep penetration

a typical

mission could have a radius of 350 miles (570km) and an endurance of

some

6 hours.

MH-

47Es serve with 2/160 and 3/160.

While aircraft are allocated to and operated by specific units, it should be noted that
SOAR's procedures enable mixes of types and numbers to be assembled to suit

160th

almost any operational requirement.

is

but a few national armies.

while

M2HB

consists of pintle-mounted

forces.

Qualifications
The

Officer Qualification

Qualification
Qualified,

comes

Course

which

is

Course

lasts for

for 160th

SOAR

14 weeks, while the Enlisted Men's

lasts

three weeks. Two other qualification levels exist: Fully Mission

attained after 12-18

months

in

the unit, and Flight Leader, which only

after 3-4 years.

US Marine Corps
US Department

The

of Defense does not formally

the Marine Corps as a part of

Forces.

some

In

en

certainly

respects, however,

"elite"

not to

inappropriate

More

capabilities.

force

and

Force Reconnaissance

it
is
is one - and
would therefore be

it

it

them

include

specifically.

list

Operations

Special

its

reviewing

in

such

Reconnaissance Marines (and

particular) have similar training

in

and missions as special operations forces

with training

parachute and other airborne operations, as well as

in
in

Scuba and other underwater operations.

The Marine Corps

indeed,

it is

the world's largest

is

countries. Since

November

it

was

raised by order of

1775, the

10

USMC

force:

"police" actions and

Congress on

has taken part

major war fought by the USA, as well

These

elite

even bigger than the total armed forces of most

as

in

every

numerous

in

armed interventions all over the world.

have merged to produce an
force whose maintenance is the raison

traditions

fine

amphibious assault

d'etre for today's Corps. Further, the evolution of Marine

aviation

units

Corps with

has provided the

force. This overall capability enables the

its

USMC

own

air

to claim to

be a unique, combined-arms, ground-air force with

a special

competence in amphibious warfare.

The missions assigned to the USMC fall into three
broad categories. The principal mission is to maintain an
amphibious capability for use

conjunction with fleet

in

operations, including the seizure and defense of advanced

naval bases

the

and the conduct of land operations essential to

execution

successful

addition,

the

Corps

is

detachments for naval

warships.

Finally,

placed upon

it

of

maritime

required
bases

to

campaign.

security

Navy's

principal

and the

the Corps carries out any additional duties

by the President.

major feature of the USMC's position

defense establishment
to have

its

In

provide

is

unique

in

that

it is

in

the

US

the only service

basic corps structure defined by statutory law.

The amended National Security Act of 1947 tasks the

Marine Corps with maintaining a regular Fleet Marine Force
of no fewer than three divisions and three aircraft wings,

with the additional support units necessary.

70

Special Forces

ITED

States

Left:

it

is

With

world-wide mission,

its

USMC

that the

essential

is

capable of deploying into any

o
n

>

type of terrain, with only the

most minimal notice. Jungle

training, once

carried

out

in

*
i

Panama,

is

made

facilities

friendly

SI

active duty personnel, including 9,300

services. This

is

women, and

organized into four divisions and four aircraft wings (three regular and

one reserve of each), but both organizations are

particularly apparent

in

larger than their counterparts

Marine division which, with

in

the other

a strength of 17,000,

is

some 20 percent larger than a US Army division.

The basic structure of the Marine division is essentially the traditional "triangular" model,
with three infantry regiments, each of three battalions. The new infantry battalion, however,
is smaller than before, with a headquarters company, weapons company, and three rifle
companies, each of the latter being 20 percent smaller than its predecessors. Manpower and
financial constraints prevented a fourth rifle company from being formed. Each Marine
division has an artillery regiment, a tank battalion, an

armored

assault battalion (equipped with the

The standard Marine

315

aircraft, ranging

aircraft

plus supporting

(MAW)

has

by

armored amphibian

training
in

is

Corps arctic

carried

California,

out at

and overseas

home
in

Japan and Norway. During the

Cold

War

the

Marines had a

major commitment

Norway

in

the

to

support

event of Soviet

aggression, where they would-

have fought alongside the

British,

Dutch, Norwegian, and

other NATO troops.

battalion, a light

LAV), and other supporting units.

1

8 to 2

squadrons with

a total of

286 to

from fighter/attack (F/A-18), through medium attack (AV-8) and

tanker/transport squadron (KCI

wing

new

available

using

countries.

Above: Marine

is

practised

..

Organization
The Marine Corps strength - 174,000
40,000 reserves

now

30), to helicopter

squadrons (AH-I, CH-53, CH-46,

squadrons of electronic warfare, observation, and reconnaissance

UH-

aircraft.

71

Special Forces

Right:

a
m

A US Marine practises the

survival

art of jungle

area at Subic Bay.

He

Philippines.

the

in

the

cutting a

is

bamboo, which can provide

in

former United States' training

c/>

food,

water, serve as a container, or

be used to erect a shelter.

Special forces

expert at "living

must become
the

land,"

especially in

hostile

off

environments, since they may

have

to

operate behind enemy

lines

for

lengthy periods.

Below: Despite the vast

technological and industrial

resources of the
its

in

United States,

most valuable military

war are
this

its

member

assets

people, such as
of the

Marines'

Force

Recon.

Weapons and Equipment

The

dominant characteristic of Marine

single

doctrine

which applies to

action,

is

aspects of the Corps'

all

ethos has a major effect on the way the

activities. This

USMC

tactical

the emphasis on the principle of offensive

is

MI6

equipped. Improved

rifles

are being

issued as the basic infantry weapon, while each squad,

13 strong, has the new 5.56mm Squad Automatic
Weapon (SAW) (M249) in each fire team. The

battalion

weapons company has

platoon with eight

"machine gun"

launcher
81

mm

in all

(actually,

but name).

mortar

is

also

in

heavy machine gun

teams, each of which mans a

HMG

equipped with a 0.5in

vehicle

40mm

firing

An improved

USMC

Recruits go to one of

version of the

service.

Selection and Training

All members of the US armed forces
and those for the

and the Mkl9

an automatic grenade

are volunteers,

enlist directly into the

two

Corps.

training depots, at San

where they undergo

-week "boot camp."
Despite its size, the USMC does not have its own
officer academy, although some are accepted from the
Diego, Ca, and Parris Island, SC,

the famous

Navy academy
officers

is

at Annapolis.

through

Candidate School
Class. All

officer

the

The main source

Naval

ROTC,

of

Officers

(OCS) or the Platoon Leaders

candidates

(including

those from

Annapolis) must undergo a rigorous selection and

training course at Quantico.Va, before being accepted

for a commission.

72

Special Forces

Fleet Anti-Terrorism Security

Team (FAST)
number of elites within
US Marine Corps. These units were formed in

The

Fleet Anti-terrorism Security

companies are one of

the

Team (FAST)

1987

response to the world-wide increase

in

US armed

to

threats

their

facilities,

prime

highly

additional,

periods,

when

forces

mission

the threat

being

protection

trained

beyond the

is

in

government

and

to

provide

over

short

capabilities of

the usual security forces. Following the principle that

"prevention

is

better than cure,"

however, FAST

companies are also responsible for carrying out

threat assessments, for helping security officers to

prepare proper security plans, and for improving

individual

standards

security

in

force

(eg,

of

surveillance, marksmanship).

The FAST companies are some 300-strong and

when the need arises.
Following the bombing of US troops in Saudi Arabia
on June 25 996, in which 9 people were killed and
500 injured, FAST Marines from Norfolk, Va, were
can be deployed very rapidly

actually on-site within

10

hours of the explosions.

They then not only provided

deploying their

own

additional security by

Marines, but also carried out

security assessments, which,

in

many

cases,

found

the existing arrangements to be wanting.

FAST units hace deployed with US forces on

numerous operations, including: the Gulf War;
Liberia (Operation Sharp Ede); Panama (Operations
Just Cause and Promote Liberty); Haiti (Safe
Return); Cuban refugee evacuation (Operation Safe
Passage); and the United Nations withdrawal

from

Somalia.

accomplished"

Above: "Mission

as

US Marines stand outside the re-

captured US Embassy
City

in

February

marine on the

in

Kuwait

1991. The

left

particularly

is

MI6

equipped. He carries an

well
fitted

M203 pump-action

with an

grenade launcher below the

weapon and

night sight to

its

He wears pouches carrying

left.

spare ammunition and grenades

on

his

chest,

on

his

left

instant

and a bayonet

is

shoulder, ready for

use.

LEFT: Operation Just Cause in

December 1989 and two Marines

question a local inhabitant
the town of Arraijan
Pacific

The Marines are

coast.

members

in

on Panama's

the

of

Terrorist Security

First

team

Fleet Anti-

(FAST).

FAST companies have proved

very

in

the

and have been

useful

deployed

in

every US operation

1990s

73

Special Fohc is

74

Special Forces Operations

Part 2

Operations
Modern

honors have been earned

battle

in

places as far apart as

Entebbe, Djibouti, Grenada, the Iranian desert, the Falklands and

Mogadishu. What these battles have

conducted by

special/elite forces

"low intensity"

in

common

and were

environments.

It

all

is

importqant

is

were

that they

conducted

in

study

to

operations by special/elite units, since the operation

all

so-called

such

the pay-off,

is

where they carry out the job they were created and trained to handle.
Of course, many lessons can be learnt from successes, but by no
means all speical/elite operations have been unqualified triumphs, and
it is important not to shy away from these. In other words, lessons
must be learnt from failures as well as from successes.
The prestigious Combat Studies Institute at the US Army's

Command

and General

Staff

College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, has

studied special/elite force operations

in

great depth.

It

concluded

that,

"Many factors determined the conduct of such operations. ..and of

these there are four that are important enough to merit special
emphasis. These are: surprise; the quality of opposing forces; the

success

of friendly

forces

surprise

which

with

cooperating; and popular support."

the

Of these, the

was paramount.

Basic tenets and tactics

must be studied over and over

again, since,

taken as a general rule, they are sound and they work.

great mistake to assume that what

however, be

situation will

work

Service

were

forces

elite

study concluded that

in

It

works

would,
in

one

another. The tactics used by Britain's Special Air

during the siege of the

example, or those used by

GSG

Iranian
in

Embassy

in

London, for

Mogadishu were very successful

on those two occasions, but may well not be suitable in future

incidents. Nor, as the 1993 Mogadishu operations show, should the
same tactical plan be used over and over again.

One

thing

all

these examples

special/elite force units

show

is

that the

men and women

in

must be very adaptable and able to respond

effectively to novel situations in unfamiliar places at very short notice.

In

other words, they must be high caliber people, not only physically

but mentallly as well.

Two

A,

of the

publicized
Iranian

make

their

move

across the roof during the most

rescue operation by special forces to date,

when

terrorists

12-man team

Embassy

in

of Britain's

London

in

SAS

held 29 hostages at the

1980

75

Special Forces

Rescue at Entebbe
AT 0900 hours

June 27 1976, Air France

and crew aboard. The A300 Airbus

Athens and
hours,

it

was on the second

was sky-jacked by

it

pilot

AF

139

left

its flight

when, at 1210

combination of Palestinian and

succeeded

through

aircraft staged

leg of

Baader-Meinhof terrorists led by

Boese.The

flight

en route for Paris with 254 passengers

Tel Aviv airport

German

called Wilfried

pressing the "hijack button" as

in

he turned for Benghazi, where, after a 6-hour delay, the plane

was

refueled;

then flew on to the terrorists' destination -

it

Entebbe, Uganda, which was under the erratic rule of "Field

Idi Amin Dada.
Amin purported to

Marshal"

maintain

apparently

an

neutral

posture, but covertly he supported the terrorists

demands

53

unless

that

prisoners held

in

Palestinians

number

July

I.

hostages and, after he had

nationalities

insisted

On

on

hostages.
left,

were released the

would be shot at 1200

Amin even

in

fact

visited

the

the Israelis and Jews of other

were segregated, although the Air France aircrew

joining them.

the morning of July

for time,

flight

"keep the peace," but they

guarding the

in

their

terrorist

Ugandan troops were deployed to Entebbe

airport, supposedly to

assisted

other

of countries

hostages aboard the Air France

hours on

or

in

of Palestinian

I,

the

Israeli

government, playing

was willing to consider the release

prisoners. The hijackers, increasingly confident

announced that

it

of eventual success, responded by extending their deadline by

three days. They also released

who were

flown to

French and

Israeli intelligence.

Paris,

all

the non-Jewish hostages,

where they were debriefed by

beginning, the Israeli planners had many

was shortage of time to set up any form of rescue operation
before the terrorists killed any of their hostages. The second was to find out just where the
hostages were being held and under what conditions. Third, there was the problem of getting
a rescue force to Entebbe and back. Fourth, there was the problem of what to do with the

From the

map

Above: The

port as

it

the Israeli

Entebbe

of

air-

was

at the

raid.

The Air France

time of

Airbus was parked at the end of

the taxi-way (right), a short

distance from the old terminal

building, in

which the hostages

problems. The

non-Jewish hostages.
Fortunately, the problems resolved themselves

agreed to the use of Nairobi airport, and a coup

one
in

after

another.The Kenya government

Sudan resulted

in

the closure of that

were being held. The main runway

country's air control radars. Intelligence on Entebbe airport and the local situation began to

new terminal

be processed, aided considerably by the debriefing of the released non-Jewish hostages. This

was on the

left;

the

and control tower

in

Right: Reconstruction

outside the old

at

the center.

of the scene

terminal building

Entebbe. Speed and deception

were essential
success. Heavily

the operation's

to

armed jeeps and a

Mercedes sedan were disguised

to

resemble the transport used by

Ugandan

dictator

Idi

Amin, and

thus temporarily mislead the air-

port security guards. C-130 No.

and No.2 (with the

command

team) landed several minutes

apart and deployed troops, while
No.3

carried

down

reserves and touched

after the

runway

lighting

had been extinguished. The task

of No.4,

reserves,

which contained further

was

to

taxi

to

the

old

terminal building and to pick up

the rescued hostages.

76

first clearly

C-

Special Forces Operations

chief-of-staff General

Left: Israeli

Mordecai Gur briefs the press,

commandos'

following the
return.

On

his

left

is

General Dan Shomron,

commanded

Brigadier-

who

operation, but

the

Lieutenant-Colonel "Yoni"

Netanyahu, the ground force

leader,

eased

the

problem

governments. US
including

satellite

made

killed.

foreign

inform-ation,

photographs

of

Entebbe,

and France remained involved not only

available,

because

consulting

of

sources

was

it

had been an Air France

been hijacked but because

its

airliner that

had

courageous crew

had insisted on staying with the Jewish hostages.

The Rescue
Lieutenant-General Mordecai Gur,
staff,

chief-of

Israeli

considered that a raid on the airport was

feasible,

and

0730 hours on

at

Minister Rabin reviewed

all

July

Prime

the facts and then gave

the political go-ahead for the operation. Later that

morning

a full-scale dress rehearsal

was held

in

Drawn from the 35th Parachute Brigade and the Golani Infantry Brigade, the
100-plus force, commanded by Brigadier-General Dan Shomron, aged 48, performed well in
an attack on a dummy layout manned by Israeli troops, and all seemed to augur well for the
real thing, which was scheduled for the next day. The dress rehearsal lasted just 55 minutes
northern

Israel.

from the time the rescue

to take just 53).

and

aircraft landed to the

time

The primary weapons selected

Galil assault rifles, the latter

terminal and rescue the hostages

known throughout

the

Israeli

it

Army

off again (the actual

for the raid reportedly

equipped with night

was to be

took
sights.

The

rescue was

were the MAC-

10

force to enter the airport

led by Lieutenant-Colonel Jonathan

Netanyahu,

as "Yoni."

(July 3), two hours after the full Israeli government cabinet
made aware of the "go" decision, four Israeli C-130 Hercules took off for the long
flight to Entebbe. The route took them down the middle of the Red Sea at high altitude in
the hope that Saudi Arabian radars would treat them as unscheduled civil flights. There was,
in fact, no reaction, so they were able to turn and fly down the Sudan-Ethiopia border and

At 1600 hours that afternoon

into Uganda.

Two Boeing 707s were also involved, leaving two hours after the slower Ccommand post fitted with special communications gear; it caught up

a flying

Generals Benny Peled and Yekutiel

hospital,
staff

went

in

Adam

ready for any

wounded from

30s.

One was

with the four

the area throughout the operation with Major-

aboard. The other 707, fitted out as an emergency

straight to Nairobi, arriving just before midnight;

C-130 carrying the

hostages taxis towards

rescued
dispersal

at

following

its

Entebbe.

Lod airport,
return

When

the

from

ramp was

lowered the passengers rushed

out into the arms of their
tearful

relatives; a

successful

outcome none had anticipated

had been

C-I30s near Entebbe and remained

Above: The

it

then waited,

the operation just across the border

in

its

medical

Uganda.

The four C-I30s arrived at Entebbe without incident and landed at precisely 0001 hours.
The first aircraft landed close to the control tower, disgorging its paratroops in a Mercedes
car and three Land Rovers while still moving.The men charged into the tower and succeeded
in preventing the controllers from switching off the landing lights; even so, emergency lights
were deployed, just in case. These were not needed and the second and third aircraft taxied
up to the terminal where the hostages were being held and discharged their paratroops
straight into action. The fourth C-130 joined the first near the control tower.

24 hours

earlier.

Special Forces

The main

squad brushed aside

Israeli

from the
Ugandan Army guards and charged into
the terminal building. The second group
destroyed Ugandan Air Force MiG
the

resistance

ineffective

fighters

when

prevent pursuit

to

the

raiders took off again and also as a noisy

and obvious diversion.

The

went

group

third

the

to

perimeter to cover the approach road,

since

was known that the Ugandan

it

Army had

number
Czech

and

tanks

personnel

some

20

miles

the capital, Kampala.

in

appeared,

this force

armored

OT-64

carriers

(32km) away

major

of Soviet-built T-54

Had

could have had a

it

effect since the

Israelis

had no

heavy weapons. The fourth group was

made up
Israelis,

who, being

also well-trained soldiers

down

and brought

M^^^

doctors

33

of

were

covering

from

fire

the area of the C- 30s.

ryr^^^

With Shomron
tower and

control

in

had been successful,

Netanyahu's

turn

phase

was now "Yoni"

it

to

lead

assault

on the terminal

rescue

the

hostages.

leader, Boese,

the

in

satisfied that the first

the

crucial

building

The

to

terrorist

behaved with surprising

indecision, first aiming at the hostages

and

then

changing

his

mind, going

outside, loosing off a few rounds at the

Above: The
at

Lot!

celebrations continue

airport.

The spectacular

and very successful hostage

rescue was devised, organized

and executed within one week,

and, according to some reports,
the Israelis took the concept of
the US raid on
prison

in

start

the

Son Tay

North Vietnam as the

and then heading back for the lounge; as he returned he was shot and killed. His
German, GabrielleTiedemann, was also killed outside the building.
The Israeli soldiers rushed into the lounge where the hostages were being held, shouting
at everyone to get down on the floor; in the confusion, three of the hostages were hit by
stray bullets, an almost inevitable consequence in such a situation. While some of the soldiers
rushed upstairs to kill the two terrorists remaining there, the hostages were shepherded out
to the waiting C- 30s. At this point "Yoni" Netanyahu emerged from the terminal to
supervise the loading and was killed by one shot from a Ugandan solider in a nearby building,
Israelis

fellow

a sad loss.

At 0045 hours the defensive outposts were

point for their plan.

the night with

its

called

load of rescued hostages on their

in

as the first

way to

C-130 roared

off into

Nairobi, with the fourth and last

leaving at 0054.

Apart from the

hostages were

loss of

killed in

Colonel Netanyahu, three

Israeli

the rescue, while a fourth, Mrs

Dora

rescuers were wounded. Three

Bloch,

who

had been taken off

was murdered by the Ugandans in revenge for the raid. On the

addition to the terrorists, there were 20 Ugandans killed and more than 100

to a local hospital earlier,

other

side, in

wounded.
The whole operation was
unexpected direction.
action,

It

conducted with great dedication and

became known

notice and

in

most

reputation for quick and determined "ad hoc"

Israeli

skill.

substantial foes, but the terrorists had obviously

later

mounted on short

a brilliant success,

confirmed the

The Ugandans could not be described

been trained for their

task. Interestingly,

as
it

Wegener of Germany's GSG 9 was with the Israelis

the known presence of the two Germans with the

that Colonel Ulrich

on the operation, possibly because of

terrorists.

The
in

first

rescue attempt of

Vietnam, which the

terrorists and

Israelis

its

type - unless one considers the

US

raid

Ugandans completely

off guard.

Following Entebbe,

all

terrorists have to take

into account the possibility that a rescue mission could be carried out

over great distances.

78

I*

on Son Tay Prison

reportedly used as a model - the Entebbe rescue caught the

in

hostile territory

Special Forces Operations

Moluccan Train Incident

Throughout

the Netherlands

incidents were used by the terrorists to press

Dutch government support independence for their homeland - the
now a part of Indonesia, but formerly a Dutch colonial possession. (They

demands

that the

Moluccan

Islands,

were

at

activity

the 1970s, repeated terrorist incidents by South

in

The

Moluccans grabbed headlines.

one time known as the Spice

were generally the Dutch-born

forming guerrilla squads

Indonesian embassy

killing

of a policeman

The Hague; the

in

radicals spearheading the terrorist

the late 1960s and accumulating arsenals of weapons.

in

Violence included the

The

Islands.)

children of Moluccan immigrants, and had begun

damaged The Hague Palace

itself;

and

in

1973

when South Moluccans

following year, South

seized the

Moluccans stormed and

1976, they killed three hostages during a train

in

hijacking.

But on May 23 1977, two groups of South Moluccan terrorists launched their most
spectacular attack yet

in

become

the opening phase of what was to

The groups simultaneously

Dutch

hijacked a

train

three-week drama.

and occupied an elementary school

in a

northern part of the Netherlands,

The
as

it

raid

began when two terrorists pulled an emergency cord to stop Express Train 747

traveled

between Assen and Groningen.

49 hostages into the

Minutes
forcing

and

few days

addition to

Five

masked gunmen rushed aboard, herding

compartments.

few miles away, seven terrorists invaded an elementary school,

10 hostages into the

unharmed
In

later

first-class

main classroom.

Of

the

10 hostages, 106

were released

later after a virus struck the children.

demanding assistance

that they, as well as 21

planned kidnapping of

in

their

independence

other South Moluccans

Queen
was

efforts, the

Moluccans

meet the

insisted

various assaults (including the

be allowed to leave the country.

Juliana),

handling the situation steadfastly refused to

negotiate with them. There

jailed for

terrorist

Dutch

officials

demands, but continued to

a reluctance to use force, despite the previous train seizure

only 18 months earlier.

However, the order for the June 10 rescue assault came only after negotiations dragged
and as the Dutch public grew increasingly impatient

on for three weeks with no progress

and bitter over the stalemate.

What was

to follow

was

later characterized, appropriately

enough, as a switch from psychology to technology.

On December

Above:

1975 a

previously unheard-of group of

Moluccan

terrorists

seized

Indonesian Consulate

the

in

Amsterdam. Here a masked

terrorist

armed with

a sub-

machine gun forces one of the

hostages to retrieve food

them by the

Left:

left

for

authorities.

The setting for the most

spectacular operation

conducted

by the South Moluccan terrorists.

In

a two-pronged

attack, one

group seized the Assen-Gronmgen

express train and

held 49

hostages, while a second group

held
in

10

children

and teachers

an elementary school some

miles away. The

authorities

Dutch

played for time, but

eventually had

to

use force.

79

Special Foh<

Execution
Even though the Dutch government was reluctant to use force, contingency plans had been
in place from the start. To break the dual siege, it was determined that a dual attack
would be required. If either the train or the school were taken individually, the terrorists at
the remaining location seemed certain to exact vengeance on the hostages in their custody.
Throughout the siege, the specially picked Royal Dutch Marines, and civilian and military
police had been rehearsing assaults on an empty train at the nearby Gilze Rijin Air Force

put

Base.

Eight

combat swimmers had approached the

train

Special radar that could detect the heat differences

been put

in

place; this allowed the

through the metal

in

their

decision

for

troops await the

action. Special

prepared

to

forces

call

must be

spend much time

waiting for negotiations to break

down

before they can strike.

When

70 hostages were being

80

held.

20-minute attack. Six F-104 Starfighter

in

aircraft

train,

and launched

immediately flew

in criss-

their afterburners in an attempt to

and encourage the hostages to keep their heads down. As the

and opened up with their weapons on areas of the

went

marines ring the building where

came. Marines wearing night-vision goggles approached the

jets

roared overhead, a force of Marine and police sharpshooters raced across a 100-yard (30m)

school sieges the terrorists struck

1978. Here Dutch

it

distract the terrorists

slept.

in

place.

Other sophisticated devices were used so that the

hostages were likely to be should the "go"

cross patterns just a few feet above the train, kicking

field

again

in

hot and cold surfaces had also

know where the terrorists and

be made for the assault.

what was to be

1977 train/

Below: Following the

in

Marines to monitor the movements of the terrorists

weapons.

Marines would

Above: Dutch

by way of a canal that ran within

(5m) of the tracks and had put sensitive bugging devices

15 yards

train

where the

terrorists normally

Shortly before 0500, the assault force blew the doors off with framing charges and
in

with Uzis blazing.

Six of the nine terrorists

and stood up as

were

bullets blazed

Marines, and one terrorist

killed

during the assault;

about were

were wounded.

killed also.

two hostages who had panicked

Seven other hostages, two Dutch

Special Forces Operations

Simultaneously

with

the

assault

on

the

train.

Marines

assaulted

Bovensmilde, rushing the building with armored personnel carriers from

all

the

school

at

four sides, one

them bursting through a wall. The 10-minute attack met no resistance; four terrorists
were captured (three were asleep in their underwear) and the four hostages were rescued
unharmed.
of

A classroom window

Above:

in

school-house of the normally

the

Dutch town of

quiet

Bovensmilde, the breeching of

its

symbolized by the

tranquillity

drawn curtains and the

Assessment
The

assault

terrorism.

prevalent

protruding

demonstrated that the Dutch would resort to force

if

necessary to counter

This was particularly important to the government since the belief had been

among South Moluccans

Dutch were pushed.

successful attack

that force

would not be used, no matter how hard the

Perhaps another salutory effect of the split-second, high-tech and

was that

it

helped temper

long-haired Dutch troops by their

some

of the derogatory remarks directed at

more conventional

muzzle (lower

rifle

Inside, the

left).

held

terrorists

hostages, but had to

10

release

106 children after a few days

when they were

struck by a

mystery virus.

colleagues from other European

nations.

Another point was eventually driven home: terrorism would not go unpunished

in

the

courts either. Seven of the terrorists, aged 18 to 28, received prison terms ranging from six
to nine years, while another received a one-year term for helping plan the dual seizure.
Two

Left:

terrorists

open doorway

sit

Number 747 awaiting

the

in

Express

of

their fate

Dutch special forces

after the

had broken

their

siege.

The

Dutch experience with the South

Moluccan

terrorists

proved once

again that the use of force and

heavy penalties
that survive the

way

the only
the

for

any

final

terrorists

assault are

of dealing with

problem and preventing

future

occurrences. Giving

terrorist

them

go

to

incident

in

to

demands and allowing

free

after the

over only result

is

in

further problems. Another price

to

be paid

of special

is

the maintenance

forces units

and

ensuring that they are always

ready to react to the

unexpected.

gMHtaMMg||

81

Special Foim

Mogadishu Rescue
Below: Lufthansa Palma-Germany flight was hijacked

(October
red)

13

across

1977) and taken by a circuitous route

the

Middle East, followed by GSG 9

(yellow/ green). They

met

at

Mogadishu, Somalia.

On

October

airliner

977

a Lufthansa

en route from Palma

Balearic Islands to

Germany was

by

over

terrorists

Mediterranean
aircraft

were

five

the

French

board
(two

aircrew

737

hijacked

the

On

coast.

in

the

pilots,

three stewardesses), 86 passengers, and

four terrorists,
hijackers'

two

of

them women. The

leader called himself "Captain

Mahmoud,"

and

identified

as

terrorist,

Zohair Youssef Akache.

ordered the

was

was

From
eastwards

international

to

captain

aircraft

Fiucimino airport
airliner

subsequently

notorious

fly

He
to

Rome, where the

in

refueled.

Rome, the
and

landed

airliner
at

set

Larnaca

off
in

Cyprus at 2038. Here, "Mahmoud"

demanded that the aircraft be refueled
again, or he would blow it up, the first of
many threats to use explosives. After
refueling, the airliner took off and
overflew various Middle East countries.
Permission to land at Beirut was denied

and the runways were blocked, so

taken on to Bahrein

where the same

in

it

was

the Persian Gulf

thing happened.

It

was

flown on to Dubai, where, despite being

refused permission to land, the crew were

forced to do so for lack of

At one point
Mogadishu

Above:

by two

GSG

open the
in

operators, assisted

SAS men, blasted

British

doors, threw

airliner's

stun grenades, and shot the

hijackers.

The

British

involvement, only admitted later,

symbolizes the close operational

liaison

between many special

forces

Right:

Flight

units.

Boeing 737, Lufthansa

LH 747,

sits

forlorn

and

apparently abandoned on the

runway

at

Inside

Mogadishu Airport.
are

aircrew, 86

passengers, and 4 terrorists, with

heat increasing, hunger pangs

growing, conditions worsening

and the

terrorists

becoming

increasingly agitated, and

unpredictable. The pilot had

already been murdered at Aden

and the future seemed bleak.

82

at

fuel.

Dubai the

airliner lost

power and the temperature inside rose

to over I20F (49C); many of the

Special Forces Operations

some of them quite elderly,

became very distressed. While here, the
crew managed surreptitiously to signal
that there were four hijackers.
Then on Sunday, October 16, the
passengers,

airliner

suddenly took

before the

first

off,

only 40 minutes

deadline for blowing

it

up.

was refused permission to land in Oman

and arrived over Aden airport with
It

another

on the

aircraft

minutes'

10

**

Despite warnings from

control, the
safely

for

fuel

sufficient
flying.

air

traffic

was brought down

taxi track.

Pilot Executed
By

now

conditions inside the aircraft were

very bad, and

increasingly

"Mahmoud" was
unpredictable

acting

and

manner. Jurgen Schumann, the

carriage,

and disappeared for

class cabin

was allowed to

pilot,

few minutes.

and made to kneel on the

instantly, directly as a result of

an

in

unstable

fl

When

leave the airliner to

"Mahmoud" then shot him

lor;

Schumann's

check the under-

he returned he was taken to the

earlier, successful effort to

in

the head,

first-

killing

him

feed information about

Above: The

body

of Lufthansa

Captain Jurgen Schumann

his

murder by the

carried

is

away from the Boeing 737

after

leader

terrorist

the terroists to authorities.

"Mahmoud."

The next morning the co-pilot,Jurgen Vietor, took off and flew the airliner to Mogadishu,
German government spokesmen contacted the hijackers and
terrorists held in jail and fly them to Mogadishu;
said that they were prepared to release
"Mahmoud" postponed his deadline to 0145 hours the next morning (October 18).

passing information over the radio

the capital of Somalia. There,

and "disappearing"

in

Cyprus

police, the

just as the

GSG

Still

terrorist

from

GSG

was

in

Boeing 737 was taking

team took

the
off.

briefly

defiant, the

carried

away. She now

Following a brief discussion with the Cypriot

quietly

in

off in their aircraft again

and returned,

via

Ankara, to Frankfurt.

Meanwhile, a second aircraft containing Hans-Jurgen Wischenewski.West

German

Minister

while

sole

survivor, Suhaila

within hours of the hijacking and arrived

air

were

inspecting the undercarriage.

Below:

The Rescue
A 30-strong contigent

His "crimes"

extradition

Norway and
to

Germany

Sayeh,

is

lives

is

resisting

for

trial

on charges arising from Mogadishu.

83

Special Forces

GSG

of State, psychologist Wolfgang Salewski, and another 30-strong group from

commander

their

they

went

In

Ulrich Wegener, had

to Mogadishu,

left

where they were

West Germany and gone

by

9, led

From there

to Dubai.

given permission to land.

Mogadishu, Wischenewski took over discussions with the hijackers. As the 1600 hours

deadline approached and

it

was

"Mahmoud" would in all probability carry out his

German minister said that the
prisoners would be

clear that

threat to blow up the aircraft, the

"Mahmoud" gave them

0245 hours the following morning to produce the

at Mogadishu. At 2000 hours the first group of GSG 9 who had gone to Cyprus and then
returned to Germany arrived in Mogadishu and the rescue briefings began.
At 0205 hours, just 40 minues before the deadline, Somali troops lit a diversionary fire
released.

until

ahead of the aircraft.Two hijackers went to the cockpit to assess

whereupon

significance,

its

the tower contacted them by radio and started to discuss the conditions of the exchange.

They

said

it

would commence

in

the near future,

when

Germany

the aircraft arrived from

with the released prisoners on board.

At 0207 precisely the emergency

GSG

Right:

members

doors

sprint

their return

to

successful

operation at

Mogadishu, thus relegating the

fiasco

of the

attempted hostage
Munich Olympic

rescue at the

Games

to

a distant memory.

the

party tossed

Frankfurt

following the completely

over

Sturtgan

*f

Intercont.neolalJet 707

The men

men

following the
at

man
the

welcome

for

GSG

reached the

continues to

have an extremely high

reputation over 20 years later.

SAS

British

and climbed onto

aircraft

were taken

by surprise.

GSG

of

9 rushed into the

hostages to keep

aircraft shouting to the

down on
wounded

the center of

in

two

government, had

hijackers (and the hostages)

with

GSG

"stun grenades."

with

the wings completely undetected; the

the

rifle

9,

lent by the British

Frankfurt Airport. Note the

picture.

some

in

GSG

of

The men
Below: Welcoming VIPs disperse

were

wings

aircraft

blown open and members of the rescue

past the welcoming band on

the floor, and opened

the

in

on

fire

"Mahmoud" was

hijackers.

fatally

few seconds, but

first

managed to throw two hand-grenades

before he died; fortunately, their effects

were cushioned because they

beneath

One

seats.

the

of

second man

terrorists died also and the

was wounded
died outside

wounded

the aircraft but

inside

it

few minutes

woman,

second

but did not

through

aircraft

later.

Sayeh,

Suhaila

passengers were

the

rolled

women

Meanwhile,

die.

herded

off

doors

the

The
was
the

and

emergency exits; three hostages had

been wounded, but none was killed.
The operation ended at 0212 hours
and was entirely successful.

proved

itself

GSG

9 had

and the

men

heroes'

welcome when

well-merited

received a

they returned to Germany.

Mogadishu was,

at the very least, a

physical

and

mental training undertaken by the

GSG

to

tribute

9, as

the

intensive

well as to that unit's attention to

technological back-up, examples being

the special rubber-coated-alloy assault

ladders used, and the stun grenades.
a

new

standard for

rescue operations

in

that

no hostages

best,

were

it

killed

Djibouti

during the assault - unlike at

and

Entebbe which, though

outstandingly successful
right,

had

resulted

hostage death.

84

At

formed

its

in

in

their

own

at

least

one

Special Forces Operations

Operation Eagle Claw

On

November 4 1979,

compound

444

in

group of

Iranian

"students" poured into the

US Embassy

Teheran and seized 53 occupants. They were to hold them hostage for

days.

From the

earliest days of the crisis

development was

one of the options under constant review and

and military endeavors were

a military rescue, although both diplomatic

constantly bedeviled by the continuing chaos

in Iran,

the uncertain, ever-changing intentions

of the captors, and the vacillating position of the Iranian leadership.

An unchanging

factor

was the remoteness of Teheran from available US bases. The plan that was eventually
decided upon centered on Colonel Charlie Beckwith and the elite Delta force, although it
obviously involved many more resources both directly and indirectly.The overall codename
was "Operation Eagle Claw," its helicopter element "Operation Evening Light." The plan was
complicated mainly by the problems of time and space, and comprised

moves and

three-phase operation.

some

preliminary

Below: The plan required C- 30s

1

to

into

unexpected

"haboobs"
dust storms

to

Desert One (red

arrows) to meet eight RH-53Ds

from USS Nimitz (green

arrows). The

C-

3 0s

arrived

according to plan but two

RH-

53Ds aborted; one was

abandoned, one returned to

Nimitz. The
to

Leading RH-53DS

fly

survivors flew back

Egypt (brown arrows).

fly

Left:

The helicopter debacle. No.

suffered

equipment malfunction

and was forced

to

return to

Nimitz, while No. 6 had a rotor

blade problem, landed, and was
Disaster at Desert One,

as

RH-53D

C-130

collides with

abandoned,

its

crew being picked

up by No.8. The worst disaster

tanker, after

entire mission

had been

aborted. Eight servicemen

was

at

collided

Desert One where No.

with a C-130.

are killed. Remaining

servicemen, including
Delta Force, flown to

Masirah

airfield,

Oman

85

Special For( is

Preliminary Moves
In

the preliminary

Oman. There

Oman

the Gulf of

moves Delta was to

fly,

via

Germany and

Egypt, to Masirah airfield

in

they would transfer to C-l 30s and, flying at very low level to avoid radar, cross

and southern Iran to land

at

Desert One,

remote

Karir Salt Desert, 265 nautical miles (490km) south east of Teheran.

site in

the Dasht-e-

Meanwhile, eight

US

Navy RH-53D helicopters, which had been deployed some weeks earlier via Diego Garcia,
would take off from the carrier USS Nimitz and, flown (also at very low level) by US Marine
Corps crews, join up with the main party at Desert One.
Below: The Sea Stallion was the
largest

helicopter in the

US

inventory and the -D version

had both the longest range and

the

greatest carrying capacity, as

well

as

folding rotors

boom, enabling

down aboard
basic

role

it

to

and

tail-

be struck-

a carrier. Since

its

was mine-sweeping,

its

presence aboard a carrier would

not be considered unusual.

Phase

Insertion

At Desert

One

the plan was for the six C-l 30s (three troop carriers; three to refuel the

were scheduled to

helicopters) to land and await the helicopters, which

minutes

later.

Because Desert

Road Watch Team was the

When

One was

first

beside a road (judged to be

arrive

some 30

used), a 12-strong

to deploy to intercept and detain any passing Iranians.

they had refueled, the helicopters were to load the assault team and

towards Teheran, dropping

helicopter hide

some

off the

men

at a landing

them to

Helicopters and

IIA:

men would

then rest

in

fly

zone and then proceeding to

on

their

The

5 miles (24km) to the north.

agents at the landing zone and guided by

Phase

little

assault group was to be met by two

remote wadi, some 5 miles (8km) away.

their hides through the day.

The rescue

one agent would take the 12 drivers/translators to collect six Mercedes

would take Colonel Beckwith on a route reconnaissance.
At 2030 hours the complete unit would embus at the hide and drive to Teheran, the actual
rescue operation starting between 2300 and 2400 hours. Having disposed of the guards
and released the hostages, it was planned to call in the helicopters, either to the embassy
After

last light

trucks, while the other agent

compound

if

an

LZ

surprise landing) or,

could be cleared (the "students" had erected poles to prevent a

if

this

was impracticable, to

nearby football stadium.

Once

all

the

hostages were clear the assault party would be taken out by helicopter, the White Element
being the

Phase

last out.

II:

Rescue at the Foreign Ministry

Concurrently with Phase

IIA the

13-man

special

team would

assault the Foreign Ministry,

rescue the hostages there, and take them to an adjacent park where they would

up by

all

be picked

a helicopter.

Phase

III:

Extraction

While the action was taking place in Teheran, a Ranger contingent would seize Manzarieh
airfield, some 35 miles (56km) to the south, and several C-I4I turbojet transports would fly

86

Special Forces Operations

in.

Once everyone had been evacuated from Teheran

they would be flown out

surviving helicopters

in

the C- 14

Is,

to Manzarieh

the Rangers leaving

would be abandoned

last. All

at Manzarieh.

Contingency Plans
made

Various contingencies were foreseen and plans

for example,

to

lift

in

accordingly;

the event that not enough helicopters were available

everyone out of Teheran

in

one

One

lift.

critically

important

condition had been agreed throughout the planning, namely that

there had to be an absolute

of Desert

One,

minimum

of six helicopters to

since planners expected at least

one to

fail

fly

out

during

the mission.

Command and Control

Ground

force

commander Colonel Beckwith reported

General James Vaught, the

who was atWadi Kena

satellite

systems.

Commander Joint Task

airfield in Egypt;

to Major-

Force (COMJTF),

they were linked by portable

General Vaught had

similar

link

back to

Washington, DC, where General David Jones, then Chairman of the

Joint Chiefs of Staff,

throughout the

was

critical

in

session with President

hours of the operation.

In

Jimmy Carter
a last-minute

change of plans. Air Force Colonel James Kyle was appointed

commander

at

Desert One.

Execution

Above; The

The C-I4I airlift of the ground party went according to plan, as did the C-130 flights to
Desert One. The first aircraft, carrying Colonels Beckwith and Kyle, Blue Element and the
Road Watch Team, landed safely and the Road Watch Team deployed, immediately having to
stop a bus containing 45 people who were detained under guard,
Minutes later two more vehicles appeared from the south; the first, a petrol tanker, was
hit

by an anti-tank rocket and burst into flames, but the driver escaped

which drove
briefly

in

the second vehicle

The first C-130 then took off, leaving those on the ground
own. The second C-130 then came in and unloaded and, after the remaining

off at high speed.

on their

impressive bulk of the

RH-53D may have

led

misleading confidence
capabilities. Like
its

era,

it

all

to
in

its

helicopters

of

had mechanical

weaknesses, which were

exacerbated by the unexpected

sandstorms.

four C-I30s had landed, took off again for Masirah.The four C-I30s and the ground party

Below: Sea Stallions being readied

then waited for the helicopters and waited

for

....

The eight helicopters were, quite literally, the key to the operation. They had taken off
from USS Nimitz some 50 miles off the Iranian coast at 1905 hours (local), as scheduled, and
headed north for Desert One. At about 2 45 hours helicopter No. 6 indicated an impending
catastrophic blade failure, one of the two really critical problems requiring an abort. The
crew landed, confirmed the problem, removed sensitive documents and were then picked up
by helicopter No. 8 which then followed the others some minutes behind.
1

Eagle Claw on

the

deck

of

USS Nimitz. Although the

helicopters

had good range and

payload, lack of proper

preparation and non-availability

of spares

contributed to the

failure

the

of

mission.

87

Special Foin is

Schaefer, US Army,

Above: Colonel

was the senior military hostage

144-day US Teheran

held in the

Embassy

siege.

Here he attends

the memorial service for the

men

eight

killed

during their

attempt to rescue him and

fellow

hostages

in

his

Operation

Eagle Claw.

About one hour later the leading RH-53Ds ran into a very severe and totally unexpected
all emerged from this, flew on for an hour and then encountered a second and
even worse dust storm. (What they encountered was a haboob, a meteorological
phenomenon in which gusts generated by thunderstorms kick up masses of dust many miles
away. In Iran, where the dust is extremely fine, a haboob can linger in the air for hours.)
The helicopter force commander - Major Seiffert, USMC - had earlier lost his inertial
dust storm;

navigation system and, entirely blinded, flew back out of the first dust storm and landed,

accompanied by helicopter No. 2. Major Seiffert had a secure radio link to COMJTF, who told
him that the weather at Desert One was clear; consequently, after some 20 minutes on the
ground both

Above right: Five

USAF's

Wing and

of the

Operations

Special

1st

aircrew

members

three Marines

were

killed

in

all

the

catastrophe at Desert One. This

is

the scene at the

24

service, April

home

memorial

1980, at their

base: Hurlburt

Field

in

the

United States.

aircraft

took

off again

and followed the others to Desert One.

Meanwhile, helicopter No. 5 suffered several problems, including the loss of

burnout of

its

tactical

its

With no

navigation system, and a radar receiver failure.

gyro, a

artificial

horizon or heading, and with mountains ahead, the pilot was compelled to abort, and barely

made it back to the Nimitz, thus leaving six helicopters to continue the mission.
The first helicopter (No. 3) cleared the dust storm some 30nm (56km) from Desert One
and, using the burning Iranian petrol tanker as a beacon, landed some 50 minutes late. The
remaining aircraft straggled
(except Nos.

and

2,

in

over the next half-an-hour,

all

coming from

different directions

which were together). The crews were shaken by their experience,

moved

but the helicopters were quickly

to their tanker C-I30s, refueling began, and the

assault party started to board their designated aircraft.

Colonel Beckwith was fretting on the ground, 90 minutes behind schedule, when he was
Below: Iranian soldiers inspect a
jeep,

one of the vehicles

abandoned

at

temporary

air-strip,

Desert One, the

(300km) south-east

185

miles

of Teheran.

informed that helicopter No. 2 had had

had continued on to Desert

One

in

a partial hydraulic failure during the flight; the pilot

the hope of effecting repairs, but these proved

the whole thing off was quickly reached. There was no

impossible.

The

problem

aborting at this stage, even though the rescue team had never practised an abort

in

decision to

call

order.The only minor complication was that helicopter No.

4,

which had been on the ground

needed to top up with fuel before setting

Only one C-l 30 had enough fuel left and to clear
longest,

helicopter No. 3 took off and banked to the

height (5,000ft/l,525m) and

its

left,

off to the Nimitz.

a space for

but,

No. 4

because of the

weight (42,0001b/ 9,050kg),

1

it

could

not maintain the hover and banked right into the C-l 30.

The

was instantaneous and

effect

disastrous:

both

aircraft

exploded, debris flew around and ammunition began to cook

Five

USAF aircrewmen

53D

died, but

in

the C- 130 and three Marines

64 Delta men

inside the C-l

in

the

off.

RH-

30 escaped quickly from

the aircraft and rescued the loadmaster.The decision was then

made

to abandon the remaining helicopters and the whole party returned

to Masirah
In

in

done more,
eight, that

so on.

the three C-l 30s.

hindsight,

it

can always be said mission planners should have

that 10 helicopters should have been sent instead of

much more should have been known about haboobs, and

Thomas Hayward,

But the Chief of Naval Operations, Adm.

summed it up rather cogently in an interview shortly after the

attempted rescue. "There had to be some mistakes made," he
conceded. But,

in

the end, the mission was affected at least as

by an incredible string of misfortunes.

88

much

Special Forces Operations

Iranian Embassy Siege

The

of the Iranian Embassy

siege

the world and brought the

SAS

in

London

April-May 1980 caught the imagination of

in

into the limelight because the

denouement took

place

Below Cut-away showing the

room

and the success and sheer drama of the event established for the SAS

Princess

and created an expectation of success which

The
at

Iranian

Embassy

at

two

9mm

grenades. There were six

men

others,

all

revolver,

in

endure for many years.

will

armed with three 9mm automatic pistols,

sub-machine guns and a number of Chinese-made hand
six terrorists

Oan, the leader (27 years old), and five

from Arabistan, an area of Iran some 400

directly involved:

their early twenties.

They were

all

miles (643km) from Teheran, which had long resisted the rule of the

Aryan northerners.

Most had supported Ayatollah Khomeini's takeover from the Shah, only to

find

him as

to determine location

of hostages and terrorists

SAS men

Embassy

abseil

down

at

Gate, London. The

to

rescue

mission, but

the

size

building

of the

added

of

difficulties

the

microphones

and other sophisticated

surveillance devices were
essential

discovering the

to

whereabouts

the

of

and their 26 hostages

escaped

Surveillance devices lowered

down chimneys

Iranian

and complexity

No. 16 Princes Gate, London, opposite Hyde Park, was taken over

30 hours Wednesday April 30 by

one 0.38in

a public reputation

five-storey, 50-

interior of the

before the gathered press photographers andTV.The eerie, black-clad figures, their efficiency,

in

the

first

terrorists
(3

more

few

the rear wall of

the building, one becoming stuck and

having to be cut free

SAS assault squads

usestun grenades

and shaped charges

to gain entry

and

create shock.
Fire

and smoke must

have added to the

terrorists'

panic

Based on an

artist's

impression which appeared

The

Elite,

issue No.

by Orbis Publishing

1,

in

published

Ltd.

Spu.ial Fohm.n

ruthless a suppressor of minorities as his predecessor.

terrorists

Revolutionary

(DRMLA), a
cause was

Movement

for the Liberation

of Arabistan

whose
autonomy (not independence) for

Marxist-Leninist group based

regional

The

Democratic

represented a group entitled the

Libya,

in

Arabistan.

The occupants

of the

embassy

at

time of the

the

men and
women, three of whom escaped during the early minutes.
The terrorists' demands were initially that 91 prisoners in
Arabistan be released by the Iranian authorities. The deadline
was set for 1200 hours Thursday May Land during that night
the terrorists had the first of many contacts with the London
takeover numbered 29: four British and 22 Iranian

police and the media.

One

sick Iranian

woman was

released late on

Wednesday
The first

night and a sick Englishman the following morning.

deadline was

postponed when the police transmitted

message from the terrorists to the

press,

deadline (1400 hours) passed without a

and a second

move from

either

side.

By Friday morning there had been numerous contacts

between the

terrorists and the police,

through intermediaries, but by

being

made

now

some

direct and

some

specific threats

were

Negotiations

against the lives of the hostages.

continued throughout Saturday and a major advance was

achieved
in

when

the terrorists agreed to release

aims.

One

hostage was released

in

the early evening and after

the statement had been broadcast

90

two hostages

return for a broadcast on the radio of a statement of their

word

for

word another

Special Forces Operations

was

released.

meal sent

in

The atmosphere

in

the embassy

good

situation with various

Arab

became almost euphoric, helped by

by the police.

Throughout Sunday the

British

government discussed the

ambassadors, but no agreement could be reached on a possible role for them

resolution to the

crisis. In

the embassy the major event

release of an Iranian hostage

who

had become

ill.

more nervous and a shouted discussion between two

noon did little to ease the tension. At about 330, Oan's
I

shot Abbas Lavasani, one of the embassy

staff, in

in

On Monday

in

reaching a

an anti-climactic day was the

the terrorists

were noticeably

and the police at

British hostages

patience apparently snapped and he

the course of a telephone discussion with

the police. This was the turning point.

Any doubts about whether anyone had actually been killed were resolved just after 900
when the dead body was pushed through the front door of the embassy.
SAS soldiers had visited the scene on the first day of the siege, and thereafter they stood
by in an Army barracks some two miles away. The police had obviously tried their best to
identify just where the hostages and their captors were and what they were all doing; many
I

Two SAS troopers,

Far left. Top:

nondescript civilian clothes,

in

but wearing balaclava helmets

hide their identity, stand-by

to

ready to give covering

from

fire

Iranian

the outside wall of the

9mm

Embassy. They are holding

Browning

there

picture)

this

but (unseen

pistols,

are

in

rifles,

tear-gas launchers and other

weapons

at

their

Far left: Below:

man

feet.

A black-clad SAS

climbs over the

the front of the

embassy. He

armed with

is

& Koch

Heckler

machine gun.

balcony at

Iranian
a

9mm MP5
progress

His

sub-

was

covered by another squad at

street-level

entire

above). The

(picture

operation was

external

conducted under the watchful

gaze of TV cameras, which
broadcast these events

Left:

Moments before

blasting

of the

two SAS

men

live.

the

front windows,

prepare to charge

through and rescue the

hostages. The success of this

operation not only gave a boost

to the

already high reputation

of the

SAS, but

notice

to

British

would not

to

also

served
that the

terrorists

lightly

submit

hostage-taking operations,

and there have been no more

incidents

<

in

the

UK

since.

91

Special Forces

Above: Witnessed

on television

screens around the world, the

siege at

Iranian

the

Embassy

in

highly classified surveillance devices

possible to be

were

the circumstances when,

in

used.
in

The SAS were therefore

accordance with

as ready as

it

was

British legal practice, the police

formally asked the military to deal with the situation.

London ended abruptly on May

5

1980.

In

rescue operation

lasting just a few

SAS stormed

minutes, the
the

building,

rescued every hostage and killed

five

out of

six

terrorists.

The Rescue
The

plan

was to use

just

teams were to take the

men

rear,

ground and the second the

in

three teams of the customary four-man SAS groups; two

descending by rope from the roof, one team to reach the

first-floor balcony.

Both teams would then break

in

using either

frame-charges or brute force. Team three was to be at the front, crossing from a balcony at

No.

15

Princes Gate to No. 16.

Once

inside

all

three teams were to rush to reach the

hostages before they could be harmed.

Everything that could be done to heighten the impact of the attack was done. The 12
SAS men were dressed from head to foot in black, even including rubber anti-gas respirators,
and looked extremely menacing. They would gain entrance using 4ft x 2ft (1.2 x 0.6m)
frame-charges, followed by stun grenades ("flashbangs"). Teargas would also be used. The
combination of explosions, noise, smoke, speed of action, and the appearance of the men was
intended to strike confusion and dread into the minds of the terrorists - and it succeeded
brilliantly.

The SAS men

had, naturally,

pored over the plans of the 50-room building

in

and had also spent many hours studying the photographs of the hostages. But,
every soldier knows -

all

minute

in

detail

the end -as

the training and planning have to be translated into action.

At 1926 hours precisely the men of the rear attack force stepped over the edge of the
roof and abseiled down. The first two went down each rope successfully, but one of the third
pair became stuck, a hazard known to abseilers everywhere. In the front, SAS men appeared
on the balcony of No.
public an image

92

which

15

and climbed over to the embassy, giving the world's press and the

will last for years.

Special Forces Operations

Simultaneously, police spoke to the terrorists on the telephone and distracted their

moment the SAS burst in. Stun grenades exploded, lights went out,
was noise and apparent confusion. Some parts of the embassy caught fire and the SAS
man hanging on the rope at the rear was cut free and dropped onto a balcony - a risk

Below: As flames pour out of a

preferable to that of being roasted

window, a

attention at the critical

and

all

alive.

The SAS men swept through the embassy. Two

One

five

were

quickly shot and killed.

in

an upstairs room, but stopped after causing a few

of the six

gunmen were dead, with the sixth sheltering among

were rushed downstairs into the garden, where the

started shooting the hostages

wounds. Within minutes

terrorists

the newly freed hostages. All survivors

remaining terrorist was identified and arrested.

The

entire operation

organization
effects: first,

dealt with

in

in
it

a severe,

-.

its

start to finish.

While the SAS

is

the

well-heralded assault had at least

last

two

reinforced the message to potential terrorists that their activities could be

shot of national pride.

if

effective,

makes

his

moments

after

being released

from captivity by the SAS. One

of the

primary aims of the

operation was to reach the

took eleven minutes from

the world to seek out publicity,

civilian

escape along the balconies,

manner; and, secondly,

it

gave the British public a healthy

hostages before they could be

harmed and

in

brilliantly, since

this

it

succeeded

although the

terrorists

shot a few, none was

seriously

wounded.

93

FoHds

SPECIAI

Wireless Ridge

wounded paras

Above: Three

show
one

the
is

ugly reality of war:

receiving a transfusion

(right); the

second, with a head

wound,

lies

on the rocks

and the third

lies

on

ground, tended by

his

(center),

the

comrades

(left).

As this picture

was taken an incoming

shell

had

just

wounded man on

the

breathed

Right:

It

artillery

been heard and

the
his

left

last.

took British forces

10

hours to secure Wireless Ridge,

The battalion attack

of an action by a highly trained,

fit

War

and experienced infantry

in

982,

unit.

is

an excellent example

This action

is

of particular

was the only battalion in the Falklands War to carry out two
battalion attacks, and thus the only one to be able to put into practice the lessons learned,
in their case at high cost, at Goose Green on May 28.
On June 11,2 Para was moved by helicopter from Fitzroy on the south coast to a lyingup position west of Mount Kent.At 2300 hours the battalion set off on foot to an assembly
area on a hill to the north of Mount Kent, ready to support either 3 Para in their attack on
Mount Longdon or 45 Commando Royal Marines, whose mission was to take the position
known as Two Sisters. Both attacks were successful, leaving 3 Para, 45 Commando and 42
interest because 2 Para

Commando

firmly established.

Wireless Ridge,
June 14 1982

which made the position of the

remaining Argentine force

by the British 2nd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment (2 Para), on

Wireless Ridge, on June 13-14 during the Falklands

2 Para take position

in

behind

Mt Longdon

015: A,

move

B,

and C Companies

0130: A and B Companies attack

North Spur across
enemy minefield under
heavy fire.
0215: North Spur taken.
0245: C Company advances on

to Lower Pass aided by

artillery fire.

0045: D Company advances

on Hill X and secures with
Blues

&

Royals light tanks.

C Company move
'orward east

Port Stanley untenable and the

enemy

position east of

Murrell River.

Camp

found abandoned

commander, General Menendez,

surrendered later that day.

Mt Longdon
secured by
3 Para

0330: D Company
towards first enemy position

on Wireless Ridge, with

covering fire from A and B
Companies and light tanks
on North Spur.

1000: D

Company

takes

whole ridge
1

0400: Position secured

245:

A Company

into Port Stanley

^^^^erkely

--VleSlfnTklands
East

-Port Howari

Falklands

"~
c

^Jf*wbay

'

"loose

C s free-

X"

94

Stanley

leads 2 Para

Special Forces Operations

On

June

12,

2 Para

Mount Longdon on

its

moved forward some

north-western

side,

some cover from

of a steep escarpment which offered

artillery shelling.

Orders were received

Wireless Ridge that

night,

but

this

9 miles (15km), skirting

to an assembly area

in

was

in

the lee

the sporadic

mid-afternoon for an attack on

later

postponed to the following

night.

On

June

west. Intense

fire

aircraft flew in

from the ground prevented

home, but

pressed

forthcoming

Skyhawk attack

3 Argentinian

number

of

moves
were

in

action

battalion

British

this

low from the

attack from being

for

the

especially

the

preparation

delayed,

registration of targets by the artillery and mortars.

At Goose Green 2 Para had been very short of fire support. In this
however, they were to have two batteries of 105mm light guns in

battle,

direct support, the mortars of both 2 and 3 Para, naval gunfire support

from ships within range,

MILAN

as well as the battalion's

own machine gun

no means

anti-tank missile platoons. Last, but by

(1x30mm cannon) and two Scorpion (1x76mm

Scimitar

of The Blues and Royals

were an

gun)

and

troop of

least, a

light

tanks

integral part of 2 Para's battle plan.

The battalion moved out at last light (2030 hours local). As they
moved to the forming-up places (where the troops shake out into battle
formations), the sort of report a commanding officer dreads was
received: Intelligence had just discovered a minefield

Companies' objective. At

this stage,

in

front of

and B

however, there was no alternative

but to go ahead.

The

artillery

Company
first

supporting

objective with

leaving a

fire

started at 00 5 hours on June

1

crossed the start-line at 0045 hours.

few dead

little

in

D Company

trouble, finding that the

their

slit

trenches. While

4 and

reached

D
its

enemy had withdrawn,

D Company

reorganized,

enemy 155mm airburst fire began to fall on their position. Meanwhile, A

and B Companies began their advance, B Company through the
minefield.

Some

Above: A confused, frightened, and

came from a few trenches, but was quickly silenced, and 7 Argentine
prisoners were taken and a number killed in this phase of the battle - the remainder fled.
sporadic

Several radios

(still

fire

switched on), telephones and a mass of cable suggested that the position

had included a battalion headquarters. As

fairly

intense

enemy

and B Companies started to dig

bombardment

artillery

began, which

was to continue

in,

accurate and

for

some

nine

hours.

away by a hardened

led

west end of the main

and B Companies,

D Company

ridge, while the light tanks

crossed

its

second

start line

and the machine guns moved to a

is

British

regular paratrooper. The

Argentinean wears a British

probably looted from the

jersey,

stock

Following the success of

at the

hungry Argentinean conscript

held

the

in

Moody Brook,
Ridge, which

Royal

the
to

just

below Wireless

was occupied by

Marines garrison prior

the Argentine

Left:

barracks at

invasion.

A paratroop company

briefed

prior to

is

the Wireless

Ridge assault, using a quickly

constructed ground model. Such
careful

and detailed briefings

were (and remain) essential

the

success

of

to

military

operations.

95

Special Forc is

The ridge itself was a

some 900 yards (300m)

flank to give covering fire.

long spine broken

middle, with each section

in

was taken unopposed and there was then

artillery readjusted

to

MILAN

missile being used

Just as the attack

new
by

in

this stage of

was about to

vigor,

in

the

feature

short delay while the British

fire

by the

light tanks,

the machine guns

start,

commanding officer received a

enemy company at the other end

the

were two! This was hardly

likely

to impress the Paras

who

the campaign had established a considerable moral ascendency

over the Argentines, but

Company

first

a direct-fire artillery role!

piece of intelligence, that instead of one

of the ridge there

The

targets for the next phase. During this time the

its

second feature was kept under heavy

and the

length.

received

the early minutes of this

in

some

withdrawing one bunker at

position, however, the

final

phase of the battle

enemy fought back with unexpected

time. As the Paras poured onto the

casualties as the
a

enemy suddenly broke and

ran, being

continuously

harassed off the position by the machine guns of the British Scorpions and
Scimitars,

As

and chased by the exhilarated Paras.

D Company

began to reorganize they, too, came under

as well as remarkably effective small

arms

fire

artillery fire,

from Tumbledown Mountain and

Mount William to the south, which had not yet been captured by 5 Infantry
Brigade. The enemy could be heard trying to regroup in the darkness below
the ridge, and to the south

At daybreak
Above: A captured

and

blindfolded Argentine officer

led

away

for

Royal

Marines. The

is

interrogation by
British

marines and paras were tough,

fit,

well-trained, and

enabled them

aggressive, which
to

very

overcome numerically superior

Argentine forces

every one of

in

the engagements during the

hard fought, and bloody

brief,

1981

Falklands War.

developed from the area of

gesture.

It

petered out under a

hail

The key to

in

East Falklands lay

retaining the

was

tactical

the advance across

in

taking and

high ground, which

usually, as

here, capped

with granite outcrops. As with a

surprising

troops

in

number

of

other

the war, one of these

smiling and relaxed paras has

managed

to

carry a Union

flag

throughout the campaign

and

is

now

displaying
sign

96

it

as

of victory.

Moody

somewhat

Brook.

pathetic

enemy counterattack
some sort of final

to have been

of artillery, small arms and machine gun

This seems to have been the signal to

many Argentines

that the

fire.

game was

up,

and shortly

afterwards ever-increasing numbers of disheartened and disillusioned Argentine soldiers

were observed streaming

refuge

in

off

Mount William.Tumbledown and Sapper

Hill

to seek short-lived

Port Stanley.

and B Companies of 2 Para were

now

brought forward onto Wireless Ridge, and the

The Paras had lost three dead and

wounded. Lack of time and opportunity precluded counting the Argentine casualties, but it
has been estimated that, of an original strength of some 500, up to 100 may have been killed,
17 were captured, and the remainder fled.
The taking of Wireless Ridge illustrates the standards achieved by a crack unit. In this
night battle, it defeated a force of equal strength, which was well prepared and dug-in and
occupied a dominant feature. No. 2 Para had learned the lessons of Goose Green well. They
battalion's night attack

was

had also given the

to the allegation that parachute units lack "staying power."

this later

Right:

the area of

Moody Brook, which seems

lie

successfully concluded.

perhaps, unfortunate that the battle of

success

in

a rather brave, but

minor

classic at

Goose Green, deservedly famous,

Wireless Ridge.

It

is,

has overshadowed

Special Forces Operations

Rescue

in

Grenada

and men

Left: Officers

82nd Airborne

US

the

of

Division

move out

on patrol from Port Salines

airfield

in

Grenada. President

Reagan saw the island as "a

Soviet-Cuban colony being
readied

as

major military

bastion to export and

undermine democracy."

Below
the

left:

Grenada

lies

just

off

South American coast.

President Reagan was

determined that

it

would not

become another Cuba. The

member

Following

the end of the Vietnam War, American forces tried to keep

low

profile

on

the international scene. Two rescue operations

release

were attempted in efforts to secure the

of the crew of the Mayaguez and the Iranian embassy hostages. US troops also took

part

various peacekeeping forces such as those

in

in

the Sinai and

in

Beirut.

However, major

six-

organization of east

Caribbean States voted

to

intervene with force, although,

unsurprisingly,

Grenada

abstained.

use of force was eschewed for both international and domestic reasons.

But

in

October 1983 President Ronald Reagan,

at the

request of the six-member

Organization of Eastern Caribbean States, sent troops to the island of Grenada "to restore
peace, order and respect for

human

rights;

to evacuate those

the Grenadians re-establish governmental institutions."

Minister,

Maurice Bishop, and several Cabinet members and

murdered by former
by

Army

who

military associates.

wish to

On October
labor

19,

leave;

and to help

Grenada's Prime

leaders

had

been

16-man Revolutionary Military Council, headed

Chief General Hudson Austin and Deputy Prime Minister Bernard Coard, took

24-hour curfew, warning that violators would be shot on

power.The council imposed

and closed the Port Salines

airfield.

sight,

Below: The island of Grenada,

showing the entry points used

by the US paratroops, marines

and SEALs

in

Operation Urgent

Fury on October 25

mam
the

1983. The

reason for the attack was

Port Salines airfield, which

was being

built

by Cuban

engineers.

Bedford

ANTIGUA
&

GUADELOUPE

n.

DOMINICA

MARTINIQUE

ST LUCIAj

97

SPKIAI hlKIIS

US

Intelligence

reported Soviet/Cuban

backing for the revolutionary regime, with

Cubans

establishing

new

fortifications,

arms

caches and military communications on the

island.

"a

President Reagan viewed Grenada as

Soviet-Cuban colony being readied as a

major

military bastion to export and

undermine democracy." Of particular
concern was the position of some 1,000 US
citizens, especially the 600-odd
young
Americans at the True Blue Medical School
near the Port Salines airfield. The prospect

of these youngsters being held hostage by

the Marxist government was serious and

would have provided a far worse crisis than
even that of the Iranian embassy staff. For

saw

their part, the Eastern Caribbean States

the violence and disintegration of political

institutions

on

the

island

an

as

unprecedented threat to peace and security

in

the region.

Information on the resisting troops and

Above:

the
the

MC-I30E Hercules dropped

first

sticks

morning

of

(on

hill

airport and

for

the governor

were able

to

homeward

flight.

US confirmed that the Soviets

and Cubans were endeavoring

island

said)

into

forces had three immediate

tower

an interrogation center. The

Reagan had

US

objectives within the overall mission of capturing the island and restoring a democratic

control

1,100 captured Cuban soldiers

(as

sparse, but the

government. These three tasks were the freeing of the 600 medical students, the release of

Below: A marine escorts one of

into

fairly

1983.

MC-I30E stands ready

cargo for the

Grenada was

battle

top), aircraft

land. This

in

fierce

October 25

After a short but

for the

Rangers on

of US

their disposition

to

turn the

dangerous

military base.

(Sir Paul

Scoones) and the defeat of the Cuban troops on the

US Navy SEALs were

island.

responsible for capturing the governor's residence, and Marines for

the Pearls Airport on the island's east coast.The crucial task was, however, the taking of Port
Salines airfield,

which was being constructed and guarded by Cubans. This task was given to

the Rangers.

Execution
The

Amphibious Unit on Pearls Airport began at 0500 hours

H-hour for the Rangers was 0536. This was the first major
combat operation for the two participating Ranger units - the Fort Stewart, Georgia-based
1st Ranger Battalion, and the Fort Lewis, Washington-based 2nd. The Rangers left the staging
airfield on Barbados in the early hours aboard MC-I30E Hercules aircraft of 8th Special
Operations Squadron, 1st Special Operations Wing, USAF, based at Hurlburt Field in Florida.
(The lead planes carried members of the 1st Battalion, with the 2nd following closely
behind.) These aircraft were accompanied
by AC- 30 Hercules gunships (the famous
"Spectres" of the Vietnam War) of 16th
assault by the 24th Marine

(local)

on October

25, while

Special Operations Squadron.

As they came in over Port Salines,

were suddenly switched on,
which quickly found the lumbering C-I30s
and enabled the anti-aircraft guns to open
descending
aircraft
and
up on the
parachutists. The AC- 30s were quickly
called into action and silenced most of the
Cuban guns. Among the lead elements in the
2-man team from the 3 7th
assault was a
Tactical Airlift Wing responsible for combat
control of the drop, and these were quickly
searchlights

inside the air traffic control building.

On

the ground, the

Rangers, told to

expect some 500 Cubans (350 "workers"

and

a "small" military advisory

team) found

themselves under attack from some 600

armed professional
Cubans were armed with

well

98

soldiers.

The

mortars

and

Special Forces Operations

machine guns, and

had

personnel carriers.

least

at

brisk

armored

six

developed

battle

in

which the Rangers quickly gained the upper hand,

and by 0700 they were

runway was cleared

vehicles, pipes)

complete control. The

obstacles

and at 07 5 the

wave

second

in

of
1

was

first

able

(boulders,

C- 30 of the
1

to

with

land

reinforcements.

The Rangers then moved

medical

out, heading for the

campus; brushing aside

snipers

and

scattered resistance, they reached their objective

some very
The campus was secured by
0850, although the other medical school at Grand
Anse was not liberated until the following day.
by 0830 hours and were greeted by
relieved

students.

Assessment
The

liberation effort

to do.

accomplished what

The booty of the

intelligence reports that the

set out

it

US
USSR and Cuba were

effort

confirmed

turning Grenada into a military base in the

Western hemisphere. The long-term implications
of this were that the island could eventually have become a staging area for the subversion
of nearby countries; it would also have considerable value as a transit point for troops and
supplies moving from Cuba to Africa and from Europe and Libya to Central America.
Captured documents indicated that the USSR and North Korea, as well as Cuba, had
made secret treaties with the Grenada Revolutionary Military Council, and had agreed to

more than $37.8

provide the leadership with

armored personnel

keep these arrangements secret.

In fact,

began that they established diplomatic

The convincing
Grenada's

list

militia; a

of

wasn't

it

ties

documents found

summary

Grenadian double agent

who

million

in

artillery, anti-aircraft

of Political

attempted to

until

18

months

with Grenada.
in

the aftermath of Grenada included a roster of

Bureau meetings;
infiltrate

the

top-secret report from a

CIA operation
in

Vietnam; and a training agreement between Grenada and Nicaragua.

from

a political standpoint.

and one

in

which US

From

still

the voices of those

who

in

themselves

well.

Barbados; rosters

Cuba and
there was more

the USSR,
In all,

criticized the

yet another standpoint, the military one,

special forces acquitted

in

it

was

of

82nd Airborne

stand watch on a hilltop

Grenada, surrounded by the

equipment

of their

who have gone

comrades

out on patrol.

Below: One of the justifications

for
of

and correspondence concerning the training of Grenadian troops

than enough documentary evidence to

arms shipments

after the

Men

Division

weapons,

and ammunition. The Soviet Union had tried hard to

carriers, small arms,

Above:

operation

a success

the

operation was the safety

600-odd young Americans

the "True

at

Blue Medical School,"

which was located near Port

Salines airfield. In

the event, none

was harmed and here some

of

them, happy and smiling, make

their

which

way
will

to

the waiting aircraft,

take

them back

to

the

United States of America.

99

Splcial FORCtS

Achille Lauro Incident

when

he saga OF the Achille Lauro began

T!

Palestinian

four

armed with Soviet-made

guerrillas,

machine guns and brandishing hand grenades, took 80

passengers and 340 crewmembers hostage aboard
the

cruise

Italian

threatened to

kill

liner

October

in

1985.

They

the passengers, beginning with the

moving on to Jews and British

demands for the release of 50
Palestinians held in Israel were not met.
What followed were 51 hours of threats and
violence. Walls and ceilings were sprayed with bullets.
The terrorists pulled pins from grenades and tossed
them in the air. Gasoline bombs were placed in
Americans, then
citizens,

various

their

if

parts

of

the

the

Ultimately,

liner.

grisly

scenario led to the execution of Leon Klinghoffer, a

69-year-old handicapped American, murdered

in

his

wheelchair.
Above: Aging liner Achille

terrorists

in

October

man, Leon

As these events were

Lauro

was seized by four Palestinian

1985. One

Klinghoffer, an

unfolding, the Achille Lauro

wandered along the north coast

after negotiations with Palestinian, Italian,

and Egyptian

officials

went ashore.

Americans, predictably, were demanding that the terrprists be brought to

Mubarak announced they had already

American jew, was murdered

Egyptian President Hosni

during the incident, with the

terms of an agreement struck before the murder of Klinghoffer was known. US

remainder being released when

the

ship arrived

off

Port Said,

where the seajackers passed

into

of Africa

seeking haven. Ultimately, the cruise liner anchored off Port Said, Egypt, and the "seajackers"

however, indicated that the four hijackers were

nor the

PLO

still

in

left

justice,

and

Egypt allegedly under

intelligence,

Egypt and that neither that country

had quite figured out what to do with them. This delay provided the United

States with an opportunity to shape a plan to help deal with the emerging situation.

Egyptian custody.

Below: The air chase. Carrier Saratoga (A) launches

interceptors (C) against Egyptair Boeing 737

Cairo (B), compelling

terrorist.

it

to

Abbas, reaches Rome, then

Belgrade and Aden to Baghdad.

100

from

land at Salerno (D). Main

flies

via

Special Forces Operations

Execution
The US Navy aircraft carrier USS Saratoga was cruising off Albania and was called into action
just two hours before the mission. The Italian government, later to play a key role in dealing
with the terrorists, was not notified until after the mission had begun.
The plan involved calling in the Saratoga's aircraft to surprise the terrorists if they
boarded an

over the Mediterranean, and force the

airliner to fly

Intelligence sources had in fact

planned to

confirmed that the hijackers were

aircraft to land in Sicily.

still in

Egypt, but that they

to Algiers aboard an Egyptair Boeing 737. Just 45 minutes after the 737 took

fly

it was intercepted.
were E-2C Hawkeye radar aircraft, F- 4 Tomcat fighters, and EA-6B Prowler
electronic warfare aircraft. At first, the F-I4s trailed the 737 with no lights on and with
cockpits darkened. When they prepared to intercept, they turned on their lights and

off

from Al Maza Air Base, northeast of Cairo,

Awaiting

it

surrounded the

The

airliner.

Egyptair

desperately

pilot

tried

radio

to

communications had been jammed by the EA-6B

position, eventually agreed to follow

The formation approached

to enter their airspace.
that clearance

One

It

finally

was only

for

it

instructions,

but

his

airline pilot, recognizing his

Italian air traffic

NATO

installation

on

Sicily's

densely

controllers refused the 737 permission

after the Egyptian pilot declared an in-flight

emergency

received.

F-14 led the 737 into Sigonella while three others stayed

traffic pattern.

where

was

The

American orders.

Sigonella Air Base, a

populated eastern coast. However,

Cairo

aircraft.

in

formation up to the

Following the lead F-14, the 737 taxied to an isolated corner of the base,

was immediately surrounded by

Italian carabinieri. Its

passengers were taken into

custody.

Not only were the four hijackers aboard, but also Abul Abbas, a high-ranking aide to PLO
Chairman Yasir Arafat. Abbas was not only the suspected mastermind behind the Achille Lauro
incident, but the person who was instrumental in getting the terrorists off the liner when it

an

Above: In

Palestinian

Italian

terrorist,

courtroom,
Abdel

Atif

Abbas later slipped out of Italy before he could be prosecuted.

Because an American citizen was killed during the "seajacking," US chagrin at the escape of

accused of the "seajacking" of

Abbas was

the

finally

docked

in

Egypt.

great, creating diplomatic difficulties

between

Italy

and the United States.

Fatyer,

Italian

Lauro,

Assessment
In

the eyes of

work

well

in

inside

many observers, the operation demonstrated that high technology can indeed
a counter-terrorist situation. It was considered a triumph of electronics and

communications carried out on short notice under cover of darkness and

To

this day, a definitive

been made

available.

had the resolve to back

citizens.

What

really

account of

However,
its

it

all

the high tech that

worked and the United

went

who took

his

liner,

Achilk

attentively from

cage. No further

seajackings have followed the

"Achille Lauro

affair."

into the operation has not

threats to strike back at terrorists

counted was that terrorists

cruise

listens

at high speeds.

States clearly demonstrated that

who

it

attacked American

the law into their

whatever motive were ultimately brought before the bar of

one of the four men

own hands

for

justice.

Left:

Achille Lauro under guard

following the "seajacking."

101

Special Forces

Operation Desert Strike

peration

Desert

Coalition

war

concentration

largest

special forces in any

the

Strike,

against

of

1991

saw the

Iraq,

international

combat. Australian and

New Zealand provided a

ANZAC SAS Squadron (133

combined
men), while

the French contingent included elements of

the

Foreign

Division. The

and

Legion

UK

Parachute

6th

sent almost the entire

SAS

Regiment to Saudi Arabia: some 700 men of

A, B, and

Squadrons, plus

reservist

volunteers from R Squadron; indeed, the

only

element omitted was

Squadron,

which was committed to other operations

and on counter-terrorist stand-by

UK. Also

in

Marine

Royal

in

the

were a squadron of the

SBS and RAF special

the Gulf

operations aircrew.

By

far

the

largest

from the United

Special

States,

Operations

contribution

came

under the aegis of

Command (SOCOM)

and collectively forming the Joint Special

Operations Task Force (JSOTF). The naval

Above: The sky above Tel Aviv as

Scud missiles attacked the

Iraqi
Israeli

Saddam Hussein

by

into

Israel

attempt

a deliberate

city,

to

bring

the war. This would

have destabilized the Coalition,

several Arab contingents

as

would have withdrawn rather

than fight on the same side as
Israelis. Coalition

the

special

operations forces played a key

role

in

element was commanded by Naval

SEAL Teams
boat units)

I,

2, 3, 4, 5,

II, 12, 13,

and

and

(special war group) ONE and included

Teams and 2; and SPECBOATU (special
terms of numbers was the US Army contribution

(special diver)

1st Special

in

Forces Group, 5th Special Forces Group, and

160th

Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR). There were also large elements from 82nd

01 st Airborne Divisions. The

to the Gulf, under the

five "special

command

Low

US Air Force

also deployed large special warfare elements

Wing (I SOW), which comprised

SOS - MC-I30E Combat Talon; 9th SOS - HC16th SOS - AC-I30H Spectre gunships; 20th SOS - MH-53J
SOS - MH-60 Pave low helicopters. The US Marine Corps
of 1st Special Operations

operations squadrons" (SOS): 8th

I30H Combat Shadow

Pave

SDV

and 20. Largest

which comprised: Delta,

Special

8;

SPECWARGRU

tankers;

helicopters; and 55th

provided reconnaissance

specialists.

reducing the Scud threat.

Land Missions
The

first

missions tentatively assigned to both the SAS and Delta were to rescue their

national hostages,

who

had been grabbed by the

Iraqis at the

outbreak of

conflict.

The

hostages were, however, released before any such operation could be mounted. Then, just
before the ground war started, the British

Right:

commander

in

the Gulf, General de

la

Billiere,

The areas deep inside Iraq

US

that were the main zones of

50 miles

Delta Force

operations

l Qaim

("Scud Boulevard

activity

of the

units as

SAS and

Delta

they attacked and

reported on Scud missile

movements and major supply

routes used by Iraqi

convoys.
Baghdad

The special forces units

destroyed some mobile Scuds

and

Iraqi

lines

of

communications, laser targeted

the missiles or "talked
air

tied

Iraq,

down"

attacks on them, and also

up

Iraqi

forces in western

denying their use against

main Coalition forces elsewhere.

Coalition operational areas

Main road supply routes

102

Special Forces Operation

obtained General Schwarzkopfs agreement to deploy special forces

behind the

front line with the aim of distracting the enemy's

Iraqi

attention from the forthcoming operations, and

duly deployed

on January 20

99

On

two squadrons

of

SAS

the 24th, however, their mission

was abruptly changed to the anti-Scud role, which it remained for the
remainder of the war, and in which they were joined by the remainder

SAS deployed to the Gulf.

Western intelligence staffs knew

lebanoh

Damascus

,.

of the

(NATO

Soviet R-I7 missiles

some 200

missiles

that Iraq had received

= "Scud-B")

were launched

in

some 820

against Iran

1988. By

in

these missiles were

built,

which,

in

December 990 were

1

IRAQ

1990, Iraq

Scud

had developed a modified version, the al-Hussein, which had greater

range, but at the expense of reduced payload (see box).

Some 400
located

in

/JORDAN

of

KUWAIT

'

28
SiuD:

static sites

IRAN

em

leasa

the early 1980s, of which

turn

and on some 36 Russian-built 8-wheeled mobile launchers.

;

demonstrated

Iraq had
shells against

serious

a willingness to use poison gas

in

artillery

both the Iranians and the Kurds, and there was therefore

possibility

that they

had managed to develop chemical

warheads for the al-Hussein. The

December

1990,

became more acute

situation

when

Saddam

launched

Above: The

in

demonstration

several

missiles.

major concentration of

Despite

18

this

evidence, the threat they posed

appreciated

fully

1991.

As

until Iraqi

Scuds actually started to impact on targets

a result. Coalition military

war

in

retaliation,

sites in

The only troops

in

The energetic campaign waged by

the war. Both the
their

order to prevent

a position to

forces of the British Special Air Service (SAS) and those of

launchers back out of range of

Israel,

SAS and Delta

British

system was too slow, with

entering

most of the Arab

do this were the elite

US JSOTF,

and US special forces drove the mobile Scud

numerous

direct attacks

on

until

the end of

aircraft

down onto

this. In

clear daylight the

A major

role

Scud

Iraqi

of the

SAS and

Delta was to force Saddam's

Scuds to operate far enough away

from

Iraq's

western border so

that Israeli cities would be out of

range of the missiles.

Scud

Below:

but

left

the

fear

Iraqi

Scud launchers had

ground troops "talked"

their targets, while at night or against camouflaged targets they used laser

Israeli

troops and

civil

defense personnel view the crater

sites,

aircraft arriving long after the

overcame

sites.

air forces. Initially,

departed, but rapid changes, including "cab-ranks" of airborne ground-attack aircraft ready
for immediate response, quickly

Gulf

including Delta.

although sporadic launches took place

carried out

Israel

in

main task was to locate and report potential targets to Coalition

air-tasking

in

commanders were suddenly forced to undertake

which would almost certainly have resulted

contingents leaving the Coalition.

was still not

Israel on January

particularly psychological

search-and-destroy battle against the Scud launch

the

highly volatile

region showing (shaded) the

by an Iraqi Scud. The great

was that these

missiles

would

be fitted with either chemical or

biological

the

warheads

capability, this

Saddam Hussein

but, despite

was one step

did

not take.

103

Special Forces

a scene

Above: In

reminiscent of

the original SAS operating

in

the

Western Desert during World

War

a Gulf

II,

War

SAS Scud-

hunting patrol poses for the

camera.

target designators.

The SAS's operational area was around Iraq's H-2 airfield, and was designated the
it was more popularly known as "Scud Alley." This was an area
some 20 miles (32km) long by 17 miles (26km) wide (340sq miles/830sq km). Into this were
placed three 8-man patrols on road watch, staking out the MSRs (Main Supply Routes) to
watch for and report on movement by SCUD convoys. The US Joint Special Operations Task
"southern Scud Box," although

Force (JSOTF) arrived

in

early February

and comprised Delta Force, SEALs, and 160th Special

Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR), equipped with MH-60 Black Hawks and MH-47E
Below: Based on a US
Intelligence

map,

Force's

Iraqi Air

this

shows the

main operating

bases (red), dispersal airfields

(blue),

and the Scud launch

areas (shaded).

Chinooks. The JSOTF operated around Al Qaim,

in

the "northern Scud box," nicknamed

"Scud Boulevard."

A
been

second target was the

installed

surface.

communications cable system, which had recently

Iraqi fiberglass

and which consisted of one or more cables buried up to 30ft

0m) below the

These were used because they provided greater security than microwave systems,

since buried cables could not be located, intercepted or destroyed

or so the

Iraqis thought.

The weakness was that, for technical reasons, repeaters were required at frequent
intervals, which were located at the bottom of manholes and it was these that
were found and destroyed by SBS and SAS patrols.
Both Americans and British made use of specialized light vehicles. Delta used
Fast Attack Vehicles (FAV) while the British deployed four mobile groups, each

Unimog truck carrying fuel, supplies, and

armament included Browning 0.5
cal machine guns, MI9 40mm grenade launchers, and 7.62mm GPMGs, but each
group also carried a number of 66mm LAW (light anti-tank weapon) and Milan
ATGW (anti-tank guided weapon). Operating so many vehicles gave rise to a need
for resupply and repair, so the SAS produced a resupply convoy of some 12 4-ton
trucks which was installed in a wadi some 75 miles (120km) inside Iraqi territory,
where it carried out maintenance and repairs over a 5-day period and then drove
consisting of eight Land Rover

launch
area

10s, a

spares, and several motor-cycles. Typical vehicle

Scud

_
IRAN

^>

0*0

back to Coalition territory without incurring a single

KUWAIT

Dispersal airfields

'.m operating bases

Air Missions
The majority of special operations
tasks

transporting

and

air

support was provided by the

supporting

SF

teams deployed

USA

and the

inside

Iraqi

was the task of MH-53Js, which were also able to use their night
devices to look for Scuds. 1st SOW was also responsible for combat rescue

territory. This

vision

104

included

loss.

..

Special Forces Operations

SUBJECT:
Letter of

Commendation

for

22d Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment

1. I wish to officially commend the 22d Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment for their
totally outstanding performance of military operations during Operation Desert Storm.

Shortly after the initiation of the strategic air campaign, it became apparent that
the Coalition forces would be unable to eliminate Iraq's firing of Scud missiles from
western Iraq into Israel The continued firing of Scuds on Israel carried with it
enormous unfavorable political ramifications and could, in fact, have resulted in the.
dismantling of the carefully crafted Coalition. Such a dismantling would have adversely
affected in ways difficult to measure the ultimate outcome of the military campaign. It
became apparent that the only way that the Coalition could succeed in reducing these
Scud launches was by physically placing military forces on the ground in the vicinity of
the western launch sites. At that time, the majority of available Coalition forces were
committed to the forthcoming military campaign in the eastern portion of the theater of
operations. Further, none of these forces possessed the requisite skills and abilities
required to conduct such a dangerous operation. The only force deemed qualified for this
critical mission was the 22d Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment.
2.

3
From the first day they were assigned their mission until the last day of the
conflict, the performance of 22d Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment was courageous and
highly professional. The area in which they were committed proved to contain far more
numerous enemy forces than had been predicted by every intelligence estimate, the
terrain was much more difficult than expected, and the weather conditions were
unseasonably brutal. Despite these hazards, in a very short period of time the 22d
Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment was successful in totally denying the central
corridor of western Iraq to Iraqi Scud units. The result was that the principal areas
used by the Iraqis to fire Scuds on Tel Aviv were no longer available to them. They
were required to move their Scud missile firing forces to the northwest portion of Iraq
and from that location the firing of Scud missiles was essentially militarily
ineffective.

When it became necessary to introduce United States Special Operations Forces into
the area to attempt to close down the northwest Scud areas, the 22d Special Air Service
(SAS) Regiment provided invaluable assistance to the U.S. forces. They took every
possible measure to ensure the U.S. forces were thoroughly briefed and were able to
profit from the valuable lessons that had been learned by earlier SAS deployments into
western Iraq. I am completely convinced that had the U.S. forces not received these
thorough indoctrinations by SAS personnel U.S. forces would have suffered a much higher
rate of casualties than was ultimately the case. Further, the SAS and U.S. joint forces
immediately merged into a combined fighting force where the synergetic effort of these
fine units ultimately caused the enemy to be convinced that they were facing forces in
western Iraq that were more than ten-fold the size of those they were actually facing.
As a result, large numbers of enemy forces that might otherwise have been deployed in
the eastern theater were tied down in western Iraq.
4

5. The performance of the 22d Special Air Service (SAS) Regiment during Operation Desert
Storm was in the highest traditions of the professional military service and in keeping
with the proud history and tradition that has been established by that regiment. Please
ensure that this commendation receives appropriate attention and is passed on to the
unit and its members.

H.

Above: General

Schwarzkopf*

acknowledgement

of the

role

was persuaded by
played

by the SAS in the Gulf War. The

general was at

employ

special

first

reluctant

Nonnan Schwarzkopf
General, US Amiy
Commander in Chief

US

to

operations forces, but

De La

man

Billiere

British

in

General

himself an ex-SAS

that they could

vital, first

later in

be

reconnaissance and

Scud-hunting/busting.

105

Spk

ial

Fori is

and extracted several downed aircrew before the

One
number

unusual mission was performed by the

BLU-82 "Daisy Cutter"

of

fuel/air

the Vietnam War, contained 6.7 tons

from the

ramp

tail

approximately 50ft

at

height

of

could capture them.

Iraqis

MC-130 Combat

bombs. These devices,

Talons, which

originally

Below: After the war,

some

6,000ft

,800m), achieving an

highly

for

UN arms

Losses

destruction.

Both American and

mobile, fast and

pursued by

having

shot

proportion

all

their

MH-60

helicopter

down

were

numbers.

by Iraqi ground

fire

sand-dune

hit a

occupants: four aircrew and three from Delta.

posed a threat to the

to

troops, during

Iraqi

February 21, when an

capability. Their

out of

some due to Iraqi action, others to

An 8-man SAS team, for example, was detected and
which four men died. The worst US losses occurred on

British special forces incurred losses,

the wild terrain and harsh weather.

being very

effective,

good off-road

In

addition, a

-.

attacks

town of

on the Scud

example of the use of

Soviet

Union

Iraq

strategic

ISIONS

role.

of

Khafji;

6th
all

seven

SOS was
14 aboard

Length

36.6ft (II.

Body diameter

2.9ft
1

16m)

(0.88m)

Israel

40.0ft (12.20m)
2.9ft

(0.88m)

outcome

of the

Gulf

sites

was an excellent

special forces being used in a

Had they

campaign against

failed

and the

Iraqi

Scud

been more successful, the

War

might have been quite

different.

4.0431b (6,370kg)

One

Warh
HE, chemical.

HE. chemical

2.1711b (985kg)

1,1

nuclear

weight

during the battle to retake the

The

Country of

Type

visibility, killing all

USAF AC- 30

Assessment
R-I7SCUD-B

Launch weight

bad

in

killed.

Russian

Max

some observers

were under the impression that tactical nuclear weapons were being used. British air support
for special forces came from RAF Chinook.Army Lynx, and naval Sea King helicopters.

These Scud launchers proved

Coalition

accuracy of

5m). The effect of the enormous explosion was dramatic: the noise was

prepare Russian-made

MAZ 8x8 trucks

missiles

5,000lb/6.804kg) of high explosive and were dropped

stupefying and the blast caused death up to 3 miles (5km) distant. Indeed,

inspectors

dropped

developed during

021b (500kg)

of the problems facing the special forces

in

the Gulf was poor intelligence, at both strategic and

tactical levels. At

the higher level this included a serious

underestimation of the Scud threat and

some very

PERTOF'

Maximum
Accuracy

range

86 miles (300km)

404

miles

(650km)

(circular

analyses

of

the

492yd (450m)

1.094yd

Liquid

Liquid

Guidance

inertial

inertial

(1

km)

Iraqi

organization

and

At the lower level the SF were told it would

be warm, so they took thin clothing, only to find it was
bitterly cold and they suffered accordingly until Arab
capability.

Propulsion

error probable)

misleading

coats

were sent

in

to them.

Special Forces Operations

The Battle for Mogadishu

Left:

A US Marine Corps

"Hummer" equipped

with

loudspeakers takes part

operation

Mogadishu

in

in

an

city.

Despite such efforts, the gulf

between the hi-tech Western

forces

and the unsophisticated

citizens

wide as

of Somalia
to

proved so

be unbridgeable.

Below: Somalia occupies a

strategically

important position

on the "Horn

of Africa".

Bottom Center of

"downtown

Mogadishu". Between the main

roads

is

a maze of tiny streets

where US SOF became

Operation

Restore Hope shows what happens when missions are unclear and special

forces are used

in

Somalia led to increasing international frustration as aid was

in

seen to be getting into the hands of gunmen and

who were

regularly seen

hostage by

some

which charged

ERITREA

which they were not intended. During the 1980s and early

roles for

1990s, unending violence

"lost."

failing

to reach the starving Somali people

on TV. This was hardly surprising

,000 young

aid authorities

as

Mogadishu port was held

gunmen belonging to five separate armed groups, each of

"protection money" and then stole from the very convoys

they were being paid to guard.

In late

1992 international indignation peaked and outgoing US President Bush committed

MOGADISHU
Indian

what was planned to be a short, sharp operation, to be

completed before incoming President Clinton took office in January 1993. US Marines
carried out a tactical amphibious landing on the night of December
9 1992 - to be greeted by waiting pressmen equipped with

American troops to Somalia

cameras and

Ocean

in

floodlights.

became bogged down as troops and the

- and failed - to understand Somali politics.
Military attention - encouraged by the Press - concentrated
increasingly on one warlord: "General" Aidid.Then, on June 5 993,
24 Pakistani troops of the UN force were killed, resulting in UN
Resolution 837 ordering the "arrest and detention for prosecution
of those responsible." In practical terms, that meant Aidid, but

The US force

quickly

Press corps tried

repeated attempts to capture him

Pakistani troops fired into a

suspected arms dumps;

dead);

command

US

gunships attacked

were attacked

Italian soldiers

helicopters attacked Aidid's

and matters got worse:

failed

crowd (20

(3 dead);

US

post (70 dead); and Somalis

attacked pressmen (4 dead). Meanwhile, Aidid, despite an offer of

a

US$25,000 reward for his capture,

The senior UN administrator,

requested the despatch of

Force

Ranger,"

arrived,

its

consisting

US

led a

charmed existence,

retired

US Admiral Howe,

Special Forces.

of Rangers

mission to capture Aidid;

in

and

The 400-man "Task

Delta commandos,

other words, a man-hunt.

Intelligence passed to Task Force

Ranger was poor:

they

members

mistakenly arrested

development program and

to be Aidid.

Not

eight

of a

in September
UN-sponsored

later they "snatched" a Somali,

thought

only was he not Aidid, but he was also a well-

known US supporter. Then on September 23, a US helicopter was

shot down and its crew of three were killed.
Aidid's men carefully observed US special forces tactics in
these actions and noted that raids always consisted of an assault

by heliborne troops, roping

down

in

two

parties:

one (Delta)

Indian

Ocean

entering the house, the other (Rangers) forming a cordon outside.

Meanwhile, helicopters

flew

overhead, observing, providing

107

Special Foh<

fire and summoning reinforcements. The Somali gunmen then devised a plan which
combined attacks against the helicopters and the use of overwhelming ground forces.
The Somalis were particularly adept at their specialized style of urban warfare. There
were a few wide boulevards, but the greater part of Mogadishu was a labyrinth of narrow,
twisting alleys, lined on both sides by houses, many with small, high-sided courtyards. The US
troops, used to wide open streets and grid patterns of their home towns found these most
confusing and frequently got lost. They also found the complex clan structure, which ruled

covering

Somali

lives,

impossible to comprehend, resulting

Somalis; the Americans

were

in

totally mystified at the

enormous gulf between them and the

way of life and ingratitude of the Somali

an

in their affairs. On top of all

Mogadishu was awash with weapons and the Somali clans could mobilize thousands of

people, while the latter bitterly resented outside interference

this,

armed men, women and

Then US intelligence
second-floor

room

would attend, so

in

children

in

matter of minutes.

on October 3 1993 in a
They were told that Aidid

learnt of a top-level meeting to be held

known

a building

a "snatch"

was

as the "Aidi house."

set up, involving

AH-

and

OH-6

gunships,

UH-60

troop-

carrying helicopters. Delta hit squad, Ranger cordon troops and a ground vehicle convoy.

Command was

Above:

A US Marine supervizes

the distribution of urgently

needed food
which

is

hungry Somalis,

to

what Operation Restore

Hope was meant

Unfortunately,
seriously

it

to

be about.

all

went very

wrong and soon the

simple survival of the force

became
is

primary issue

the

exercised by a Delta colonel

some

3,000ft (1,000m), with a

above

that.

US Navy

P-3

in

about 900ft (300m)

spun into a house then tumbled into an alleyway (Crash

arrived and

its

responding with

machine-guns and 0.50in cannon. Whenever the

close-range

vehicles stopped (usually because they had taken a

been well learnt.

helicopter circling at

aircraft

I). Another helicopter

combat rescue troops roped to the ground, but while hovering it, too, was hit
by an RPG and the pilot just managed to return to base.
The US ground convoy of HMMMWVs en route to the Aidi house took casualties from

aircraft

hoped that the lesson has

UH-60 command

The battle started with Cobra gunships firing TOW missiles into the Aidi house, where
some 90 men had assembled, although not Aidid himself. Then 120 Delta men and Rangers
roped down beside the smouldering building: the Delta force stormed inside, while Rangers
set up the cordon. Inside, many Somalis were already dead. Some managed to escape, but
US troops captured 24.
The Somali militia mobilized and the US troops were quickly brought under fire. One
militiaman fired an RPG-7 miasile at a low-flying UH-60, destroying the tail rotor, and the

itself

it

Orion surveillance

fire,

rifles,

wrong turning) men jumped out to guard

them and took yet more casualties. Despite this, the convoy reached the Aidi house and took
the 24 prisoners on board, together with some wounded Delta and Rangers; men were
packed inside

like

sardines, the remainder had to walk.

The convoy was about to move off when new orders were received. Instead of heading
out of the city the convoy was to go to Crash I, which was only three blocks distant,
and rescue any survivors

unwounded troops moved

troops taking part

Right: Italian
in

Hope.

Restore

of the

participants
as

in

Italy

was one

numerous non-US
the operation, but

the former colonial power

it

had more knowledge than most

about the country. Their advice
to the

top

command

was,

however, frequently either

deliberately rejected

or simply
ignored.

108

who

could be reached no other way, while the remaining

to the crash site on foot. Then news was received that a second

Special Forces Operations

UH-60 was down (Crash

survivors at Crash

and they were ordered to proceed there after rescuing the

2)

Matters then got worse.

became very

the foot party, cooperation between Rangers and Delta

In

under constant

strained, although, despite being

the crash site and joined

wrong

Aidi house. Since he had

commander

fire,

they eventually reached

a defensive battle. The vehicle convoy, however, repeatedly

in

turnings and after 45 minutes ended up back

the convoy

Above: A Pakistani Army corporal

faces

where

it

had started

in

took

front of the

many wounded and virtually all vehicles were seriously damaged,

make another attempt to reach either helicopter crash

refused to

It

up

to

a crowd

in

Somalia.

was hoped that the Pakistanis,

being fellow Middle Eastern

Muslims, would achieve a rapport

with the Somalis, but this failed

to

happen and they suffered

numerous

casualties.

and he headed back to base.

site

HMMWVs;

Meanwhile, a second vehicle convoy (four

assembled

hastily

at the base 2 miles

three 5-ton flatbed trucks) was

(3km) down the beach to rescue the crew of the

second downed UH-60. This convoy also came under heavy

fire

and was forced to turn

round and take a different route, but that too was blocked. They then decided to go

around the

up to return to base, abandoning the rescue of the troops

By

there were

nightfall

commanders

but en route they met the original convoy and the two

city

A UH-60

various buildings.

in

the

right

joined

city.

some 90-odd men in and around Crash Site scattered between

had dropped some medical supplies and ammunition, but their
I

Below: A heavily armed US patrol

in

downtown Mogadishu

early

in

the

days of the operation, with

everyone smiling. Unfortunately,

the good

humor

long and

in

once-smiling
as

the

did

not

last

for

fighting the

women

proved just

dangerous as their menfolk.

was desperate. At this point it was decided to

commit the UN Quick Reaction Force (QRF). The
force that was cobbled together comprised some 300
men from US 0th Mountain Division, with some
situation

Rangers and Delta men, desperately eager to rescue

their

comrades. Multinational contributions including

four

Pakistani

tanks

and

28

Malaysian

personnel carriers, the latter painted

convoy
city,

rolled at

drawing

2320 and made

heavy

and

fire

UN

armored
The

white.

way slowly

into the

encountering

several

its

roadblocks. However, part of the convoy eventually

reached Crash

and load
reorganize

all

I,

where

it

took some time to locate

the dead and

for

the

journey

wounded and then

out. This

was

to

finally

achieved and the weary survivors of Delta and the

Rangers reached the assembly temporary

in

field hospital

a football stadium in the early hours of the morning.

US losses were 18 dead, 73 wounded and one

wounded helicopter pilot held prisoner. Somali losses
were far greater: some 500 dead and 1,000 wounded,
many of them women and children. This was not
peace-keeping.

109

Special Forces

110

Weapons & Eqlipmem

Part 3

Weapons & Equipment

To

A large EXTENt

elite

and special forces use standard military

equipment, both because

do so and because

it

it

cheaper for their governments to

is

helps avoid the "signature" given by special or

"one-off' equipments. Sometimes, however, the requirement for such

special

equipment cannot be avoided.

Special forces

around the world use

probably over 50 different types of

sub-machine gun - and only

illustrated here. Thus, the

rifle,

a vast

range of equipment -

for example, and

a small selection of typical

equipment shown here

is

00 types of

items can be

combination

of:

Standard equipment used by both special forces and conventional

forces, such as the

Vehicle

(HMMWV)

US High

Weapons and equipment

such as the Mark 23

Mobility Multipurpose

specifically

(SOCOM)

problem. These include

and

the

armed versions of the

aircraft,

older weapons often used by terrorist

which may also be used by

Sterling,

Wheeled

rifle.

designed for special forces,

pistol,

Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport

BVD infantry combat vehicle.

Some

MAS

and the French FA

and the Russian

movements and

special forces to avoid the "signature"

some sub-machine guns

(British

Sten

and Danish Madsen SMG),and the Russian RPG-7V

anti-tank rocket launcher.

to

The final pages are devoted to submarines, because it is important

remember that these are among the most effective means of

delivering and recovering special forces, and

target

lies

it

will

not be often that

so far from a suitable coastline that submarine-delivery

cannot be used.

The world's special forces are equipped with a wide range

some

of

it

general-issue,

some

specially

use weapons of foreign forces. These are

MPS

silenced

submachine gun, and and

of

weapons and protective kit

developed for their use. Many units train with and

members
fright)

of Spain's

Mossberg

special

forces

with

(left)

H&K

2-gauge shotgun.

111

Spkial Foiu

is

92F/M9

Beretta
Specifications

The

Type:
Double-/single-action, semi-

automatic

pistols.

Dimensions:
Length overall: 92F/M9
8.54in (217mm); 92L

(198mm);

barrel,. 92F/M9

M9, the new

years. Designated the

US Army-led

which had served the US armed forces for

I,

pistol

entered service

in

985, the total order

amounting to well over 500,000 weapons.

The Beretta M9/92

P.38

and are loaded

in

locked-wedge design pioneered

series pistols use the

the orthodox

following which the slide grip

is

manner by

used to

pull

in

theWalther

inserting a charged magazine into the butt,

then released to chamber a round.

rear,

On

the action to the rear, cocking the hammer, and

firing,

gas pressure drives the barrel and slide to the

locked together by a wedge, but, having traveled

some

0.3in

(8mm), the locking wedge

(3.81mm). Height: 92F/M9,

downwards, disengaging from the slide; the barrel immediately stops but the slide
continues rearwards to complete the reloading cycle. Unlike many automatic pistols, these
Beretta weapons are of an open-slide design: ie, the greater part of the barrel is exposed

5.51in (140mm); 92L, 5.3in

and not covered by the

4.92in (125mm); 92L

4.3in

(109mm). Width: both,

1.5in

(135mm).

Weights:
Loaded,

92F/M9-

(1.16kg); 92L

2.

55lb

2.40lb

(1.09kg).

Empty,

92F/M9

2.09lb

(0.95kg); 92L

2.0lb

(0.91kg).

Caliber:

9mm

19 Luger/Parabellum.

Magazine
92F/M9- 15

capacity:

92L- 13

rounds;

rounds.

Right and

Below

right:

Beretta 92f was adopted

US forces as the M9, and

the

standard sidearm

Italian,

been
sights

the

is

now

the US,

in

The top example has

fitted

with

for use

in

non-standard
competitions;

lower example

"as issued." Unlike

the

The

by the

and many other armed

forces.

is

standard

many

pistols

Beretta has an open slide,

leaving the barrel

112

some 70

7.8m

Pistols

Beretta 92F was the eventual winner of the long and hard-fought,

competition to replace the Colt MI9I

Origin:
Italy/United States.

92L 9mm

and

exposed.

pivots

The Beretta 92/M9

slide.
is

the standard sidearm

forces, including special forces.

Compact L version, which is

which accommodates only

Some

slightly
I

special

smaller and

rounds.

in

the US,

Italian,

and many other armed

forces, however, also

lighter,

use the Beretta 92

with a shorter barrel and a magazine

Weapons & Equipment

SIG P-229 and P-239

INDUSTRIE

SCHWEIZERISCHE
Gesellschaft
Industrial

(=

Swiss

Company

[SIG]),

Specifications
Origin:
Switzerland/Germany.

Type:

based at Neuhausen Rhinefalls,

Army

pistols for the Swiss

many

Recoil-operated,

manufactured

Switzerland,

mechanically locked, semi-

for

automatic

was prevented

years, but

pistols.

Dimensions:

from exporting
the

designs by

its

covering

regulations

the

the

6.77in (172mm); barrel,

P-229 -3.8in (96.5mm);

however, SIG

1960s,

(180mm); P-239

7.1in

export of military small arms.

In

Length overall: P-229

government

strict

The SIG P-229

teamed up with the German

Sauer
company, based at
Eckernforde, Germany, with

numerous

P-239

used by

is

special

forces.

It

(137mm); P-239

5.4in

the former doing design and

holding:

domestic

rounds; or 0.40m

S&W

0.357m

rounds.

9mm

1.26in

(32mm). Height: P-229

magazine

(92mm).

3.6in

(37mm); P-239

rugged and dependable

weapon with

Width: P-229- 1.46in

is

Parabellum

5.12in(130mm).

the

manufacture, while

undertook

latter

SIG

12

or

Weights:
Without magazine, P-229

manufacture and marketing of

SIG

designs

export

the

for

for

market. This arrangement has proved so successful that SIG has since acquired Sauer and

now
P-2

by

operates as SIG-Sauer.
0,

A number

many

special forces (including those of

reliability

S&W

and 0.357

9mm Parabellum,
S&W or 0.357 SIG.

Both

Secret Service).

as the Pistole 75.

manufactured

In

trend followed by most subsequent SIG-Sauer designs, the P-220

Both 6-groove,

9mm

Parabellum

in

is

ACP

three separate versions to take the 9 x 19mm, 0.38 Super, and 0.45

in

Rifling:

models was the SIG P-220, which entered service with the Swiss Army

of the early

accuracy and

The
holding

was introduced

P-228, which
1

2 rounds of 9 x

in

9mm, while

1988,

is

the P-229

yet further improved.

It

0in
-

in

13;

capacity:

SIG, 12 rounds.

uses a machined,

9mm Parabellum,
0.40 S&W and 0.357

P-229

essentially a P-225 with a larger magazine,

is

S&W

(406mm).

16in

in

Magazine

but losing out on the grounds of cost.

reliability,

15in (380mm); 0.357 SIG

MI9I IAI successor program with their 9mm P-226 which became one of the two finalists
(the other was the Beretta 92) and was very nearly selected, reportedly matching the latter
in

(250mm); 0.40

US Army's Colt

rounds, to suit the needs of various customers. SIG-Sauer also entered the

SIG,

Caliber:

Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, and the USA) and

DEA [Drug Enforcement Agency] and the

0.40

One

Parabellum,

1.811b (0.82kg).

and accuracy, being used

the American FBI,

(eg,

9mm

1.721b (0.78kg); for 0.40

of designs have been marketed, starting with the

which have established an excellent reputation for

law-enforcement agencies

1.721b (0.78kg); P-239

P-239 -7

rounds.

(manufactured

stainless steel slide

in

in

the USA), with an aluminum alloy frame manufactured

Germany. There are three control

muzzle

is

decocking

without

levers,

all

on the

side of the

left

weapon. Nearest the

the release lever for stripping; the middle lever, just below the
lever. Like

all

SIG

pistols,

requiring a double-action trigger

pull

pull.

On

when

shot

a traditional safety control lever, with the first

the single action, trigger

slide,

is

the

the 229 has an automatic firing-pin safety, operating

the

the double-action, trigger pull

is

hammer
1

is

down

21b (5.44kg);

on

4.51b (2.0kg).

is

SIG-Sauer took a slightly different approach with their P-239. There are increasing
numbers of women in both military forces (including special forces) and law enforcement
agencies, and the company established that, because most women's hands
are smaller than men's, they needed a pistol which packed the same
performance in a physically smaller package. The smaller size also makes
the pistol easier to conceal, whether being carried by men or women. This
size reduction has

magazine from

been achieved by reducing the number of rounds

2 to 7

in

is

SIG

earlier

9mm

produced

in

parabellum, the American 0.40 Smith

developed 0.357 round, which

in single

action

is

smaller and

easier to

hold. The

reduction

in

the

mag

rounds to
is

penalty

magazine
7,

but a

size,

is

reducing

I0-round

an optional extra.

the

recoil-operated, auto-loading

is

the P-239 has a machined,

and

is

black anodized. Like the

three versions, to

standard

fire

& Wesson, or

SIG's

more powerful and with

velocity than earlier rounds. Trigger pull

and

slightly

sight having six notches, while

pistols,

stainless-steel slide, with a light alloy frame,

is

much

is

posts are available. Optional SIGLITE nightsights can

As with

P-229, the P-239

mind,

in

and

available as an optional extra.

The P-239 is a mechanically locked,

weapon. The sights are adjustable, the rear
also be fitted.

P-239 has been

order to eliminate the double-stacking of rounds,

although a ten-round magazine

five different foresight

in

Below: The SIG

designed with female users

in

double action

is

a higher
1

NATO

own, newly
muzzle

0.351b (4.7kg)

4.631b (2.1kg).

113

Spicial Forces

MK23

Heckler & Koch

Specifications
Origin:

USA.

Type:
Self-loading pistol.

Dimensions:
Length without suppressor
-

9.65in (245mm); length

including suppressor

16.56in (421mm).

(socom) Pistol

The US armed forces had a long-lived affection for the Colt Model
together with the

War

I9I

I,

.45 pistol which,

served from World

to the 1990s. Discussions over a possible replacement lasted over

eventually
in

modified Colt Remington Model I9I

slightly

US

Command (SOCOM)

Special Forces

February 1990 for an Offensive

of three sub-systems: a handgun; a Laser Aiming

The main operational scenario was

without alerting

his

many

years, but

new operational requirement

Handgun Weapon System (OHWS), which was to consist
for a

issued a

Module (LAM); and

a sound/flash suppressor.

weapon which could be used

to take out a sentry

comrades.

The program was

development; Phase

III

divided into three phases: Phase

design and testing; Phase

II

full

production. The stated criteria included:

Weight:
Empty -2.261b (1.03kg).

45

Loaded weight

ACP Ball M1911.

Muzzle velocity:

0.45

850ft/s (260m/s)

ACP

Cartridge:

caliber,

with a magazine holding at least 10 rounds.

less

than 5.51b (2.5kg) and length under 9.84in (25cm) without and

I5.75in (40cm) with the sound/flash suppressor.

Only one

firing

malfunction every 10,000 rounds and one materiel malfunction every

30,000 rounds were allowed.

5-round group inside

27.34yd (25m) using

The

ability

to

mount

both of which,

a 2.5in

(6.35cm) circle at a range of

a fixed firing stand.

the

LAM

and the sound/flash suppressor,

their turn, had to

in

meet

tight criteria.

Any arms company world-wide was eligible to compete, but

two actually submitted bids for this very demanding

only

Above: The

& Koch 0.45in

Heckler

Mk 23 Mod

automatic

usually

known

pistol"

the

as

with

pistol

"SOCOM

Knight's

its

suppressor attached. These

weapons are

in

the process of

being distributed to
forces, initial

all

US special

orders having been

placed for 7,500 handguns and

1,950 suppressors.

was the US firm of Colt, which

Double Eagle pistol, with a Knight's
suppressor, while the Heckler & Koch bid was a development of
their USP handgun, with a Heckler & Koch suppressor. Both
requirement. The

first

of these

offered a modified version of

companies received

its

a contract to

which were delivered

in

program, the Heckler

992 and

& Koch

produce 30 Phase
at the

prototypes,

end of a very taxing testing

entry was declared the winning

handgun. However, the Knight's design was declared the winning

114

suppressor, even though

was most unusual for a component

The winning LAM was made

it

of a losing system to be selected.

by

Technology

Insight

Incorporated

Londonderry,

of

New

Hampshire.

The Heckler & Koch

requirements by

MRBS.

under 500 test

the

reliability

excess of 6,000

in

met the accuracy requirements, and

from a stand, Heckler & Koch

also comfortably

It

just

in

exceeded

design

wide margin, averaging

firings

averaged a group of l.44in (3.66cm), with 65 groups

pistols

being less than

in

(2.54cm) and 4 groups of 0.5in

77cm), with

rounds actually going through the same hole.

Heckler & Koch's success was crowned

in

July

1995,

when

was adopted under the official designation "Pistol,

Caliber .45, Mark 23 Mod 0" although it is more usually known
as the "SOCOM pistol." The Pentagon duly placed a US$12.
their pistol

production

million

suppressors, the

contract for

first deliveries

pistols are being issued to

SEALs,

Army

and

Delta

Operations Wings and

The

all

made on May

SOCOM

Rangers,

1,950

996. The

units, including

and Air

Force

Navy

Special

Combat Control Teams.

Knight's suppressor consists of a straight tube with a

special internal surface. The device gives

in

handguns and

7,500

being

the "dry"

mode

and 36dB

in

the "wet"

32dB noise suppression

mode

(for

comparison.

The complete SOCOM

Top:

with

pistol

suppressor and

Knight's

its

Laser-Aiming Module (LAM).

the

The LAM
of the

mounted

is

front

in

trigger-guard and was

designed and manufactured by

nsight Technology

inc, of

Londonderry, NH.

weapon

the

to

It

enables

be used with

great precision.
Above: The

bare weapon, showing

the three levers for (from frontto-rear)

Far

disassembly, safety and

left::

with

the

A Special

SOCOM

Forces

pistol.

trooper

The

holding open. Note also the

Knight's suppressor enables the

screw thread around the muzzle

pistol

attaching the suppressor.

for

to

be fired with a

suppression of 32dB, resulting

no more noise than that

air

normal conversation has

Silencing the

ACP

round

(260m/s),
I

OOft/s

Mk
has

23 pistol
a

somewhat

sound
is

muzzle
less

made

level of

approximately 65dB).

easier by the fact that the .45

velocity

of

approximately

Fitting

the

the

weapon

in

an

suppressor
to

single

rounds, but the benefits of

virtual
loss

silence

of the

far

outweigh the

automatic

facility.

[340m/s]). This avoids the characteristic "crack" of a

supersonic

bullet. With

the suppressor fitted the pistol can only

single rounds, but the benefits of quietness far

automatic

850ft/s

than the speed of sound (approximately

rifle.

restricts

of

outweigh the

fire

loss of the

facility.

115

si'M

i\i

Forces

Heckler & Koch

MP5
Since

Sub-machine Gun
its

introduction

in

the

960s. Heckler

& Koch's MP5

has

enjoyed a reputation as a weapon sophisticated enough to

most elite military units many police anti-terrorist

squads. Using the same roller delayed blowback operating
principle as its bigger brothers, the G3 and G4l,the MP5 features
good handling qualities coupled with parts that are
satisfy

the requirements of the world's

the British

SAS

for

example

as well as

interchangeable with those

wide range of heavier

in

assault

weapons.

The MP5

one of three modes: semi-auto,

fires in

three-round burst. Similar to the

safety acts as

FN

full-auto

FAL's trigger, the

or

H&K's

selector.

its fire

Three-shot bursts are accomplished through a small ratchet

"counting mechanism" interacting with the sear. Each time the

one notch

bolt cycles to the rear, the ratchet advances

Above: The
is

firing

MP5K (= Kun

compact version

and spring

lever

MPS,

the

Firing pin

Cocking

[short])

of the

until

standard 9x19 Parabellum

Locking piece
rounds.
into

It

is

small enough

a briefcase and

is

to

fit

only

marginally larger than an

automatic

pistol,

but the

forward handgrip makes

much

greater accuracy possible.

Barrel

Handguard
locking pin

Handguard

Chambered
round

Specifications

Origin:

Dimensions:

(MP5A2 and MP5A3)

Barrel

Type:

(MP5SD1, MP5SD2 and MP5SD3)

Sub-machine gun.

(MP5K)-

Sin

overall length

(MP5A3)

(MP5A2)

6in

21.7in

304in (780mm);

24in (610mm); (MP5K)

(146mm);

26.8in (680mm);

(490mm); (MP5SD1)

(550mm); (MP5SD2)

(MP5SD3)

(115mm)

19.3in

(225mm);

9in

Federal Republic of Germany.

12.8in

(325mm).

Weights:
(MP5A2)

5.6lb (2.5kg);

(MP5SD1)

((2.9kg);

6.8lb (3.1kg);
-

(MP5A3)

6.2lb (2.8kg);

(MP5SD3)

6.3lb

(MP5SD2)

7.5lb ((3.4kg);

(MP5K)

4.4lb (2kg).

Caliber:

9mmx19

parabellum.

Feed:

10/15/30 round box magazine.

Muzzle

velocity:

1,320ft/s(400m/s).
Rate of

fire:

(MPSA2)

750rpm; (MP5A3)

(MP5SD1)

650rpm; (MP5SD2)

(MP5SD3)

650rpm; (MP5K)

750rpm;
-

650rpm;

840rprn.

Sights:
Rear, four operative rotating barrel; front,

blade, non-adjustable.

116

hooded

Weapons & Equipment

third cycle allows

the

trigger

re-engagement of the sear or

circumventing

released,

is

the

"counter" and ending the cycle before three

shots are

fired.

These arms have great appeal to Third World

countries, not only for their reliability and maintainability but
also for their ease of manufacture.
steel in 19

The

receiver, constructed of

operations (several combined),

by a trunnion which

is

stamped sheet

attached to the polygonal

is

rifled barrel

spot welded to the receiver and pinned to the barrel. The

trigger housing, buttstock,

and fore-end are high impact

plastic.

H&K

utilizes

metal stampings and welded sub group parts.

The MP5

has an impressive

a .22 cal. conversion

kit;

list

MP5

and various optical devices. The

buttstock and the

of accessories. These include: a magazine loader;

a blank firing device; a

MP5A3

muzzle-mounted tear gas grenade launcher;

has various configurations.

features a retractable stock

The MP5A2

has a fixed

they are interchangeable.

MPA5 has an

Above: The

extendable stock and the

selector includes a

3-round

Rear sight
option.

assembly

It

seen here with a

is

15-round magazine.

Magazine
catch lever

Follower
The cutaway shows the

Left:

and spring

working parts
the

\
gazine

The MP5K was introduced

1976 and

is

designed for special operations; the barrel

is

shorter, a vertical foregrip

sight apertures

There

is

is

in

open notches.

blast.

is

that

it

fires

uses

It

blowback

0,

Far

15

left:

It

or 30

retractable stock.

The primary
bullet

sight,
lay

can be

fitted

The MP5SD
a

is

fitted

special

which enables the

a laser

beam on

the

will

with

laser
firer

to

target,

thus knowing precisely where

rounds

with

round magazines.

a silencer and

below the speed of sound, thus preventing

of

matched by ease of

is

manufacture.

to the

feature of the silenced version

MP5.

the

and the simplicity

rifles

operation

a receiver cap.

The MP5SD is a silenced weapon and is identical

MP5A2/A3 with regard to functioning principle
and bolt system. MP5SDI is the weapon with receiver
cap; SD2, weapon with a fixed stock; and SD3, weapon with

of

roller-delayed

system as the Heckler & Koch

added, and the rear-

are replaced with

no butt-stock, only

same

the

hit.

117

Special Fokc is

Gl\

UZl/MlNII-UZI SliB-MACHINE
young

army major named

Israeli

expert, designed and produced a

the Uzi
in

an

Gal,

which has become one of the most

arms

prolific

SMGs

the western world today. Gal based his design on the

postwar

Czechoslovakian

machine guns,

9mm

Models 23 and 25 sub-

major departure from prewar and wartime designs.

were not known for accuracy, and to

Czech designers developed a concept wherein the bolt actually

sub-machine guns

Early

overcome

Uziel

new sub-machine gun

this

telescoped the rear end of the barrel, enclosing the cartridge. Major Gal kept

and another clever Czech design

this

through the

meant

pistol grip.This

as

magazine was inserted

well: the

Origin:

rotate out of
a cartridge

Dimensions:

Caliber:

and

.45cal.

is

cocked by drawing

open. The trigger mechanism

engagement with the bolt.The

bolt's

momentum

own

and

it

is

it

to the rear.The sear

also simple.

stop.

Its

spring then drives

two

it

changes made.

been added, and the Uzi

is

now

it

coil spring

is

forward, stripping

as the striker

it

move down and

in

the bolt face

generated by the exploding cartridge then drives the

forward again

the years that Major Gal's

significant

coil spring drives

firing

bolt to the rear, extracting and ejecting the fired case

In all

9mm

it

from the magazine, chambering

impacts the primer. The

Weight
7.71b (3.5kg).

blowback design.The bolt

used to tension the sear; pulling the trigger to the rear allows the sear to

Israel.

Length 25.2in (640mm).

a simple

is

rotates up to engage and hold

Type:

Sub-machine gun.

point-fire

hip.

The Uzi
Specifications

at the point of

more accurate

balance, but also just forward of the shoulder axis for

from the

was

that the bolt face/breech

9mm

in

Uzi has been

grip safety,

until

it

comes up

against the bolt

a repeat cycle.
in

production, there have only been

which blocks the trigger unless depressed, has

available to fire the .45

Automatic Colt

Pistol Cartridge.

Rifling:

4 groove

r/h

(9mm); 6 groove
l/h

Foresight
protectors

(.45cal).

Cocking handle

Feed:

25/32/40 round box (9mm);

16 round (.45cal).

Muzzle velocity:
1,280ft/s(390m/s).

Cyclic

Rate of

fire:

600rpm (9mm);

cyclic

500rpm

(.45cal).

Sights:
Flip,

110-219yd(100-200m).
SMG.]

[Specifications for Uzi

Above: The

Mini-Uzi, with

folding stock extended.

its

wire

When

the stock

is

retracted the

weight

is

symmetrically

Forehand grip

disposed about the pistolgrip,

making one-handed

firing

much

small

that

easier.

It

is

so

addition to Israeli forces, the Uzi

In

use

in

is

Thailand, Venezuela, and other countries.

in

Belgium, Germany, Iran, the Netherlands,

has been ordered

It

in

the hundreds of thousands

Trigger

it

can easily be

hidden under clothing or

a brief-case and
use on

is

ideal

in

for

clandestine and

special

and

is

probably the most widely used sub-machine gun

attachments include

may be screwed to the

magazines,

if

In

operation

5.9lb/2.7kg),

it

front of the receiver

Industries has

firing

in

place of the barrel locking-nut.Two 32-round

fire capacity.

produced

exactly resembles

and

the western world. Optional

short bayonet and a barrel-mounted searchlight. A grenade launcher

clipped together, increase

Israeli Military

operations.

in

a smaller version

and designated

larger "parent," differing only

its

characteristics.

It

in

it

the Mini-Uzi.

size,

weight (only

accept a 20-round magazine for

will

its

9mm

parabellum pistol ammunition, as well as 25- and 32-round magazines.

It

can easily be concealed under ordinary clothing, and carried

space, which

personnel, and
or,

makes the Mini-Uzi

in

commando

operations.

It

and accuracy set by the

There are three models

requirements.

The heavy

bolt

useful

can be fired

with stock extended, from the shoulder, and

reliability

118

particularly

is

in

the

for security and

full-

minimum

vehicle

law enforcement

or semi-automatic from the hip

said to maintain the high standards of

Uzi.

open
model

bolt,

closed bolt, or heavy bolt

offers a

reduced rate of

fire

- to meet

specific

(750rpm) for situations

Weapons & Equipment

A stripped
small

From top

showing the

Uzi,

number
to

of

components.

bottom:

slide

cover

with cocking handle; bolt, with

return-spring rod; and

on the

left,

barrel

body; and

and barrel

nut.

requiring easier control.

Even newer
situation

Micro-Uzi
rate of

is

requires
is

less

the smallest Uzi ever offered, which

maximum concealment without

than lOin

fire.

(254mm)

is

designed to be used

sacrificing

9mm

when

firepower. This

the

new

long with shoulder stock folded, and has a l,200rpm

Backsight
protectors

D t
Bolt
.

Sear

Chamber
Slinq swivel

Trigger

guard

Left;

The interior of the

Uzi.

how

the blow-back bolt

fits

the internal end of the

also

Magazine catch

how

the

magazine

Note

around

barrel.
fits

Note

inside

the

handle, with the drawing showing

the

top

9mm

Parabellum round

waiting to be fed into the chamber.

Butt (folded)

Magazine

119

Special Fok< is

9mm

L2A3/L34A1

Sterling

Designed
Specifications

by A team headed by

Sterling began

Origin:

same magazine

the

life

W Patchett of the

end of World

at the

War

as the Sten, but the design

Sterling Engineering

Co, England, the

as the successor to the Sten.

was much more

efficient

and

It

effective.

took

It

United Kingdom.

formally adopted by the British forces

Type:

Well made and finished, the gun has

Sub-machine gun.

19tn

(483mm);

barrel

magazine, which sticks out of the

Sights

Weights:
loaded

normal blowback mechanism, but

comprise

most adverse

semi-automatic or

fully

automatic.

unusual
it

in

out of

conditions.

The

also available.

is

aperture that graduates to

a rear flip-type

is

accumulates and forces

it

side of the action (similar to the Sten), holds 34

200m), and a narrow blade (almost a post)

6.0lb (2.72kg);

left

rounds, although a 10-round version

77.9in (198mm).

Empty

the receiver. This allows the gun to function well under the

28in (690mm); (stock folded)

was

1954.

having a ribbed bolt which cuts away dirt and fouling as

Dimensions:
Length (stock extended)

in

It is

front.

The gun

and 220 yards (100 and

10

capable of selective

is

fire,

either

also fitted for a blade bayonet.

7.6lb (3.47kg).

In

Caliber:

9mm

parabellum.

also a favorite

Feed:

who

34-round box magazine.

Rifling:

6 grooves

is

The L34AI

Mk

fire:

for use
in

is

in

The weapon was particularly

Northern Ireland. Sterlings were

nations use the Sterling.

in

the Falklands

in

the

War

Mau Mau

and

in

uprisings

reliable

Kenya.

in

operations has commented,

sub-machine gun, simple,

have also been found

r/h.

1,287ft/s(390m/s).

Rate of

weapon

has used the Sterling

a nice field

Muzzle velocity:

Cyclic,

some 90

addition to Britain,

useful to British special forces

flows

"It

operator

special forces

like

when

syrup

fired.

It

and easy to control." Many of these weapons

terrorist arsenals.

the silenced version.

It

is

somewhat longer than the L2A3 and tops the

(I kg). Many of its parts are interchangeable

4 version's weight, unloaded, by almost 21b

with those of the L2A3, thus keeping

down replacement

costs and ensuring

availability.

550rpm.

The

[Specifications for L2A3.]

barrel jacket

is

covered by

a silencer casing,

has 72 radial holes drilled through

it,

with front and rear supports. The barrel

which permits propellant gas to escape, thus reducing

muzzle velocity of the

the

The

barrel

diffuser

has a metal

tube; the

bullet.

wrap and

extension

tube

goes beyond the silencer casing and

barrel.

spiral

diffuser

beyond the

a series of discs,

barrel

is

a hole

through

its

which has

center that allows

passage of the round. Gas follows

the round closely and

back by the end cap;

it

deflected

is

mingles with

the gases coming forward

with the

result that the gas velocity leaving

weapon is low.
The silenced Sterling is used by
many countries, and by terrorist

the

groups.
Adjustable

Silencer

Expanded

foresight

casing

metal wrap

Top: Sterling
its

Mk

VII

pistol

with

magazine. Note the lack of a

butt and the

pistol

Spiral diffuser

assembly

additional forward

grip. In

this

picture the

Diffuser

weapon

is

working parts

cocked with the

to

the

rear.

The

Above: The
little

L34AI

Silenced

Sterling

makes very

sound, but the gas escapes

in

tube

the

Folded
change lever has three positions:
safe

(as

shown

here); single

rounds; and fully automatic.

120

diffuser reduce

the

round making

it

muzzle velocity of the

a close-range weapon.

bun

Weapo\s & Equipment

Sten Gun
World War

II

dictated an urgent requirement for a simple, British-produced sub-

machine gun, and by the middle of 1941

was
its

in

limited production

name from

with

its

the

initial

development

letters of the

Major

Enfield, the location of

and undergoing user

RV

weapon had not only been designed but

This was the famous Sten, which took

trials.

surnames of the two people most closely concerned

Shepherd and

the factory where

it

was

STurpin,

first

provided an invaluable source of additional automatic

The Sten works on

allied

produced.
fire

to the

power

first

two

letters of

various forms the Sten

In its

to the British forces.

spring and fires either single shots or bursts, the change lever being a circular stud above

the trigger.

MkV

Mkll, Mklll,

and MkVl.The Sten Mark

II

has

short barrel and barrel jacket, and a simplified buttstock.The second pattern (MkllS) has

a shorter barrel, silencer, a lighter bolt,

and a shorter recoil spring. Mklll does not have the

detachable barrel of the other models and

is

probably the most cheaply

made

of the Sten

made of a single welded steel tube, with the housing

The MkV has a number of features that were not
in the earlier models; among them are wooden pistol grip and stock, a front sight with
protective ears, and lugs on the barrel for bayonets. The MkVI is the MkV fitted with a

guns.

Its

receiver and barrel jacket are

of the magazine welded to the receiver.

shortened barrel and

United Kingdom.

Type:

Sub-machine gun

Dimensions:

(762mm); MkllS
(857mm);

Mklll

(762mm);

MkV

(857mm);

30.5in

30.5in

30.5in

(762mm); MkVI

34.3in

34.3in

barrel, Mkll

(197mm); MkllS-

3. 7in

(91.4mm); Mklll

7.9in

MkV

(197mm);

8.0in

(198mm); MkVI

7.9in

3.8in

(95mm).

Weights:
Loaded, Mkll

7.6lb (3.4kg);

MkllS -9.lb (4.14kg); Mklll

a silencer.

Sten guns were manufactured

Origin:

Length overall, Mkll

simple blow-back system using a heavy bolt with a coiled return

The main production versions were the

Specifications

in

millions. Later

the world, but are no longer standard

weapons

in

models are

the UK. Built

still

in

widely used throughout

the

UK, Canada, and

New

8.41b (3.82kg);
(4.54kg);

MkV

-10.01b

MkVI -10.91b

(4.96kg).

Zealand, the Sten gun

will

be encountered for years to

come

in

the hands of irregulars

around the globe.

Caliber:

9mm

parabellum.

Rifling:
Above: The Sten

gun design

is

now some 60

6 grooves

years

10.2in
old, but

it

was manufactured

in

numbers and

vast

r/h,

one turn

in

(254mm); Mkll has

is

two grooves.
still

found

in

some armies and

in

many

and "resistance" groups. Shown here

is

terrorist

the Mark V

"top-of-the-range" version with wooden butt and two

pistol

Return spring handle

lugs

grips, a

foresight with

on the barrel for

fitting

protective bracket, and

a bayonet.

Muzzle velocity:
1.205ft/s(366m/s); MkllS and

MkVI-1,007ft/s(304m/s).

Rate of
Cyclic,

fire:

550rpm.

121

Spiual For<

is

Madsen Model 53

Specifications
Origin:

Denmark.
Type:

Sub-machine gun.

Dimensions:
Length (stock extended)

The

sub-machine gun to be made

first

type of Finnish Suomi,

Danish Madsen Industrial Syndicate

continued throughout World War
by the

The

first

Finns. This same

made all Danish sub-machine guns since then.
weapon of the present series was the Model

wartime advances in
was designed in such a way
to be able to take advantage of these improved

1946, and the Danes, profiting from

ed)- 21.2in (528mm); barrel

mass production, made sure

Weight
Empty -7.0lb

as

parabellum.

Feed:

32-round box.
Rifling:

4 groove

r/h.

Muzzle velocity:
1,287ft/s(390m/s).

Rate of
Cyclic,

fire:

it

techniques.

(3.2kg).

One

Caliber:

9mm

Production

1940.

in

with the gun being used

II,

31.8in (794mm); (stock fold-

-8.0in (198mm).

Denmark was
license by the

Danes, the Germans and the

syndicate has

in

made under

most unusual sub-machine guns ever

of the

designed and produced, the Model 53

is

designed to lend

The
made from two side
so that the weapon can

to high speed production at extremely low cost.

itself

main body, including the

pistol grip,

pieces, hinged together at the rear

easily

be opened for

repair, cleaning

is

or inspection.

however, have the disadvantage that the springs are

out unless care

fall

is

taken.

It

does,

liable

to

The Madsen works on the

normal blowback system and

single

rounds or

a grip safety

behind the

will

fire

550rpm.
bursts.

One
Above: Danish
1

Madsen Model

953. Note the 'grip safety' just

behind the magazine housing

and the tubular

pivots

stock,

which

onto the right side of

the weapon.

of

unusual features

its

is

magazine housing which (with the magazine

forward hand

grip.

function, which

The

Unless

makes

it

tubular metal stock

right side of the

this safety

is

impossible to
is

on

a pivot

in,

itself)

the gun

fire

it

acts as a
will

not

one-handed.

and folds onto the

weapon.

The Model 53 has been used by Danish police forces and

some South American and Southeast Asian countries, as
well as by several terrorist groups.
It was
made under
Many of the design and
license in Brazil in .45 caliber.
in

Below: The unique stripping

configuration, with the
splitting

in

same

122

weapon

half, pivoting

bolts

as

the

on the
stock.

manufacturing features lend themselves to ready application

to other small arms designs.

Weapons & Equipment

9mm MAT49
Ml 949 sub-machine gun, which was built by Tulle (Manufacture d'Armes de Tulle),
good reputation among French troops. First adopted by the French Army in 949,
Indochina and Algeria. A large number of these weapons,
it saw considerable service in
incidentally, were captured in Indochina and later converted to fire the Soviet 7.76mm Type
P round, and the cyclic rate was increased to 900 rounds per minute. These weapons can be

The

has a

Specifications

Origin:
France.

Type:

Sub-machine gun.

Dimensions:

recognized by their longer barrel and 35-round magazine.

Of

conventional blowback design, the

The magazine housing

by dropping.

pistol-grip

The

squeeze safety

ejection

makes the weapon

is

fitted,

port cover helps

and

keep

this

9.1in

particularly usable

It

is

Unloaded
loaded

7.9lb (3.6kg);

9.2lb (4.2kg).

Caliber:

9mm

used by French forces and the armies of many former French colonies.

has also been found

(228mm).

Weights:

prevents accidental

mechanism of the gun.

The weapon

20.2in (460mm); barrel

instantly.

out of the internal

dirt

28.8in (720mm); (stock folded)

may be folded forward and

and has only to be swung back and down to be used

a telescopic steel stock, this feature

by parachute troops.
discharge

Length (stock extended)

has several unusual, but useful, features.

(with magazine attached), for example,

clipped under the barrel

Combined with

MAT49

in

parabellum.

Feed:

terrorist arsenals.

32- or 20-round box

magazine.
Rifling:

4 grooves

Muzzle

velocity:

1,287ft/s(390m/s).

Rate of
Cyclic,

Left:

fire:

600rpm.

These French soldiers show

the two configurations of the

French MAT49 sub-machine gun.

The soldier on the

magazine

in

left

has the

the operating

position, while

the

man

in

the

center has the magazine housing

folded forward, out of the way.

Above: MAT49. A
is

located

MAT49 with

the

tubular stock

extended. The steeply canted pistol

grip
large

(with

built-in

its

foregrip give

control

when

making

this

fired

safety)

and

excellent

from the

an ideal

weapon

retracted

for

and

six

representative

9mm

rounds. There are two magazines; one

takes
also

hip,

safety"

The picture shows the stock

grip.
Left:

large "squeeze

on the rear of the pistol

20 rounds, the other 32. Note

the clip on

the

cooling sleeve, which

the

magazine housing

operations such as house-to-

position. This

house fighting.

reliable

is

weapon.

underside of the

used to retain

is

in

its

forward

an excellent and

Spicial Foiu

5.56mm FA MAS
French trooper wading

Right:

through a river with

length and
this

light

is

weight

make

proved

and handle.

(Fusil

Automatique,

France's current service

short

an easy weapon to carry

MAS

FA

Manufacture d'Armes de

Its

ready.

the

at

rifle

The

MAS

his

Rifle

to

generally

be

highly

bipod

right:

legs,

feature

of

The MAS with

its

futuristic
fact,

in

subsequently

modified),

the weapon, extended.

of the

been

in

it

has,

20

service for

prominent "bridge"

years. The

serves as a carrying handle

and

houses the sights.

also

piece

ordnance for general service and

placed into production

even today, but

and has

well-conceived

which are a standard

The design of the weapon looks

Etienne)

effective

forces use. First introduced

Below

St.

rifle

in

in

the

and
of

special

1973 (and
rifle

was

1979. Delivery

first complement of 148,000 rifles

was completed in 1983.
Firing from the closed-bolt position,
the method of operation is by means of

delayed

blowback, the

system

having

been adopted from the French

general purpose machine gun.

AA52
black

Specifications
Origin:
France.

Type:
Assault

rifle.

Dimensions:
Without bayonet

(757mm);

barrel

30.28in

19.51in

(488mm).

Weights:
Without magazines,
bipod
azine

sling or

7.94lb (3.61kg); mag-

0.33lb (0.15kg) empty;

0.99lb (0.45kg) loaded with

25 rounds; bipod

0.374lb

(0.17kg).

Caliber:

5.56mm

45mm

NATO;

M193-type ammunition.
Effective range:

330yd (300m).

ST

Muzzle velocity:
3,168ft/s(960m/s).

Rate of
Cyclic,

fire:

900-1, OOOrpm.

plastic

lower handguard, pinned to the barrel

and receiver, extends to the magazine well and

cannot be removed.

Because
trigger

it

has a "bullpup" configuration, the

mechanism and

have been

pistol grip

mounted to the lower handguard, forward

magazine well. The pistol grip
the
ergonomically

designed,

with

three

of
is

finger

grooves and a storage trap that contains a

bottle

of lubricant,

guard

can

retaining

gloves

be
pin

under

The sheet metal

and

rotated

arctic

trigger

away from the

pulled

for

conditions,

firing

an

rear

with

obvious

advantage to mountain forces. The trigger

connected

to

metal which rides

the

receiver

mechanism.

124

long,
in

and

thin

a slot

strip

on the

reaches

of

is

sheet

right side of

the

hammer

Weapons & Equipment

To remove

a magazine, a spring-loaded plastic catch

inserted by pushing

Among

them

cyclic rate (900-1

weapon.

Each

mounted on

mode
is

are optional right- or left-side ejection

as an alternative to single

.OOOrpm), the three-shot burst

weapon

shot or

mode

is

fully

a real

automatic.

boon

equipped with an ambidextrous web

column pinned to the

barrel; the rear sight

is

also

sling.

on

in

With

its

high

controlling the

The

foresight

is

column, above the

return spring cylinder.

FA MAS have scopes integrated into the carrying handles, as are short
(419mm) barrels. A new carrying handle that will accept any
scope is under development. The weapon is widely used among elite

Versions of the

barreled models with I6.5in

NATO STANAG

MAS stripped

Above: The

cleaning. Although

MAS

the interesting features of the FA

and three-round burst

must be pressed back. Magazines are

straight into the well.

for

field

unusual

of

appearance, the basic

construction

same

the

is

most modern assault

as

rifles,

the

major differences being the

location

of the

and the

recoil

sights

trigger group,

system. Note the

on the body group.

normally covered by the handle.

troops such as France's naval infantry, Foreign Legion and paratroops.

short version

the FA

special forces. The barrel has

same

as the

MAS Commando

been shortened to

is

intended for use by

6.2in (4

mm), but

commando and
in

similar

other respects

is

the

main service weapon.

An MAS

Left:

with

rifle

mounted

telescopic sight

carrying handle. This

in

the

not

is

intended to convert the weapon

a sniper

into

but enables

rifle,

forces

special

when hostages
combatants are

or nonthe

in

zone. Note that the

the

firer

firing

adopt

high

example

is

profile

disadvantage.

Far left: The

weapon

killing

bipod makes

position, which

possible

targets

identify

to

as

MAS

is

shown by

fitted

in

compact

this

a car door.

125

Special Forces

5.56mm Steyr Aug

The Steyr AUG
when

did

it

looks as futuristic
first

appeared

in

in

the late 1990s as

the early

it

1980s. This

weapon was designed by Steyr-Daimler-Puch AG of Steyr,

Austria, to meet an Austrian Army specification and was
designated the Armee Universal Gewehr (AUG = universal
army rifle). It uses a "bull-pup" design in which the working
parts are

the stock at the rear and the magazine

in

behind

is

the trigger, which combine to enable a full-length barrel to

be mounted

The

in

AUG

the shortest possible overall length.

is

mounted on
The gas-regulator has

gas operated, with gas-cylinder

the barrel and a short-stroke piston.

three settings: one for normal operation; the second for

adverse conditions; and the third for

rifle

grenades.

automatic;

safe;

The

safety

also

differ
Above: The

AUG-P

machine gun version

firing

9mm

a sub-

is

the

of

AUG

Parabellum

ammunition. Note the short

used cartridge

barrel, the

ejection

and the revised

slot

magazine housing, which

different from

5.56mm

Right: Austrian
his

Steyr

AUG

the

in

hip firing

the use of the

hand on the forward

grip, right

grip

version.

paratrooper with

position. Note
sling, left

is

that on the

hand on the

pistol

and stock firmly held by

the forearm

and elbow. The AUG

can be used by either

right-handed

firers,

left-

or

needing only

the most basic adjustments.

126

(350mm);
and

rifle

exactly

I6in

mainly

in

rifle

and

light

how many rounds

uses a 42-round magazine.

remain to be

is

made

fired,

semi-

AUG

sub-machine gun

machine gun (LMG)

which

the lengths of the barrel, which are I3.8in

(407mm); 20in (508mm); and 24.6in (626mm),

use a 30-round magazine, which

settings:

and three-round bursts.

There are four versions of the

(SMG), carbine,

blank rounds or

firing

has three

respectively. The

SMG,

carbine

of clear plastic so that the firer can see

while the

LMG

is

fitted

with a

light

bipod and

Weapons & Equipment

Specifications
empty

Origin: Austria.

Assault

Type:

loaded 8.51b (3.85kg).

SMG,

carbine, assault

Sustained

sustained-fire

rifle,

13.8in

(350mm);

overall

25in (632mm).
16in (407mm); overall

SMG/carbine/rifle:

27in (690mm).

overall

31

Sustained
overall

20in (508mm);

barrel

fire:

24.6in (626mm);

6 groove,

6.5lb (2.95kg): loaded

7.3 lb (3.3kg); loaded

turn/9in (23cm).

AUG

optical.

328yd (300m).

Assault

rifle

Rate of

fire (cyclic):

680rpm.

8.051b (3.65kg).

The

plastic.

Effective range:

7.161b (3.25kg).
Carbine: empty

handed

r/h,

Sworowski 1.5X
-

clear plas-

Sight

Weights:

SMG: empty

Rifling:

36m (908mm).

30 round,

42-round

Sustained-fire:

(790mm).

in

10.81b (4.9kg).

tic.

barrel

rifle:
-

Feed:

Carbine: barrel

Assault

empty

fire:

7.91b (3.6kg)

NATO standard 5.56mm ball round

M193andM885(SS109).

Dimensions:
barrel

Cartridge:

machine gun.

SMG:

rifle:

has been designed so that

firers. Thus,

the bolt

is

it

can be fired with equal ease by right- or

left-

replaceable and the ejection port can be set on either side of

Above: Three versions

all

5.56mm

the receiver. Even the sling swivels can be adjusted to either side of the weapon, according

standard

to the requirements of the

and

firer.

The stock is a one-piece, greenish-colored unit, fabricated from a very strong, durable
plastic; it accommodates the receiver group, the hammer mechanism and the magazine
housing.The pistol grip is integral with the stock, and a transverse safety is located where it
can be operated by the

The
it

firer's right

cold hammer-forged barrel

/8th turn;

it

is

removing a hot

barrel.

carrying handle

if

chrome-lined and locks into the receiver by rotating

required, and can also be used to protect the firer's hand

flash
is

hider

fixed

is

rifle,

with

long barrel

suppressor. Center

the carbine, basically the

as the

the

is

rifle,

is

same

but with a slightly

shorter barrel. Bottom

is

the

sub-machine gun, with an

can safely be cooled by direct immersion into cold water.The cylindrical pistol

grip can be folded away,

The

thumb.

flash

AUG,

of the

Top

caliber.

ultra-

short barrel, designed for

paratroops.

when

attached to the muzzle.

and incorporates a I.5X sight which

is

fully

adjustable for

windage and elevation.

There

is

wide range of accessories, including such standard items

blank-firing attachment,

as a carrying sling,

and a muzzle cap. There are also two types of bayonet:

cleaning

kit,

one

multi-purpose tool which incorporates a wire-cutter and a screw-driver; the other

is

is

a light bayonet. In addition, a grenade-launcher, designated

AUG-8, can be attached under

US Army's M-203.
The AUG has been adopted by numerous armies and many special
of Australia, Austria, New Zealand and the Oman.
the barrel and

is

similar

in

operation to the

forces, including those

Left:

An NC0

of the Austrian

Army shows how

handy

is

the

light

and

AUG. Note that the

forward hand-grip

is

folded

forward out of the way. Note

also

the bayonet/combat knife

which

is

carried

on

his

webbing.

127

Special For(

5.45mm AK-74 and AKS-74 Assault

Rifles

Receiver catch

Plastic

Below: A Polish

armed with

5.45mm

assault

Warsaw

of the

rifle,

members

of

Pact before the end

the

left

hand

grasping the magazine rather

An AKS-74 with a folding

stock, for use

which was

Cold War. Note the firing

position, with

Above:

Russian AK-74

widely exported to
the

paratrooper

elite

the

by paratroops and

other special forces. The weapon

an
take

AKM rechambered and rebored

the

the

Russian

5.45mm

of blast

is

to

round. Note

cleaning rod and the

new type

compensator, which

is

intended to reduce the recoil forces

than the forward hand-guard.

on the

firer.

AS

INDICATED BY

assault

entered

probably

troops

in

rebored

AKM,

74 has a
(giving

the
is

it

it

to

has the

with

an

fire

l *r

"

Sf*.

r\

in

The

AKM

Moscow on

rechambered

5.45mm

cartridge.

same general appearance

two notable

distinctive,

differences: the

as

AK-

two-port muzzle brake

smooth

shorter and

plastic
is

magazine which

curved to a lesser

extent than the grooved metal

W ^'

1977.

a slightly greater overall length than

AKM), and

slightly

AK-74

1974 and

seen with Soviet airborne

first

the Red Square Parade

Externally,

the

around

service

November 7 1977.
The AK-74 is basically
and

in

AKS-74, sometimes referred to as

AKD, was

the

DESIGNATION, the

ITS

was developed

rifle

folding stock

* v

magazine

AKM.

It

uses the

same type bayonet as the AK series weapons.

The folding stock version, designated AKS-74,
has a Y-shaped tubular stock with an extremely

narrow

buttplate, as

opposed to the T-shaped,

stamped-metal buttstock of the AKMS.

The muzzle brake on the AK74 uses

128

a fluidic

Weapons & Equipment

Foresight assembly

Piston

Blast

compensator

Gas

port

Cleaning rod

Handguard

device to minimise recoil and muzzle climb. Although the

the

AKM

when empty,

magazine and

its

its

loaded weight

is

slightly

less,

smaller caliber ammunition, which can

AK-74

is

somewhat

inflict a

particularly nasty

AKS now has a Russian version of the US M203 grenade launcher.

Among limitations of the rifle are that the gas cylinder is in a vulnerable
dented,
plastic

may cause weapon malfunction, and

magazine does not lend

itself

heavier than

primarily because of the plastic

wound. The
Specifications

position and,

if

that the reddish-brown or orange color of the

to camouflage,

Origin:
Russian Federation.

Type:
Assault

rifles.

Dimensions:
Length (AK-74)

37in

(930mm); (AKS-74, with butt

folded)
barrel

28in (690mm);

16in (40mm).

Weight
Unloaded (AK74/AKS-74)
7.9lb (3.6kg).

Rifling:

4 grooves

r/h;

turn

7.8in

in

(196mm).
Caliber:

8.45mm

x 39.

Feed:

30-round

plastic

box

magazine.

Effective range:

495yd (450m).

Muzzle velocity:
2,970ft/s (900m/s).

Rate of
Cyclic,

Left:

fire:

650rpm.

Russian paratrooper takes

aim with

his

5.45mm AKR

machine gun (SMG).

This

suba

is

shortened, lighter version of the

AKS-74, with a Y-shaped, tubular

metal folding stock. Note that
this

Russian soldier uses the

conventional grip with his

left

hand holding the forward

handguard, as opposed

to

that

used by the Polish soldier

opposite. Note the coveted

blue

beret and the paratrooper

badge on the

soldier's

left

sleeve.

129

SPtWAL

Ft)H<

M16A2/Colt Commando
Below: Special Operations
training at the John
Special Warfare

F.

Kennedy

Center, Fort

Bragg, North Carolina, with a

5.56mm

trainee aiming a

Commando

assault

Commando

was designed by Eugene Stoner. It was first adopted for

When first used in combat, numerous faults became
apparent, most of them traceable to a lack of training and poor maintenance. The MI6 then

rifle.

The

shorter and lighter version

a
of

forces

under license

in

5)

as the standard

rifle

of the United States forces.

Singapore, the Republic of Korea, and the Philippines.

Canada, which

in

Vietnam.

been manufactured, most by Colt Firearms. The weapon was also made

Millions have

adopted

in

7.62mm M 4

replaced the

The MI6A2 was

also

80,000 under license, but with full-automatic capability

built

in

place of the burst-control option.

The weapon

the Ml 6, and the changes

include a telescopic butt.

US

use by

Colt

essentially

is

The MI6 (previously the AR-

gas-operated and the user can select either full-automatic or semi-

is

automatic. Both 20- and 30-round magazines can be

can

fitted, as

a bipod,

bayonet, telescope,

Specifications
Origin:

Foresight assembly

Flash suppressor

United States.

Type:

M16A2

rifle;

Commando

sub-machine gun.

Dimensions:
Length overall
(with flash

suppressor)

40in (1,000mm);
barrel

19.8in

(508mm).

Weights:
7.5lb (3.4kg); with standard

30-round magazine
(3.72kg); sling

Sling swivel

8.2lb

Plastic

handguard

5.3oz

(182g).

Caliber: 5.56mm.

and night sight.The weapon can also be

Feed:
20- and 30-round box

magazine.

Maximum

effective

barrel, telescopic butt, flash suppressor,

(710mm).

Muzzle

velocity:

3.280ft/s(1,000m/s).

Rate of
700-950rpm

(cyclic);

fire:

150-

It is in

The M23

range:
300yd (274m).

fitted

The Commando sub-machine gun model

M2

use with

US

a special

is

with the

M203 40mm grenade

of the MI6

is

and a telescopic

a special version

sight;

launcher

(q.v.).

with a shorter

the overall length

27.9in

is

Special Operations Forces.

model with no butt or

sights,

and can be

fired

from within the

Bradley Infantry Fighting Vehicle.

There was much dissatisfaction with the MI6AI in the US Army and US Marine Corps,
one of the major complaints being its lack of effectiveness at ranges above 340 yards (300m).
This came to a head with the increased emphasis on desert warfare. Combined with the
98 1. The resulting
high average age of stocks at the time, this led to a major review in
1

200rpm

(auto);

45-65rpm

M 6A2
1

(semi-automatic).
[Specificataions for

M16A2.]

full

circle to

The
130

is

rifle

that

where

is

it

barrel of the

actually a

throwback to the

should have begun

M 6A2
1

is

in

the

950s;

it is

first place.

It

heavier, with a thicker profile.

weapon

that has finally

entered inventories
It

weighs

8.

in

come

1987.

51b (3.69kg) with

Weapons & Equipment

sling

and empty 30-round magazine compared to the 7.91b (3.58kg) of the MI6AI. Other

major changes include

three-round burst device, intended to cut

from the full-automatic operation on the A

edged front

new

a flash

suppressor that doubles as

USAF guard on duty

left:

Operation

1991

Desert Storm, armed with a

and handguard made of

muzzle compensator; and

Above

during the

rear sight with a windage knob; a square-

sight post to give better target definition; a buttstock

stronger materials;

down ammunition waste

wedge-

5.56mm MI6A2

assault

shaped projection at the rear of the ejection port to deflect hot brass away from the face

and night

of the left-handed shooter.

immediately to the

Most importantly, the requirements

rebarreling to use the

in

7in

Bolt

and

weapon have been met by

NATO 5.56mm round more effectively.The longer, heavier

stabilized by the M 6A2's barrel, which
rifled with a twist
I

77mm). This improves the maximum

firing pin

longer-range

new

of these rounds are fully

turn

for a

is

effective range to

bullets

of

rifle,

complete with grenade launcher

foresight

sight.

left

of the

the

sight for

the

is

The device

grenade launcher.

one

about 550 yards (500m).

Above right: US

Army

MI6AI

rifle,

assault

soldier with

the

original

production version, which was

Carrying handle and

criticised

rearsight shroud

for

its

by the US Army, mainly

limited .effective

range of

340yd (300m). MI6A2 has a

heavier barrel, revised
fires

the

and

rifling

NATO standard 5.56mm

round, increasing the effective

range

Above:

to

about 550yd (500m).

Cutaway shows the

sub-machmegun

version

Colt

of

the

Commando,
Ml

6,

which was

developed for use by special forces. The

operation, magazine, and
to

MI6AI

the

but the

sighting are

Commando

identical

has a

shorter barrel, a flash suppressor, telescopic

stock,

and revised handgrip.

with an

Hand

grip

M7 bayonet.

It

can be fitted

Special Fokcis

5.56mm & 7.62 GALIL ASSAULT RIFLE

Specifications
Origin:
Israel.

:**?'- i14&

Type:

Assault

rifle.

Dimensions:

Length (stock extended, 5.56

model)

38.6in (979mm);

(7.62 model)- 41. 3in

(1,050mm); (stock folded,

5.56 model)

29.2in

(742mm); (7.62 model)

31.9in (810mm); barrel

(5.56 model) 18.1

(7.62 model) -21

in

(460m);

(533mm).

in

Weights:

5.56 model

8.61b (3.9kg);

7.62 model -8.71b (3.95kg).

Caliber:

5.56 model

.233; 7.62

model

Max
5.56 model

.308.

effective range:

550yd (500m);

7.62 model 660yd (600m).

Muzzle velocity:
5.56 model

3,230ft/s

(980m/s); 7.62 model

2,800ft/s (850m/s).

Rate of
Cyclic,

fire:

Credit

both models, 650rpm.

FOR this

surname of
combining the

rifle's

development

full-scale

Finnish

right:

aims the

An

Israeli

5.56mm

soldier

Note

Galil.

that the large capacity magazine

causes a high prone position to

be adopted, reducing the

firer's

accuracyand increasing threat

from return

fire.

the 7,62

NATO

round

which would serve both the

5.

56

NATO

cartridge and

as well,

The operating system

steel

given to an Israeli ordnance officer with the

Valmet M-60/62 receiver with a stout but not-too-heavy

barrel a system could be developed

Above

is

along with Israel Military Industries (IMI). They realized that by

Galili,

breech cover, the

is

a rotating bolt gas

Galil

is

system and, with the exception of the stamped

machined. The handguard

fully

has ample clearance around the barrel for heat dissipation.

is

wood,

When

lined with Dural,

and

extended, the buttstock

has a positive latching system which prevents wobble by wedging the hinge end's tapered
latching lugs into corresponding slots.

These are released by the simple expedient of squeezing with the right hand and folding
The bipod folds and rotates into a slot on the underside of the
handguard, where the legs then spread apart by spring tension to latch into retaining slots.

the stocl< outward.

Below: The Galil's selector switch
is

located

above the

pistol

"safety"

not "fire"

is

grip;

engaged

bythe natural forward push of

the thumb.

132

The ambidextrous

member

trigger guard.
rear.

on the

safety switch

left

side

is

a small lever, but

also acts as an ejection port cover. The magazine

When

To operate, the lever

released, the carrier

is

is

is

its

reciprocal rightside

held by a catch

in

front of the

taken off "safe" and the cocking handle pulled to the

driven forward and the top round pushed from the

Weapons & Equpmim

magazine into the chamber. The bolt comes to

and the cam pin (engaged

a slot

in

a halt

the carrier)

in

rotates the bolt, which forces the cartridge forward,

whereupon the extractor

gun

is

ready to be

The system
mechanism
the

AK

is

used

that

series and

Some

slips

the

for

employed

many

in

35 rounds are held

have

in

25

and

firing

Ml Garand

rifle,

the 5.56 magazine and

rounds,

produced

been

consequence of having

trigger

the

others.

that for the 7.62 holds

magazines

over the rim and the

fired.

but
for

50-round
it.

numbers of rounds

large

On
is

long magazine, forcing the firer to adopt a high firing

position.

Sights for the Galil are folding "L" rear with

two

peeps, one for 330yd (300m), and a second for 550yd

(500m). Unique to the system

sights

is its

set of folding night

which use tritium for illumination. For close

quarter

work

at night or

in

dark jungle, these sights

are undetectable

The

Galil has

been adopted by

and has been produced

in

number

of armies

South Africa, with some

modifications, as the R-4.

Top: Israeli

paratrooper with

assault

Galil

rifle,

weapon developed

versatile

using Eastern

European

technology allied to

Israeli

ingenuity.

Above

section
the

The 7.62mm

Galil

machine gun, which

gap between the

the belt-feed

rifle

fills

and

medium machine

gun. Apart from the straight

has more than

magazine,

it

a passing

resemblance to

the

Russian-built AK-47, which

the Israelis captured

in

large

numbers. However,

is

in

it

every way a superior weapon.

Left

ready

Israeli
in

troops at the

front of an APC. The

soldier on

the right

with a Galil

is

armed

rifle.

133

Special Forces

37

Royal Ordnance Arwen

Specifications
Origin:
United Kingdom.

Type:

weapon.

Anti-riot

Dimensions:

Arwen

length: 29.9in-

33.1in(750mm-840mm).

Arwen Ace

length: 30in-

33in (762-838mm).

Weights:

Arwen 37 empty

6.8lb

(3.1kg); loaded

8.41b

(3.8kg).

Arwen Ace empty

4.61b

(2.1kg); loaded -5.11b

(2.3kg).

Caliber:

37mm.
Type of

Arwen 37

fire:

automatic/

single rounds.

Arwen Ace

single rounds.

Rate of

Arwen

fire:

37: cyclic

60rpm;

single rounds

12rpm.

Arwen Ace:

cyclic

single rounds

In

n/a;

is

British-

with a round

up

to

fire

5.

fire

the

baton and
rounds. The

33in

is

long and weighs

operator can

to

37mm

anti-riot

itself

which had

originally

(838mm)
lb

(2.3kg)

loaded. A skilled
the

in

Northern

weapon

firer

Ireland equipped with

Riot Gun, an adaptation of the Verey

been designed to launch illuminating

flares. The

L67AI had

at

rounds per minute.

very

to get dangerously close to a crowd, and was a single-

cartridge. In addition, the existing plastic bullet

designed, single-shot weapon,

developed specifically

38mm

round weapon which had to be broken to extract the used case and replace

110yd

(100m).

Below: The Arwen ACE

inadequate L67AI

short effective range, forcing the

range:

smoke

totally

effective

Standard rounds

weapon

or the

rifles

12rpm.

Pistol,

Maximum

Royal Ordnance

the 1970s British soldiers were facing hostile crowds

either

was

with a

it

new

unsatisfactory.

As a result, the British Ministry of Defence issued a requirement in 1977 for a multi-shot
"Crowd Control Weapon System" for use in Northern Ireland. By 1979 the (then) Royal
Small Arms Factory at Enfield had produced three different systems: a pump-action weapon
with a four-shot capacity; a five-shot, revolver-action weapon; and a self-loading weapon with
a box magazine. Prototype baton rounds were developed in parallel with the launchers.
Following trials, it was decided in early 1981 to produce yet another version, which
combined the

barrel and action of the five-shot revolver with the trigger/pistol grip and

some other and more minor modifications this was eventually

Arwen 37 (= Anti-Riot Weapon, ENfield).The 37mm caliber was
optimum combination of energy and velocity, while the new barrel

stock of the self-loader. After

placed

in

production as the

selected as offering the

had a

rifled

Safety

is

twist of

one turn

in

in

(540mm),

a primary consideration.

The

giving the greatest accuracy.

pistol-grip/trigger-housing contains an integral

safety lever,

which

is

operated with equal ease by

left-handed firers.The trigger

is

right-

or

designed for operation by

both index and middle fingers and has two pressures. The

weapon
up the

becomes

only

first

fully

cocked when the

pressure on the trigger and

if it is

firer takes

released the

action returns immediately to the uncocked state. Taking

up the second pressure and releasing

it

fires

the

weapon

and revolves the feeding mechanism, bringing the next

round into

line

with the breech. Recoil

An aperture on

is

not heavy.

the right-hand side of the

serves as both a loading and ejection port and the

can

be

fired

modification.

from

right

The weapon

or

left

shoulder

weapon
weapon
without

also has an adjustable stock

with six settings and a forward pistol grip with a variety of

radial settings,

which combine to offer the

firer a

wide

choice of adjustments to suit his/her requirements. The

weapon is also easy to clean and the revolving feed

mechanism can easily be removed. The number and type
of rounds

in

the magazine can be checked

A number
134

visually.

of versions have been developed from the

Weapons & Equipment

ARWEN

Leu: The

37

a multi-

is

shot, self-loading, semi-automatic,

weapon,

anti-riot

acronym

the

of

ARWEN

name

small

name

full

Anti-Riot, ENfield

being the

the

is

an

last

the former

of

arms factory

where

with

fitted

5-round magazine.

Enfield

at

was designed.

it

Below: Special forces troops show

firing

positions for the

37. The advantage

weapon

37mm

is

that

it

of

can place

baton or smoke rounds

with great precision

maximum
1

Oyd

ARWEN
this

(1

effective

out to the

range of

00m). The AR5 round

can even be used to penetrate

windows or plywood before

releasing

its

payload of CS

chemical smoke.

Arwen 37.The Arwen 37 Multi-S very close-quarter 5-shot

a shorter (165mm) barrel, while the Arwen 37

basic

no stock and
stockless,
all

is

designed for use on a ball-mounting

revolver has
Multi-V, also

an anti-riot vehicle. These

in

used the revolver-principle, but Royal Ordnance have also developed

single-shot version, the

Arwen Ace, which weighs

only

can achieve the same 12 aimed rounds per minute

In

any of

different configurations,

its

Arwen

5.

involving

and

riots

civil

(2.3kg) loaded, but

firing rate as

the

Arwen

37.

provides military, paramilitary

method

,and police forces with a highly effective and flexible

situations

lb

disturbances.

It

is

for containing

wide-scale service

in

around the world.

Ammunition
A family of 37mm

rounds was developed for use from the various Arwen

weapons.

ARI KE

(Kinetic Energy)

Baton Round. This uses

polyurethane baton, which

sized target at 109yd

AR2 Multi-Source

(1

is

sufficiently stable to

CS

gas

is

Irritant

Smoke Round. This

after leaving the muzzle.

man-

airburst

The

projectile

is

discarded

canisters then disperse and the

intended to cover a circular area approximately 5.5yd (5m)

radius at a range of 98yd (90m).

approximately

hit a

00m).

contains four CS-filled canisters within a plastic sabot which

one second

developed

a specially

be able to

The

irritating

CS smoke

in

emitted for

2 seconds.

AR3 Frangible-Nose Baton Round. The AR3

arresting people

is

in

is

or near buildings and consists of

intended to assist
a

in

polyurethane baton,

with soft nosecap (expanded polystyrene-Styrofoam).This contains 0.07oz

(2gm) of CS powder which is dispersed on impact.

AR4 Smoke Screening Round. This is similar

in

construction

and

performance to the AR2, but contains ordinary smoke instead of CS.

AR5

Barricade-Penetrating, Irritant Round. This round

is

designed for use against

such targets as car windscreens/windows and interior doors, as well as plywood up to

0.5in

(13mm)

thick, albeit at lesser ranges.

around

CS power

then dispersed.

is

It

uses a higher velocity projectile with a

hollow nose. The cutter penetrates the target and the micronized

cutting edge

Special versions. Special versions of the

AR

and

AR2

rounds are

the same terminal effects, accuracy and payload, but with a

Practice versions of the

AR

and

AR2

available,

which have

much reduced

range.

are also available.

13S

Special Forces

37

Ithaca

Specifications

Type:
Slide-action repeater shotgun.

weapon

(470-508mm).

Weights:
6.5 to 7lb (2.94-3.06kg).

that

is

basic

"Featherlight"

Gun Company

Model

of Ithaca,

New

37

pump

York.

It

repeater

action
is

uniquely free of stamped steel

components, even to the

trigger group.

The

Dimensions:
Length- 18.8 to 20in

famed

the

is

manufactured by the Ithaca

Origin:
United States.

shotgun

This

solid

does

receiver

steel

have

not

the usual ejection port on

the right because

empty

shells

pops

it

straight

out

Caliber:
12-guage, 2in (69.85mm).

Feed:
5- or 8-shot tubular

magazine.

of the bottom.
action
a

is

lifts

feed

unique

centered around

dual-duty

that

Its

shell

live

carrier

shells

straight

up to

into

the

chamber.
The Ithaca Model

Right:

37pump

action has been one of the most

commonly
USA.

Its

and
it

issued

Sin

ideal

as

shotguns

(525mm)
police

barrel

the

make

weapon, and

has also been found

it

in

weight, fast action,

light

in

the

arsenals of terrorists.

Its

to

fire

pistol grip affords greater control while firing

from

from the shoulder, and makes

The type of

barrel

in

Ithaca's

"Deerslayer" model

&

Far

Right:

and police forces

in

the US.

Mossberg

500 ATP8 carried

at

and snapped

firing

common

firearms

is

into

fallacy

position.

modern

that they should be

from the

fired

the ready

with

hip. In

80 percent of

all

training given

to

fact,

over

firearms
special

forces

personnel involves obtaining a

sight

flash

Below
is

picture at

minimum.

The 500 ATP8

regarded as one of the most

reliable

pump-action shotgun

designs issued. Because of

its

stock angle and generous-sized

fore

end, three aimed shots a

second are possible.

*tlliMMmt?il

136

practical

trademark of the company to

been

combat shotgun. The objective is to provide a weapon capable of firing rifle

optimum accuracy as well as being capable of handling the usual loadings.
A number of short-barreled cylinder-bored configurations have been put

Mossberg 500 ATP

Right

(a

indicate precision-bored cylindrical barrels for general hunting uses) has

military

it

a hip position.

fitted

to a

slugs with

in

use by

Weapons & Equipment

MMIMM

R~

Ithaca Model

removed,

stock

pistol

shortened. This chopped version

37

Stakeout, the standard 37

grip

rounds, four

with

holds five

added,

magazine and one

and the barrel and magazine

in

in

the

the

chamber.

Mossberg 500 shotguns are specially modified for police and

They have been described by some, as have other shotguns, as "reloadable

basic series of the

military use.

There are two main types

used by

elite forces.

Its

the six-shot and eight-shot models but

design

is

such as to ensure

aluminum receiver for good balance and

proof-tested to

full

magnum

loads, provides

light

maximum

weight.

optimum

it is

the latter which

reliability in use.

It

has an

cylinder-bored barrel, which

is

dispersion patterns and permits firing

mechanism has twin guide bars

prevent twisting or jamming during rapid operation.

expelled

muzzle brake by cutting

recent addition

slots in the

form, the

is

that help

that the muzzle has

upper surface. Gas can then be

downward force, thus permitting

Mossberg ATP8 is extremely compact and can

such a way as to exert

in

pistol grip

Shotgun.

Dimensions:
Length (ATP8)

40.3in

(1,009mm); (ATP8,

has twin extractors and the slide

been formed into

United States.

Type:

of a variety of ammunition.

The shotgun

Specifications
Origin:

Claymoores".

is

.y

i
Above: The

The

easier pointing.

thus be stowed

In its

more

grip)

pistol

30.9in (762mm);

barrel

(20.3in

(308mm).

Weights:
ATP8

ATP8

(pistol grip)

6.71b (3.06kg);

-6.11b

(2.72kg).

easily inside vehicles.

There

is

an almost infinite variety of options available.

Caliber:
12-guage, 2 or 3in (69.85
or

76.2mm).

Magazine

capacity:

Eight.

137

Special Forces

Heckler & Koch PSG-1 Sniper Rifle

The

Specifications

service

Germany.
Type:
Sniper

rifle.

rifle.

The PSG-I
This

ensure that

Roller locked, delayed

at

capacity:

5 or 20 rounds.

Range:
effective range

1,968ft (600m).

Rifling:
Polygonal; twists: 12in
r/h.

Sights:
Hensoldt 6x42 telescopic
reticle illumination. Six
1

10-

650yd (100-600m).

Trooper of Brazil's

Right:

lo

Batalhao da Forces Especials

with

semi-automatic sniper

Many

rifle.

7.62mm

Heckler & Koch

PSG-I

around

forces

special

the world use this weapon,

which

is

noted for

and ease

reliability,

how

the

tripod
profile

accuracy,

its

of use. Note

unusual short-legged
has adjusted to the

corrugated roof

of the

covering.

Right:

The PSG-I

design

is

based

on that of the very successful

Gl

assault

rifle

and

is

a semi-

automatic, single-shot weapon

firing

7.62mm NATO

ammunition. The butt stock can

be adjusted
individual

in

length to

sniper's

fit

the

requirements

and the cheek-piece can be

adjusted vertically. The
is

fitted

weapon

with a Hensoldt 6x42

scope.

138

semi-automatic, using the Heckler

in

around

is

also

is

fitted

it

Koch's

uses an unusual fore-end rest, consisting

supported by three short

vertically

legs.

The stock can be

meet the

adjustable cheek-piece, to

user.

with the Hensoldt 6x42 scope, with an LED-enhanced manual

and no other
rifle

sight can

off the

can place 50 rounds of match-standard ammunition into a

325yd (300m),

&

polygon-bored heavy

the world's most accurate semi-automatic

have a bipod, but the PSGis

built

is

seen as a limitation by some. The manufacturers test every

Feed:

settings covering

rifles

factory-fitted as an integral part of the receiver

is

blowback, semi-automatic.

with

is

NATO.

(304.8mm)

rifles, it is

requirements of the most demanding

Cartridge:

Maximum

Most sniper

adjusted for length and there

17.81b (8.07kg).

Magazine

sniper

Weight.

51mm

among

blowback system. The PSG-I

of a single tube let into a platform which

25.6in (650.2mm).

7.62 x

Unusually

barrel which, according to the makers, results

47.5in

(1,206.5mm); barrel

rifle.

rifle [PSG-I]) was developed

marksmen and was not an adaptation of a

(marksman's precision

use by military and police

roller-locked, delayed

Dimensions:
Length overall

Prazisionsschutzengewehr-

specifically for

Origin:

very demanding test by any standard.!

3.

be

production
1

4in

reticle.

which

fitted,

line

(80mm)

to

circle

Weapons & Equipment

SVD

Dragijnov
The SVD was developed
sniper weapon.

One

in

1965 and entered service

squad

in

each motorized

rifle

in

1967.

It is

riflemen receive regular, centralized sniper training. Largely due to

SVD

is

the standard Russian

Specifications

platoon has an SVD, and selected

its

Origin:

open buttstock, the

Russian Federation.

lighter than older sniper rifles.

Type:

Both the bolt mechanism and the gas recovery system are similar to those of the AK and

AKM

assault

rifles;

however, because of the difference

interchangeable with these weapons.

open buttstock, which

mounted over the

is

fitted

The most

in

cartridges, parts of

distinguishing features of the

with a cheek pad for ease

in sighting,

it

SVD

Sniper

rifle.

Dimensions:

are not

Length (overall)

are the

(1,225mm);

and the telescopic sight

48.22in

barrel

24.4in

(620mm).
receiver.

Weights:
It

has a combination flash suppressor/compensator, four magazines, a cleaning

extra battery and lamp for the telescopic sight.

rifle

It

is

equipped with

would not be an ideal weapon for close combat.

The Russian Army has always set great store by sniping and

specially trained to spot

German

officers by their

a bayonet,

kit,

and an

With PS0-1M2 sight

although the

empty

9.4lb (4.3kg); loaded

10.51b

(4.78kg).
in

World War

II

men were

Caliber:

badges of rank and then shoot them.

7.62 x

54mm

rimmed

cartridge.

Ranges:

Max

2,734yd ((2,500m);

effective- 1,422yd (1,300m).

Muzzle velocity:
2,725ft/s (830m/s).

Rate of

fire:

Semi-automatic
effective

Left:

30rpm;

4rpm.

Hungarian paratrooper with

Dragunov 7.62mm

Russian

54 sniper

rifle.

weapon

This

x
is

widely used by special forces of

the former

an

Warsaw

Pact and

effective, reliable,

is

and

accurate weapon, although one

disadvantage

is

that

it

uses

different

ammunition from other

rifles

the

in

squad.

139

Special Forces

L96A1

International
In

Sniper Rifle

the 1970s the British infantry used a mix of Lee Enfield

0.303in L42s and

variety of

rifles

7.62mm L4A Is,

while special forces used a

which had been acquired

at different

were

meet

specific needs. Virtually

rifles

adapted to meet snipers' requirements.

all

of these

times to

basically service

was therefore

It

decided to design and develop one weapon to replace

these and that

it

all

of

should be specifically designed for use by

snipers, not a modified service

rifle.

The

result

was

weapon

developed by Accuracy International, which, after extensive

was accepted for service as the L96AI sniper rifle.

The initial design was supplied to the British Army as the
L96AI between 984 and 990.Two very similar models were

trials,

exported as the

also

Above: The Accuracy

L96AI

PM 6x42

sniper

International

rifle,

with

fitted

telescopic sight. This

is

bolt-operated, single-shot

weapon

either

firing

7.62mm

NATO, .243 Winchester or .338

Lapua Magnum ammunition.

There

is

single

forward and a

a bipod
spike

in

the

butt,

which

PM

PM Counter

and the

Infantry

Terrorist to 19 other special forces and police.

A new

2,000+;
All

PSG-90/AW

models are

.338 Lapua

3,000+.

51mm NATO

available in 7.62 x

Magnum

calibers and the barrel can be

keys and a screw-driver.

The

rifle

adjustable legs which permit the

fitted

is

height to be varied

rifle

diameter and
it

fabricated

is

in five

Winchester and

minutes using three

with a modified Parker-Hale

between

8.5

LM6

gives a reduction

and I2in (216 and

in

sound pressure

is

8.5in

in

excess of 35dB. Where the sniper has to

the aim a retractable spike can be fitted to the butt, enabling the sniper

spend long periods

weapon

to maintain the aim without excessive fatigue. The magazine holds 10 rounds.

the

aim during a

in

alien

bipod, with

(216mm) long and l.6in (40mm) in

from non-magnetic stainless steel. Made by AWC of Phoenix,

304.8mm). The Thundertrap sound suppressor

Arizona,

(.308 Winchester), .243

changed

can be used to maintain the

in

version

was developed for the Swedish Army as the PSG-90, which

was also purchased by the Belgian, Canadian, Irish, New
Zealand, and Omani armies, and by several police forces. Total sales have been: L96/PM -

long wait.

Right: Traveling

sniper's outfit

with a brief case containing a

complete Accuracy International

Moderated

noise suppressed)

(ie,

Model PM,

firing

.308

Lapua

ammunition. The suppressor

is

'Thundertrap' manufactured
the

a
in

USA and gives a reduction

in

excess of 35dB.

Specifications
Origin:

Feed:

United Kingdom.

Bolt action.

Magazine

Type:
Sniper

Dimensions:
Length overall

45.8in (1,163mm); barrel

25.8in

Maximum

Effective Range:

1000yd (914m)

(655mm).

Rifling:

Weight:

20in (508mm), 1-12 twist, stainless steel barrel.

13.671b (6.20kg).

Sights:

Cartridge:

Schmidt and Bender 3-12x50 optical sight or iron

7.62 x

140

capacity:

10 rounds.

rifle.

51mm

NATO.

sights.

Weapons & Equipment

Left:

US Army sniper (center)

with

M24

7.62mm

Weapon System

Sniper

(SWS), which

NATO standard

fires

Slmm

ammunition.

Specifications
Origin:
United States.

Type:
Sniper

rifle.

Dimensions:
Overall length

48in

(1,219mm);

barrel

(609.6mm);

-24in

twist in 11.2in

(284.5mm).

Weight
Empty- 12.11b

(5.49kg).

Caliber:

51mm NATO

7.62 x

(.308

Winchester).

Operation:
Bolt action.

M24

Sniper Weapon System

Feed:
5-round internal magazine.

US Army's current sniper rifle is the M24 Sniper Weapon System (SWS).This boltaction weapon uses the Remington 700 action, a composite stock, aluminum bedding

The

Max

effective range:

875yd (800m).

block, adjustable butt plate, and a detachable bipod.

M40A1
The

Sniper Rifle

US Marine Corps'

current sniper

rifle

is

the

Specifications
Origin:

7.62mm M40AI which

Remington Model 700 which has been remanufactured by hand by

USMC

armorers

at

is

modified

United States.

specially trained

Type:

Quantico.Va.The M40AI has a heavy barrel made of competition-grade

Sniper

heavy barrel and a bolt action, and

is

equipped with

a special

Ox sniper scope.

rifle.

Dimensions:
Overall
barrel

-44in

17.6mm);

(1,1

24in (609.6mm).

Weight:
With scope -14.51b (6.58kg).

Cartridge:

7.62mm

51mm

(NATO)

(.308 Winchester).

Maximum

effective

range:
1,000yd (914m).

Muzzle

velocity:

2,550ft/s(777m/s).

Magazine

capacity:

5 rounds.

Left:

Range practice

for

US

Marine Corps sniper, firing the

M40AI, which

is

essentially

Remington 700 that has been

completely rebuilt by Corps'

armourers.

141

tonus

SPECIAI

M60

General-Purpose Machine Gun

US Army general-purpose

Right:

machine gun (GPMG) team

trains

urban warfare; note the blank-

in

firing

attachments on the muzzles

of

two weapons

the

picture.

The M60

is

in

the

a gas-

operated, belt-fed, air-cooled

weapon,

firing

NATO standard

7.62mm ammunition, which was

required to be used from a
bipod, as shown
tripod

in

here,

and from a

the sustained-fire

role.

Below: US paratrooper with the

greatly improved
original

M60

M60E3. The

suffered from

shortcomings, including a lack of

a gas-regulator, and to run-away
if

dirt

got into the mechanism.

The M60 was the standard GPMG of the US Army but

being replaced. The

weapon

is

is

now

gas-operated, air-cooled and

is

normally used with a IOO-round belt of ammunition. To avoid

overheating the barrel

been
sight

fired.
is

Its

normally changed after 500 rounds have

is

fore sight

is

of the fixed blade type and

of the U-notch type and

its

rear

graduated from about 656ft to

is

3,937ft (200 to 1,200m) in about 328ft (1 00m) steps.

The
weapon is provided with a stock, carrying handle and a built-in
bipod. The M60 can also be used on an Ml 22 tripod mount, M4
pedestal mount and M 42 gun mount for vehicles, Other versions
include the M60C remote for helicopters, M60D pintle mount for
vehicles and helicopters and the M60E2 internal model for AFVs.
The original M60 was not a complete success, perhaps
because too much was expected of a general purpose gun. This
1

inevitably

role

results

too

and

in

US

used extensively by

system that
the

for

light

forces

in

too heavy for the

is

heavy.

However, the

light

M60 was

Vietnam and, partly because of

the practical experience obtained there by regular and special

forces,
It

is

was improved considerably and issued

still

widely used and can be found

forces of Australia,

among

El

in

as the

service

in

the

others.

Specifications

United States.

Type:
General-purpose machine gun.

Dimensions:

Gun length
Weights:

(overall)

With bipod and gas

44.2in (1,105mm); barrel

cyclinder,

gun

22.4in (560mm).

23.11b (10.51kg); barrel

(3.74kg).

Caliber:

7.62mmx51mm (NATO

cartridge).

Effective ranges:

On bipod

Muzzle

1,100yd (1,000m); on tripod

velocity:

2,820ft/s (855m/s).

Rate of
Cyclic,

142

fire:

650rpm.

armed

Salvador, the Republic of Korea and Taiwan

Origin:

M60EI.

1,980yd (1,800m).

8.2lb

Weapons & Equipment

PK7.62mm General-Purpose Machine Gun

The

PK was introduced

Russian

into service

operated general-purpose machine gun

I960 and

in

is

(GPMG) which seems

a fully automatic, gas-

Specifications

to have been designed by

taking the best elements of other Russian weapons, including a Kalashnikov rotating bolt,

Goryunov

cartridge extractor and barrel-change, and Degtyarev feed system and trigger.

There are four known variants

-

PK without stock and with

PKS - PK on light

a vehicle);

sights

Origin:
Russian Federation.

in

the basic

PK

series:

revised trigger for use

tripod for sustained

PK

standard

a pintle

in

fire

or AA;

GPMG

PKB

on the roof of

gun.

Dimensions:

(eg,

Length overall

or stock and with trigger mechanism replaced by a solenoid.

The PKM

a later, lighter

is

weight reduced to

version of

8.51b (8.4kg). The

PK with

PKMS

is

bipod and a hinged butt

PKM

on

a tripod

Type:
General-purpose machine

vehicle version, without

mounting

PKT

with bipod;

and the

rest,

and with

PKB does not

(1,173mm);

barrel

45.7in

25.9in

(658mm).

have

Weights:
a stock.

Gun on bipod

The PK-series weapons are easy to handle, have little recoil, and do not tend to climb
when fired on automatic. They are also lighter, more reliable and easier to maintain than the
US M60, although their maximum effective range is some 109yd (1 00m) less. They are likely
to be found in any Russian or former Warsaw Pact army or special forces unit, as well as in
numerous

19.81b (9.0kg);

gun on

tripod 36.31b

(16.5kg).

Cartridge:
Russian 7.62 x 54R

full-

power, rimmed.

foreign armies.

Feed:

50/250 round

Rate of
Cyclic

650rpm;

belts.

fire:

practical

250rpm.

Maximum

effective

range:
1,093yd (1,000m).

Muzzle velocity:
2,707ft/s (825m/s).

Below: Another widely used

Russian machine gun, the
Above:

A PKMS

mounted on a
excellent

7.62mm GPMG
An

tripod.

weapon,

it

was

development

AK-47 assault

of the
rifle.

875yd (800m) and

Range
it

round drum magazines.

nwaw

'.

arms.

is

box or 70-

either 30-round

of other

small

is

uses

designed using the best features

Russian

RPK

7.62mm

143

Special Forces

5.56mm M249
Squad Automatic Weapon (saw)
When

the 5.56mm

every

man

6 (Armalite)

rifle

entered service during the Vietnam

maximum

the squad an automatic weapon, but with a

in

War

it

gave

effective range of

more than 330yd (300m). It was quickly realized, however, that both fire teams needed
weapon of greater all-round capability, but lighter than the contemporary 7.62mm M60 and
one which used the same ammunition as the riflemen. This gave rise to a US Army
requirement for a 5.56mm Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW), with the US Marine Corps
little

a
Below: The standard model FN

Minimi firing NATO standard

5.56x45mm ammunition. The

weapon shown here

with a 200-round plastic

magazine.

In

action, the

carrying-handle would be twisted

down

beside the body out of

way

the

joining the

of the

firer.

program

later.

After considering

fitted

is

"product

which was placed

in
in

all

in

US

in

the Western world, the

Belgian

production as the M249, with

Herstal, although a

the

weapons

suitable

development of the

improved"

US

line

Fabrique

initial

was subsequently

forces selected a

(FN)

"Minimi"

coming from the FN factory

supplies

established.

US

Nationale's

The product improvements

version include minor changes to the barrel, buffer, handguard, pistol grip, stock and

sights.

Specifications
Origin: Belgium.

Feed:

Type:

30-round box, or 100- or 200-round

Light

machine gun.

belts;
belt.

0.233in (5.56mm).

Ranges:

Dimensions:

Effective

Length overall
barrel

40.87in (1,038mm);

Gun empty,

with bipod and tools

Rate of

200-round box magazine: 6.921b

Cyclic

(3.14kg).

Rifling:

Cartridge:

The Minimi showing

its

various ammunition feed

systems. In the front

pattern

traditional

box, while between the

legs

is

bipod

a pre-loaded 200-round

plastic

box magazine. Aligned

underneath the weapon

belt,

is

30-round

which

is

issued

in

is

either

100- or 200-round lengths. The

weapon accepts

either magazines

or belts without any

modification.

144

45mm (NATO)/M193

miles (3.6km).

SS109-3,000ft/s(915m/s);M193

30-round magazine: 1.071b (0.49kg);

3.166ft/s(965m/s).

15.161b (6.88kg);

5.56mm

range against area target

1,093yd (1.000m);

maximum range: 2.23

Muzzle velocity:

18.4in (466mm).

Weights:

Right:

gas-operated, disintegrating link

Bore diameter:

fire:

- 725rpm;

6 grooves,
(US).

r/h.

sustained

--

85rpm.

Weapons & Equipment

The M249

is

smooth

in

operation and

with 200 rounds, bipod, sling and cleaning

less

and

than an empty M60.The

is

M249

is

kit

very
it

reliable. Fully

weighs

combat ready and complete

just 221b (9.97kg)

which

is

lb

can accept either magazine or belts without modification

normally fired from a bipod, although a tripod for the sustained-fire role

available. The

into either

a belt.

(0.4kg)

is

also

gunner normally carries 600 rounds of linked ammunition, which can be loaded

30-round magazines or pre-loaded 200-round

parachute model with a

sliding

plastic

magazines or fed trough as

stock and other modifications, such as a shorter

also available. This weapon is 35.5in (900mm) long with the stock extended and
(725mm) long with it folded. Overall weight is marginally greater: 5.71b (7.1kg)
compared to 5.21b (6.875kg).
barrel,

is

28.5in

Above: Paratroop

Minimi, which

version of the

number

has a

of

modifications, including shorter

stock (retracted

barrel, sliding

carrying-handle.

for

It

has the same

the standard version

as

facilities

in

and canted

picture)

this

either belt-fed, boxed

firing

or magazine-fed

NATO standard

5.56x45mm ammunition.

Leu:

the background

In

is

FN Mimimi with the stock

the retracted

position, with

two types

magazine

and a
is

the

of

in

on the gun.

belt

In

the
in

the
front
front

FNC (Fabnque Nationale

Carabine) a

5.56x45mm

(.223

Remington) weapon, which uses

Kalashmkov-type working parts
to

very smooth

provide

operation.

long

It

is

40in (102cm)

(30m [76cm] with stock

folded),

empty weight

8.4lb(3.8kg) and the

contains

30 rounds.

is

magazine
It

has been

adopted by Indonesia and

Sweden

145

Special Fokm.s

M2HB

0.50in Heavy Machine Gun

The

Specifications

Browning M2HB

quite simply

is

one of the greatest machine guns ever designed,

being efficient and very effective; easy to use and to maintain; and as suitable for

Origin:

on

installation in a tank turret as

ground tripod or an

aircraft. Further,

it

has been

in

front-

United States.

Like

Heavy machine gun.

Dimensions:
Length overall

(1,656mm);

65.2in

barrel

a large

range of widely available ammunition.

weapons, the design started with the cartridge. When the United States Army

all

France

1917

arrived

in

used

contemporary

in

is

in

found

it

rifles,

need for a machine gun

firing a larger

round than that

which was required not only for use against troops but also for

new tasks such as attacking tanks, balloons, and aircraft. It proved impossible to convert any
US weapon to take the 0.43in (I mm) round then being tested by the French, but at that
point the US Army happened to capture some new Mauser anti-tank rifles with their
ammunition. The excellence of the round was quickly recognized and a new United States

45in

service for five decades and there

line

Type:

(1,143mm).

Weight
Empty -84lb (38.15kg).

Cartridge:

was rapidly developed along the same lines. At the same time John Browning,
one of the most famous gunsmiths in history, was called in to develop a weapon to take this
new round, which resulted in the MI92IAI machine gun. The design was refined in the early
1930s which led to the M2, but this was limited by barrel life, and a new, much sturdier barrel
was quickly produced, resulting in the definitive M2HB (HB = heavy barrel).
The M2HB has seen service in fixed-wing aircraft; helicopters; a multitude of trucks and
0.50in cartridge

0.50 Browning (12.7 x

99mm).
Feed:
Short

recoil; disintegrating

link belt.

Rifling:

8 grooves, right hand.

field

Muzzle velocity:

Standard rounds

2,900ft/s

(883m/s); SLAP rounds

cars such as jeeps, Land Rovers, fast strike vehicles and

tanks.

has been manufactured

It

in

vast

numbers and

is still

HMMVWs; as

well as

widely used, since

its

APCs and

O.SOin high

round has both considerable range, greater carrying capacity than the 5.56mm

velocity

rounds

now

used

in rifles

and

light

machine guns, as well as great accuracy since

it is

highly

3,985ft/s(1,215m/s).

Rate of

resistant to
fire:

485-635rpm

Maximum
Standard rounds

is

widely available, having been manufactured

production

in

at least 10 of

in

range:

types) with

2,600yd

rounds.

(2,380m); SLAP rounds

drift.

The ammunition
is still

effective

wind

One

some

countries

of the

still

[883m/s]) giving

M2HB

machine gun post during

in

99

The only major change since

entered production
is

in

the

the

1.

it

1920s

the heavy barrel, which

replaced the earlier version

1930s.

It

fires

in

a O.SOin

(12.7mm) round, which

is

accurate and possesses

considerable hitting power, and

ammunition

is

widely available,

being manufactured

in

many

countries around the world.

146

some 30

countries, and

new

(ie,

different

0.50 caliber

most recent of these developments was the Saboted Light Armor

US Marine Corps in the middle and late 1980s.

This uses a sub-caliber (0.30in [7.62mm]) tungsten carbide penetrator carried

penetrator having a

Operation Desert Storm

in

also a vast range of natures

devoting research effort to producing

(12.7mm) sabot, which breaks away

US Army 0.50m

is

Penetrator (SLAP) round developed by the

1,640yd (1,500m).

Right:

them. There

it

much

as the

round exits from the muzzle. This

increased velocity (3,985ft/s [I,2l5m/s]

in a

results

compared to

a very flat trajectory, thus enhancing both hit probability

0.50in
in

the

2,900ft/s

and armor

Weapons & Equipment

SLAP rounds were used with great success during their operational debut in
in 1991. SLAP ammunition is completely interoperable with M2
machine guns, but requires one of the new type of chrome-plated, stellite-lined barrels.
penetration.

Operation Desert Storm

Upgrade

kits

are also being marketed, mostly concentrating on quick-change, longer-life

barrels fitted with noise suppressors. Indeed, the only challenge of any significance to the

M2HB

is

coming from the new heavy cannon, such

although these are very

much

as the

McDonnell Douglas ASP 30mm,

larger and considerably heavier.

Above:

A version

of

0.50in

of the

M2HB from Fabnque

Nationale

Belgium, featuring a quick-

change barrel (QCB) and a

number

of

Despite

its

minor improvements.
age,

much

effort

is

being put into refining the M2

developing a totally

rather than

new weapon,
good

at

its

since

it

once, the principle of

broke, don't

is

very

job and, just for

fix

it"

is

"if

it

ain't

being

applied.

147

Special Foh<

Grenades
Grenades

are A form of local artillery which range

in

purpose from high-explosive,

through fragmentation, stun and smoke, to illuminating.They are extremely valuable for
giving the individual soldier effective firepower,

under

his

own

control. They are easily carried

and are used by both terrorists and anti-terrorist forces. For hand grenades the only
criterion

but

this

that their lethal radius

is

does not apply to those

must be less than the distance an average man can throw,

from a grenade launcher.

fired

MkI9 40mm Machine Gun, Mod

The Mkl9 grenade launcher was developed to provide effective fire support weapon for US
Navy riverine patrols in Vietnam and has proved to be an outstanding success in both
offensive and defensive roles, delivering rapid and accurate firepower against enemy troops
and lightly armored vehicles. It is a gas-operated, air-cooled, belt-fed, blowback weapon, firing
a variety of 40mm grenades from 20- or 50-round magazines. A Product Improvement
Program (PIP) in the 1970s resulted in the current Mkl9 Mod3, which is more reliable and
simpler to maintain than earlier versions. The Mkl9 Mod 3 can be mounted on a ground
tripod, or

in

almost any vehicle, including

used by special forces

Above: The

Mk

19

Mod

grenade launcher mounted on a

HMMWV

("Hummer") vehide.
It

fires

dual-purpose

anti-personnel and anti-armor

1

2oz (340gm) grenades to a

range of

1,800 yards (1,650m).

Right:

Plamya

is

The Russian AGS-

launcher. Because of
it

(like

an automatic grenade

the US

Mk

its

19

weight,

Mod

3)

requires a vehicle for mobility.

148

in

combat

HMMWV, M

3FOV

and 5-ton trucks, and has been

situations such as the 1991 Gulf War.

30mm AGS-17 Plamya Automatic Grenade Launcher

The Plamya

(= flame)

anti-tank with

HEAT

is

a Russian-produced

weapon

(4-5m) radius; and a phosphorous round. The

cyclic rate of fire

weapon

is,

is

that fires small grenades of three types:

warhead; ant-personnel, containing iron needles

drum magazine

100 rounds per minute. Effective range

is

fatal

over a 4.4-5. 5yd

contains 30 rounds and the

770-870yd (700-800m).The

however, rather heavy, weighing 771b (35kg) including the tripod.

Weapons & Equipment

M203 40mm Grenade Launcher

The M203 was developed by the AAI Corporation to
meet a US Army requirement for a lightweight,
single-shot, breech-loading, pump-action, shoulderfired

weapon.

can be attached under the barrel of

It

any version of the

and

The M203

sight.

rifle,

fires a

own

trigger

wide variety of

40mm

and has

its

low-velocity grenades, including: high explosive; high-

explosive

are used.

and

buckshot; anti-armor; smoke;

airburst;

and

illuminating;

riot control.

The primary

Two

sighting systems

sight consists of an aperture

has ranges marked on a

The secondary sight is a folding,
sight, mounted on the forestock, and

system, and

post

quadrant

scale.

graduated, lead

which uses the

foresight blade as a front-

rifle's

M203s

aiming reference.

US

widely used by

are

forces, including SEALs, Delta and Rangers, as well as

by many foreign forces.

RGD-5
Widely used

the former Warsaw Pact, the Russian

in

RGD-5 comprises
housed

2.42oz

serrated

in

surrounded by
weighs 0.681b

HE

lOg)

(I

fragmenting

charge,

which

liner,

a thin, sheet-steel casing.The

and

(3 lOg)

2.2in

is

(56mm)

is

grenade

diameter.

in

RKG-3M
The RKG-3M was the standard hand-thrown antiarmor grenade of the former Warsaw Pact forces. It comprises
a 2.2in (55.6mm) diameter hollow-charge (HEAT) warhead,
containing

1.

241b (567g) of explosive, housed

and mounted on

wooden

RKG-3M

hollow charge but

by a copper

metal case

handle which also contains a

drogue parachute. The earlier RKG-3 had

inside the

in

this

a steel liner

was replaced

the

in

grenade

(125mm) to 6.5in (1 65mm). When

thrown the drogue automatically

deploys,

is

arming

completing the

thus

ensuring that the grenade

hits

clips

and has

its

launches a
to

M203 launcher

underneath the MI6

own

trigger.

40mm

maximum

rifle

It

grenade out

range of 380

yards (350m).

which increased armor

liner,

penetration from 5in

the

Above: The

the target

process

armor

and

plate as

near to the optimum 90 degrees as possible.

Left:

Haley

&

Weller's

El

82

multi-burst stun grenade, a

disorientating grenade employing

high
It

candela and decibel

levels.

weighs just over 7;lb

(250gm).

Haley & Weller EI82 Stun Grenade

When conducting anti-terrorist operations in closed
spaces such as rooms, cabins or aircraft, anti-terrorist
forces quickly found that explosions and flashes of light

the

disoriented

terrorists,

but

fragmentation grenades were

alternative was, therefore, found

which are designed to emit

"stun" grenades,

in

a loud

(104mm)
a ring

is

2.2in

(50mm)

An

unsuitable.

explosion but to

cause minimal damage. Typical of these

Weller El 82, which

conventional

that

highly

in

is

the Haley

diameter,

4.

&
in

is on
way and on being

long and weighs 9oz (250g).The safety-pin

which

thrown the

is

pulled

firing lever

in
is

the normal

released but does not

grenade contains a small electric

cell

and the

fly

off.The

firing lever

closes a circuit, which, after a 0.5sec time delay, then

initiates

the main 0.4oz (I2g) charge. This releases

sub-munitions, the

first

16

of which detonates after 2sec,

followed by the others at 3-4sec intervals. Each sub-

munition explodes with a very loud noise and emits a 22

million candela flash.

149

Special Fok<

RPG-7V AT Rocket Launcher

THE STANDARD ANTI-ARMOR WEAPON of Russian
infantry, the RPG-7 replaced an earlier
weapon derived from the World War German
II

Panzerfaust which merely fired a hollow-charge

tube. The
weapon was
introduced in 1962 and was known simply as
the RPG-7. The RPG-7V is a later variant which
made its appearance in 1968.
RPG-7V fires a projectile which, a few feet

from

projectile

shoulder-rested

and heavier, version of

original,

beyond the muzzle,

this

ignites an internal

rocket to

give shorter flight-time, flatter trajectory and

better accuracy.

improved
I2.6in

7V

The HEAT or HE warhead

fuzing, the

(320mm)

HEAT

of armor.The

PGO-7 and PGO-

optical sights are frequently

by the NSP-2 (IR) night

has

round penetrating to

sight.

supplemented

There

is

also a

special folding version used by airborne troops,

designated RPG-7D.

During the Cold

War

this

launcher was

standard issue for Soviet Union and

Pact forces

as well as forces

North Vietnam, and other

Even
troops,

in

it is

in

satellite countries.

the hands of unskilled and

known

Warsaw

North Korea,
illiterate

to be highly effective against

bunkers and buildings, troops, vehicles of

types,

and

even

helicopters

when

all

properly

employed. Like many other Soviet weapons, the

Warhead

Hollow charge

Propellant charge

Spring loaded

foms

Thrust ducts
Above: The

projectile

fired

from the RPG-7V anti-tank

rocket launcher, showing the
fins

out

at the

when

it

rear which flick

leaves

the tube.

PGO-7

sight

Weapons & Equipment

Specifications
Origin:
Russian Federation.

Type:
Rocket launcher.

Dimensions:
Length

(990mm).

38. Sin

Weights:
Launcher- 151b
grenade

((7kg);

4.951b (2.25kg).

Caliber of tube:

40mm.
Caliber of projectile:

85mm.
Effective ranges:

Moving target

328yd

(300m); stationary target

550yd (500m).

Mass of

projectile:

4.951b (2.25kg).

Muzzle velocity:
984ft/s (300m/s).

Far

At one

left::

time issued to

former Soviet special forces and

Warpac

regular troops of

RPG-7V

nations, the

less

is

nowadays against

effective

modern tank armor, but

is

nevertheless a devastating

weapon

hands

the

in

and

guerrillas

own

their

inducer

version

rocket launcher,

RPG-7V was

widely distributed to and

organizations and
internal conflicts

it

is

is still

used by a variety of guerrilla and subversive

hardly possible to see a photograph or telecast concerning small

without being able to pick them out, slung casually from the bearer's

shoulder with the body of a rocket protruding menacingly from the top.

appeared

Ulster

in

in

the hands of the Provisional IRA, but do not

few even

seem to have been

used with any great success.

A new
L

RPG-7 in the Russian Army

other hands for many years to come.

in

in

the 1980s, but

weapon designated RPG-16

RPG-7 will doubtless be used

of

RPG

the

known

the

as

Type 56 grenade launcher, the

grenade being the Type 50.

Both

and the RPG-7 were

this

developed from the RPG-2,

derived from

German

disposable, single-shot, man-portable anti-tank

replaced the

made

have

Above The Chinese

Spin

of

terrorists.

is

the World

itself

War

II

RPG-7V

Panzerfaust. The

a small, lightweight anti-tank

weapon with
grenade

punch. The

big

percussion-fired, the

is

rocket motor igniting after 33

(10m). As the grenade

feet

fins

At

toward the rear

the

small
of

is

from the tube, four large

fired

roll

flick

very end of the

offset

to

fins

give slow

maintain

out.

weapon
rate

stability.

151

Special Forces

Stinger FIM-92 B/C

Grolnid-to-Air Missile System
Right below: US

soldier

on

STINGER was

Stinger FIM-92C

Man-Portable Air

Defense System (MANPADS). The

gunner acquires the target

and interrogates

visually

On

(nend-or-foe.
missile

launched and

is

it

ejected

is

from the tube by a small eject

motor, which carries

a safe

to

it

distance where the main

propulsion motor

(man-portable
capability for

fires.

defense system) the

air

new

missile

missile.

the

1970s as a

Designated FIM-92

MANPADS

was intended

in

to provide an air defense

even the smallest detachment, such as an infantry platoon or

a special forces

patrol.
In a

as

lock-on, the

US Army and US Marine Corps

developed for the

replacement for the first-generation Redeye

Operation Desert Storm with

ground-air engagement the Stinger gunner acquires the target

with the

latest,

acquire targets at night or

device, which,

The

in

equipped

bad weather. The gunner then operates the friend-or-foe

gunner by an audio

missile then informs the

is

if

(IFF)

confirms hostile status, allows the missile seeker to lock-on to the target.

if it

signal that

it

has locked-on and the gunner

then presses the launch button, activating the eject motor which

(burn-out

visually, or,

third-generation sight, by use of an image intensifier, which enables him to

completed before the

fires in a

very short burst

missile leaves the launch tube), propelling the missile out

of the tube.

Specifications
Origin:
United States.

Type:
Man-portable

defense

air

system (MANPADS).

Dimensions:
Missile length 60in

(1,524mm); body diameter

2.75in (69.8mm); wing span

(166mm).

0.5in

Weight
Launch

22.3lb (10.1kg);

package

35lb (15.6kg).

Propulsion:

Two

stage; solid propellant

eject motor; solid propellant

boost/sustainer motor.

Guidance:

Stinger

optical aiming;

passive IR homing;
Stinger

POST - dual mode

On

infra-red/ultraviolet (IR/UV).

Maximum
In

circuit

Flight speed:

Mach

Supersonic, about

1.7.

the missile

is

is

at a safe distance the boost/sustainer

missile accelerates to

It

Stinger
fragmentation; with smooth

is

fragmenting casing; impact

the empty tube

fuze.

is

it is

the fuzing

Mach

cruise speed of approximately

it

miss there

is

1.7.

proportional

a self-destruct capability.

stored and issued as a certified round of ammunition

tube. When required

two movable)

fires,

can be fired from any angle relative to the target and has

a very high hit probability, but should

high-explosive

its

fixed,

motor

energy emitted by the target and computes

IR

navigation course to intercept.

Warhead:
Magnavox

when

armed and the

The missile homes on

excess of 3.1 miles (5km).

(two

leaving the tube the four spring-loaded control surfaces

deploy and

effective range:

in a

sealed storage/launch

attached to the gunner's sighting/aiming unit and following launch

discarded and another one

fitted.

The tubed

missile requires

no

field

maintenance.
Stinger has been adapted for launch from helicopters for self-protection (for example,
Far

RiGHt:

A US Army Airborne

trooper ready to launch Stinger.

The missile homes on infra-red

(IR)

energy emitted by the

or rotary-

target, (either fixed-

winged) and

flies

proportional

navigational

intercept

such manual

course. Apart from

launches, the widely used and

successful Stinger can

be launched

from pedestal mounts

in

or small ships, and from

helicopters.

It

is

on

used by several
special

152

vehicles
rails

forces.

by AH-64) and from pedestal mounts on vehicles such as

Mount Stinger (PMS) on its eight-wheeled LAV

The two current versions of this system
technique), and Stinger
in

1987 and uses

RMP

dual

RMP

are: Stinger

POST

(passive optical seeker

(reprogrammable microprocessor). Stinger Post entered service

mode IR/UV

countermeasures, and background

Stinger

HMMWV The USMC uses Pedestal

vehicles.

(entered service

seeker to improve performance against decoys,

clutter.
in

1988 and uses the Stinger

POST

seeker, but with an

added digital information processing system, incorporating an external

reprogramming function, thus enabling software changes to be made to meet

software
a

changing

threat.

Well over 50,000 Stingers are

in

service with

many

nations including: Germany,

Israel,

was also used with some success by the British in the Falklands War. The Stinger system has been used in combat by the
mujahideen in Afghanistan, the British SAS in the Falklands, as well as in Nicaragua and Angola.
Italy,

Japan, Netherlands, Saudi Arabia.Turkey, and the

USA.

It

Weapons & Equipment

\
Left: Stinger

missile

away, propelled by

Research

Mk 27

powers
Atlantic

its

booster/

sustamer rocket motor. Top

speed

is

approximately Mach

range

is

in

excess

of

3.

(5km), and the missile

sufficiently

2,

miles

is

maneuverable

to

counter any jinking by

the target.

153

Sim

Forces

\i

AGM-114

Hellfire Anti-tank Missile

Elite and

special FORCES are likely to be used

in

advance of other troops where they

will

be vulnerable to attack by enemy armored vehicles, such as tanks, armored cars and

armored personnel

carriers.

Lynx..

TOW

is

It

most

protection, of which the

is

some

therefore essential that they should have

flexible

already widely used

is

anti-tank

an attack helicopter such as the AH-64, AH-I or

but Hellfire

in this role,

is

much

faster

and has

more

powerful warhead.

The
target

latest version

is

aircraft.

The

control the
Below: One of the primary

weapons systems

for

the US

Army's AH-64D Apache longbow

is

the

which

AGM-II4
1

Hellfire

II,

of

6 are seen under the

stub wings of this aircraft. Using

millimetre wave
radar, the

Hellfire

(MMW) band
II

gives the

AH-640's crew a 'fire-and-forget'

capability

and enables them

attack targets

in

rain,

to

snow, fog

and smoke. The missile has a

tandem warhead, enabling

it

to

attack armoured vehicles

protected by 'reactive armor.'

154

it

is

Hellfire

which

II,

is

based on the earlier Laser

Hellfire, in

which the

"designated" by a laser aimed by the launching aircraft, ground observers or other

missile seeker then
flight.

The

homes on

the reflection, using four canard surfaces to

missile can also be launched

either follows a line of sight or a

programmed

without target acquisition,

trajectory, until a target has

in

which case

been acquired.

is powered by a single-stage, solid-propellant motor which accelerates the

some lOg until it reaches its maximum speed of some 950mph 1, 52km/h). Arming
takes place some 500- 1, 000ft (l50-300m) from the aircraft.The missile is fitted with tandem
warhead, which enables it to defeat the latest "reactive armor." The missile can also be used

The

missile

missile at

against concrete bunkers.

The Longbow

Hellfire missile provides the

AH-64D

with a "fire-and-forget" anti-armor

poor weather conditions. The Longbow Hellfire fire control

radar works in the millimeter wave (MMW) band and will locate, classify, and prioritize
targets for the Longbow Hellfire missile. The Longbow system will be integrated into both
the Apache attack helicopter and the Comanche armed reconnaissance helicopters.
missile

which can be used

in

The advantages of the Longbow

and smoke;

MMW

missile include a capability to operate in rain, snow, fog

countermeasures

survivability;

and "fire-and-forget" guidance, which

Apache Longbow to launch and then return to cover, thus minimizing exposure
to enemy fire. The missile also has an advanced warhead capable of defeating reactive armor

allows the

Weapons & Equipment

Specifications
Origin:
United States.

Type:
Heli-borne anti-armor
missile.

Lengths:
-

Active seeker version

70.4in (1.78m); laserseeker version

64.6in

(1.64m).

Diameter:
(178mm).

7in

Wing

span:

(330mm).

13in

Propulsion:
Morton Thiokol TX-657
single-stage, solid
propellant, smokeless

rocket motor.

Warhead:
and

its

software

is

reprogrammable, thus enabling

Firestone
it

to be adapted to changing threats.

tandem

conical

charges, 161b (7.25kg);

Delivery of the

service missiles began

first

in

September 1984 and known versions of the

impact fuze.

Hellfire include:

AGM-I
AGM-I

AGM-

Launch weight

I4A, no longer

in

service.

4C, with

low smoke motor, lower trajectory and an improved semi-active

seeker with an improved low

AGM-I
AGM-I

105.61b (47.88kg).

I4B, designed for shipboard use with additional electronic arm/safety device.

I4F,

Speed:

Mach 1.17-950mph

laser

(1,530km/h).

visibility capability.

Range:

with a tandem warhead to defeat vehicles equipped with reactive armor.

I4K, with

the

same tandem warhead

countermeasures hardening, semiactive

as

the

laser seeker,

and

-F
a

but

with

4.5 miles (7,000m).

electro-optical

programmable autopilot for

trajectory shaping.

RBS-17, Swedish designation for the Hellfire used

in

the ground-based coastal defense

role.

Above

Hellfire

the

UK

is

in

with the

service

in

the USA, the Netherlands and Sweden, and

AH-64D Apache Longbow.

will

enter service

in

left:

An early model
showing the

missile,

Hellfire

semi-active laser

homing head

and four steerable canard

surfaces, which
missile

in

control

flight.

package

electronics

the

Behind the nose

is

the

tandem warhead, with an impact

fuze.

Left:

of

A Westland Longbow Apache

the

British

showing
Hellfire

its

II

Army

Air Corps,

weapons load

missiles. These

armed, well-equipped

of

well-

aircraft

have great potential for the

support of special forces and for

special

operations of their own.

155

SPLUAL

F()K(

High Mobility Multi-purpose

Wheeled Vehicle (hmmwv)
Specifications
Origin: United

States.

Type:
High mobility, multi-purpose,

wheeled

vehicle.

Dimensions:
Length- 15ft (4.57m); width
-

7.08ft (2. 16m); height

6.00ft (1.83m) [can be

reduced to 4.5ft (1.37m)).

Engine:
General Motors

6. 5l;V-8;

liquid-cooled, diesel, with

fuel-injection;

50hp

at

3,600rpm.
Drive:

4 x

3-speed, automatic

4;

transmission; 2 speed,
locking, chain driven transfer.

Transmission:

The High

Allison, fully-automatic; 3

Mobility Multi-Purpose

"Hummer" or "Hum-V")

speeds forward/ 1 reverse.

importance

units. Its

is

Wheeled

Vehicle

the workhorse of the

lies in its light

(HMMWV)

US armed

(popularly

forces and

is

weight and small size which enable

known

found
it

in

as the

most

elite

to be parachuted

Transfer:

or air-landed into operational areas, while

Permanently-engaged

wheel

with integral

drive,

transfer case.

volt;

60 amps.

was the outcome of an

(89km/h), governed at

-ton pick-up;

M56 Gama Goat

1

The

HMMWV

is

Fording depth:
carriers;
2.5ft

(0.76cm); with deep water

fording kit- 5ft (1.5m).

Ground

loaded.

Fuel:

25 gallons

Diesel;

(94.631).

Road range (maximum):

350

percent; side slope

Above:

60

- 40deg.

HMMWV "Hummer"

armed

TOW

missile

with a tank-busting
system. The
a large

limits:

slope (grade)

-ton

number

The

Right:

of

vehicle

replaced

different

Hummer

types.

provides a

platform for a wide variety of

missiles, including

the Avenger

system, seen here.

Hummer armed

Far

right

Mk

19

The

Hummer

40mm

with a

grenade launcher.
range provides the

standard vehicle platform for

four US Services and

new

all

uses

are regularly being found.

156

command and

HMMWV

is

all

four

US

can carry

M274-ton Mule;

"Jeep;"

M792

-ton ambulance.

fought, the eventual winner

services for roles which include: cargo and troop

control; shelter carriers;

powered by

weapons

platforms; and ambulances.

The

General Motors V-8 diesel engine, and has automatic transmission

and permanently-engaged, four-wheel

Additional

armor

is

fitted to the

an up-armored version, produced

drive.

Many versions

in

weapons and

of the

HMMWV

are equipped

TOW

missile carriers,

and the Ml 109

is

limited quantities, mainly for use by Scout Platoons.

Other versions carry the AN/TRC-170 Radio

Stinger missile system.

miles (563km).

Slope

Maximum

it

with a self-recovery, 6,0001b (2,722kg) capacity

clearance:

(406mm)

16in

that

required to provide the standard vehicle platform for a whole series of

vehicles for

light tactical

preparation

MI5l-ton

articulated vehicle; and the

vast

gross weight.

No

means

early 1980s competition for a new, all-purpose,

numbers to be ordered, the competition was hard

being American Motors, General Division.

With

Speed:

55mph

HMMWV

The

M8780

negative earth

(ground);

large carrying capacity

heavy weapons.

relatively

field-car to replace a variety of light vehicles, including:

Electrics:

24

its

all-

Digital

Terminal and the pedestal-mounted

Weapons & Equipment

New
the

developments

The

and among current US

Army

are:

Advanced Scout
System #3 (LRAS3), which

Type

Rz.

Payload

Kerb weight

M998

Cargo/troop carrier

2 + 8 or

7,7001b (3,492kg)

Long-Range

Surveillance

incorporates forward-looking

0.50,0. o

Ml 038

Cargo/troop
with winch

Ml 025

Armament

infrared

(FLIR).TV camera, laser rangefinder and

GPS, mounted on

HMMWV, which

carrier,

carrier

Mk
MI044

Armament

carrier;

weapons.

The Line of Sight Anti-tank (LOSAT)

weapon system which will consist of a
kinetic energy weapon launcher with
four missiles, mounted in an expanded-

MI046

TOW

TOW
TOW

capacity

HMMWV

of

with the mission of

other

and

bunkers

early entry forces with

.Mini-ambulance

weapon.

The

M3I

provide

roll-on/off

Biological

sample,

battlefield

M3I

BIDS,

Integrated

(BIDS), which

detect

biological

M997

Maxi-ambulance

launcher

missiles

8,3801b (3,801kg)

launcher + missiles

8,4001b (3,810kg)
8,3801b (3,801kg)

comb

natior

litter patients,

or

9.1001b (4,128kg)

8 ambulatory patients,

or combination

Ml 035

Soft-top ambulance

Ml 037

Shelter carrier

Crew +

litter

"-:c

Ml 042

Ml 097

and

warfare

can

identify

(BW)

MI097AI
Ml 109

BIDS team consists of an

a

9 grenade launcher

litter patients.

;''

Shelter carrier; with winch

Cargo/troop carrier
!'r

agents. Each

8,4001b (3,810kg)

7,7001b (3,493kg)

patients

3,6001b (1,633kg)

8,6601b (3,928kg)

ihe'ier

Crew +

3,6001b

,633kg)

i.htZ-z '3 92B-.|

inc shelter

System

Detection

,50in

or 6 ambulatory patients

an air-mobile

droppable,

parachute

assault

The

targets.

HMMWV-based LOSAT would

monitor,

with winch

advanced AFVs, helicopters,

defeating

and

M996

carrier,

MG or
HMG or

M60 7.62mm

TOW carrier

those

range

the

outside

8,2001b (3,719kg)

9 grenade launcher.

Ml 035

from

MG or
HMG or

.50in

M2
Mk

night,

7,7001b (3,492kg)

M60 7.62mm

with winch

direct fire weapons, by day or

0~r

2 + 8 or

M2

will

enable reconnaissance units to locate

HMMWV

Summary of Main Current Types of

uses are contantly being found for

HMMWV

high-mobility

purpose wheeled

vehicle

Cargo/troop earner,

2 + 8 or
4,5751b (2.075kg)

Up-armored armament

M60 7.62mm MG or
M2 .50m HMG or
Mk 19 grenade launcher

carrier

support vehicle, and four soldiers, and

towed I5kv trailer-mounted generator.

10,0001b (4,536kg)

with winch

multi-

(HMMWV)

2 + 8 or
4,5751b (2,075kg)

!ea.\-

Up-armored Armament
carrier,

with winch

n/k

MG or
HMG or

M60 7.62mm

M2
Mk

.50in
1

n/k

n/k

9 grenade launcher

157

M'K

FORCLS

IAL

BMD-3
Airborne Infantry Fighting Vehicle (AIFV)
requirements for
Two
the
move
to

ability

and

around the

requirement by

this

converting standard military vehicles

but the Soviet

Army developed

battlefield

armored counter-

against

Western armies meet

attacks.

rill!

defense

provide

to

parachute-landed force are

rapidly

HMMWV)

(eg,

series of vehicles

airborne forces. The basic vehicle

specifically for the

was the "Boevaya Mashina Desantnya - I" (BMD-I) (=

airborne combat vehicle), which was first seen by
Westerners in the November 1973 Red Square parade.

BMDDespite

its

smoothbore gun,
and

produced some excellent fighting

vehicles which were widely

the West.

in

problem was that

airborne forces, armed

73mm

with a

carry five

BMD- was

(NATO

= Sagger)

aircraft,

it

both

and

agile

BMD-

fast.

two other versions. First was BMD- KShM, a commandBMD-I except for the installation of two radio sets, an extra

external antenna, and a petrol generator; the turret

firing

although a practical

took some time for the section to assemble after the drop.

the base vehicle for

paratroops, and was

fully

usually

post vehicle identical with

air-droppable, highly mobile

on land, and

it

had an excellent power-to-weight ratio (32hp per ton) making

LP gun, three

MGs and an ATGW, which could

also

Malutka

while a further

be dropped by parachute from any type of military transport

One such

was the BMO-I AIFV, designed

for the

9MI4M

a launchrail for

two 7.62mm PKT MGs were mounted in the glacis plate. The
paratroops in the rear compartment could use their weapons, with one firing port in each
side, while the others fired their personal weapons from the roof hatch. The vehicle could

ATGMs,

Above: Soviet-era designers

admired

BMD-I bristled with weapons.

armament comprised a 73mm
7.62mm PKT coaxial machine gun

small size

Turret-mounted

MGs

was retained but the bow

and side

ports were faired over. Second was BTR-D, an armored personnel carrier (APC)

on BMD-I parts but with a longer

hull and one more road-wheel on each

armament being confined to two bow-mounted MGs. BTR-D
was also the basis of a number of further vehicles, including: remotely piloted vehicle (RPV)
control post; artillery observation post; artillery fire-control center; BTR-RD armored
personnel carrier fitted with Fagot ATGMs; command-and-communications vehicles;
ambulances; and an armored recovery vehicle (BREM-D).

derivative, based

amphibious.

side;

it

did not have a turret,

Specifications
Origin: Russian Federation.

BMD- IP

BMD.?

Max

ED SERVICE

1969

BTR-D

BMD-2

1974

1980

7.87tons
(8.000kg)

7.87tons

BMD-3

7.38tons
(7,500kg)

7.48tons
(7.600kg)

>E

2+5

14

2+1

37mph (60km/h)
6mph (9km/h)

37mph (60km/h)

37mph (60km/h)
6mph (9km/h)

37mph (60km/h)
6mph (9km/h)

43mph (70km/h)

22mph (35km/h)

22mph (35km

22mph (35km/h)

22mph (35km/h)

28mph

310 miles (500km)

310 miles (500km)

(8.000kg)

2.7tons
.

'

ROAD

J
Range

(km)

miles

(500km)

miles

(500km)

(45k

310 miles (500km)

Weapons:

atgm
Coax

launcher

MG
MG

73mm 2A28
9MI4M Malyutka

73mm 2A28
9M
Konkurs

30mm AP 2A42
9M
Konkurs

7.62mm PKT
2x7.62mm PKT

7.62mm PKT
2x7.62mm PKT

2x7.62mm PKT

7.62mm PKT
2x7.62mm PKT

240hp

240hp

240hp

240hp

450hp

mechanical

mechanical

mechanical

mechanical

hydromechanical
with hydrostatic

l00-450mm

IOO-450mm

30mm AP 2A42
9MI
Konkurs
7.62mm
1

5.45 RPKS-74

30mm AG-

I-

TRANS'-

steenng

IOO-450mm
SUSPENSIONS.
-3LE

CLEARANCE

158

GROUND

00-450mm

30-530mm

Weapons & Equipment

Above

BMD-2
Combat experience

armament mounted was too weak,

leading to development of the BMD-2 (1985) armed with a stabilized 30mm 2A42 automatic
gun, which could fire against both ground and air targets. BMD-2 was also fitted with a
launcher rail for 9MII3 and 9MIII ATGMs. A command version, BMD-2K, was also
in

showed

Afghanistan

that the main

developed.

entered service

can be dropped with the

is

full

claimed to be highly

when

the assembly time

BMD-3

It

is

amphibious, being propelled

fully
in

(DZ).

water at up

by two

to

6mph (lOkmh)

hydrojets; the

circular flap

covering one of these can be

Above right: Paratroops have

BMD-3 which
it

away

drives

seen on the rear plate.

BMD-3

This

BMD-I

left:

from the dropping zone

has

in

1990

crew

reliable,

totally

is

its

most dramatic

inside the vehicle, using the

they parachute

down
fit,

attribute being that

PBS-950 parachuting system.

while the fact that the crew

very heavy weapons

new,

is

individually.

30mm 2A42

The BMD-3 uses

new power

train,

hydromechanical

transmission.

In

combat compartment.

with a

performance over BMD-I

in

addition,

new

there

is

table), driving

new

type

of

through a

new

hydropneumatic

suspension, which enables the driver to alter the vehicle's height without leaving his seat.
Dual-mode periscope

"Sagger"ATGM

vehicle.

of this

turret

Sagger
coaxial

remarkable vehicle. The

mounts a

ATGW

73mm

LP gun, a

launcher and a

7.62mm PKT machinegun,

while a further two fixed

are

mounted

controlled

in

the glacis

by a gunner

PKTs
plate,

who

sits

beside the driver. Note also the

diesel engine giving a considerable

and -2 (see

no

exiting over the sides

Below: Cutaway shows the interior

comprising a turret-mounted

9PI35M Konkurs ATGM launcher (four missiles),

while in the glacis plate are a 30mm AG- 7 grenade launcher (on the driver's left) and a
5.45mm RPKS-74 light machine gun (on the driver's right), both mounted in ball-joints. The
BMD-3 hull is of all-welded aluminum construction and all seats are suspended from the roof
(as opposed to being mounted on the floor) to give the crew protection against mine
injuries. The inside is much roomier and the vehicle has full collective NBC protection using

improvement

of the

in

already together cuts out

automatic gun with twin-belt feed, and

a filter-ventilation unit to overpressurize the

difficulty

RPG-7

missiles

the

inside

turret,

reloads for the man-portable

launcher carried by one of the

infantry squad. The
of this

members

squad enter and leave the

Whitelight searchlight
vehicle via overhead

hatches;

there are no rear doors.

73mm

Episcope

gun
Fuel tank

IMG

Bow gunner
seat

^^V^Z
^/

*^*

Driver

Drive sprocket

position

Spent case bin

Gunner seat

Pneumatic damper

Engine

Hydrojet

159

Spkial Foiu

is

Land Rover Pefender/Pe r entie

Above; The air-portable

Special

Operations Vehicle (SOV), which

Defender 4x4

Land

parachute,

Defender

10

carry a mix of

51mm

mortar,

based on the

is

chassis,

and can

30mm

cannon,

WW

7.62mm

80,

general-purpose machine gun,

5.56mm

assault

40mm

rifles,

grenade

and

pistols.

Rover multi-purpose

cargo vehicles have been

light

1950s, with military versions being produced

can also be dropped by

The
90,

military model, the Defender,

I

10,

and

is

produced

30, respectively.The latest,

and Defender

I0XD (XD = eXtra

in

large

in

in

production since the early

numbers

many armed

for

forces.

three basic versions, designated Defender

90XD

product-improved versions are the Defender

Duty).

Various Defender models are produced for special forces, the most widely used being
the Defender Special Operations Vehicle (SOV), which employs a Defender

with a cut-down superstructure.

those

for:

30mm

cannon,

51mm

It

mortar,

LAW

80, general-purpose

up to

six including the driver

launchers.

air-transportable

flexible,

reaction

forces.

It

minutes to serve
Milan

mount; personnel

The

XD

Defenders

mounted

underneath

only

external

louvers and the

virtually a

is

rapid

multi-purpose

range looks from the outside

it

by

adapted within

ring

carrier; cargo carrier.

(the

air

intended as

pedestal-mount weapons carrier;

as:

missile-launcher;

anti-tank

be

to

is

use

for

vehicle

designed

is

Crew

and commander.

The Multi-Role Combat Vehicle (MRCV)

a

10 chassis, but

machine guns (12.7mm,

7.62mm or 5.56mm), and 40mm grenade

is

can be fitted with a host of small-arms mounts, including

new

like

differences

standard

wing-

are

rear lamp clusters), but

vehicle, with redesigned

body, suspension, suspension bushes, mountings, chassis,

and

Goodyear

axles, while

7.50x16

tire.

has produced a totally

new

Innovations include longitudinal girders with

built-in seat-belt

anchorages and beefed-up overhead bars

which

provide

roll-over

cage

rather

than

simply

supporting the canopy.

One

version, the

Vehicle (APV), looks

is

precisely

what

is

Defender
like

CAV

00 Armored Patrol

an innocuous cargo truck

intended.

In

many

which

tactical situations,

particularly special forces operations in a

non-wartime

environment, the media and agitators are quick to use the

Above: Defender

Armored
profile

IIOXD Composite

Vehicle

(CAV)

is

a low-

personnel carrier with

glass-reinforced

plastic

armor

protection against small arms

fire

and grenade fragmentation.

160

tracked or heavy wheeled armored personnel carriers to escalate the situation.

The Defender APV overcomes this since, although it appears to be unaggressive, it is in fact
protected by a new Courtauld-made armor, which uses high-performance glass-reinforced
composites to give better protection than the equivalent steel armor but with 20 percent
less weight.The wind- and sidescreens are made of multi-laminate glass with a polycarbonate
arrival of

inner

liner.

Weapons & Equipment

Perentie 6x6

named the

modified version of the Land Rover 4x4,

Perentie,

was developed

Australia.

in

It

was generally

similar to the British design but with modifications to suit

conditions,

Australian

including

4BDI

transmission and the Isuzu

engine.
is

further development

is

new,

4-speed

3.9L 4-cylinder diesel

the Perentie 6x6, which

unique and somewhat larger and heavier Australian

design, with the

same

4BDI

Isuzu

engine, but

turbocharged. Front suspension

it is

live

employs two

springs, while the rear bogie

a load-sharing

by

is

case

in this

axle and coil-

leaf springs

rocker on each side. Tires are 750R 6LT

1

and
1

0-

(Dunlop-Olympic Steeltrek 105) on 6Fxl6 rims. The

long-range patrol/special forces vehicle is open and

ply

without doors, and

is

fitted-for-radio (FFR)
a

machine gun

lighter than the

and standard

mounting, and

mounted on brackets on the

normal Perentie.

fittings

It is

include a winch,

250cc

motor-cycle

rear bulkhead.

Two

spare

wheels are recessed into the bodywork.

Above:

Specifications

A Perentie 6x6 long-range

patrol vehicle. Note

Transmission:

United Kingdom.

Origin:

Type:

Permanent 4-wheel drive through 5-speed manual,

High mobility, multi-purpose, wheeled vehicle.

all-synchromesh gearbox and 2-speed transfer via

Dimensions:

central lockable differential; 10 forward, 2 reverse

Lengths: Defender 90
-

12.7ft (3.9m); Defender

14.4ft (4.4m); Defender

Perentie 6x6 LRP (Long

130

Range

Patrol)

19.7ft

Live

Widths: 90, 100, and 130

Cab

heights: 90, 110,

Wheelbases: 90
-

5.9ft (1.8m); Perentie

and 130

130

7.9ft (2.4m);

10.5ft (3.2m); Perentie

with

Electrics:

10

6x6 LRP

9.2ft (2.8m);
-

No

6,723lb (3,050kg);

7,7161b (3,500kg); Perentie 6x6 LRP

7.5in

Engines:

-21 gals (80

Performance:

variety: 2.5cc petrol (4 in-line cylinders); 3.5cc

Maximum

petrol (V-8 cylinders); 2.5cc diesel (4 in-line

in-line cylinders); Isuzu

2ft (0.6m); with

4.9ft (1.5m).

(191mm); Defender 110/130

Fuel:

Defender 90

2.5ccTdi (4

range

8.5in(215mm).

10,6701b (4,840kg).

cylinders);

XD

clearance:

Defender 90
-

choice.'

preparation, Defender range

preparation, Defender

12.8ft

Ground

5,6211b (2,550kg); 110

-

coil springs,

Fording depth:

6.0ft (2.0m).

Weights(gross vehicle):
-

and dual-rate

depending on model and user

6.6ft (2.0m);

(3.9m).

90

axles

12v/0.8kW, or 12/.124v 0.8/2.2kW, or 24v 2.2kW

7.2ft (2.2m).

Perentie 6x6 LRP

130

beam

telescopic, hydraulic dampers.

(6.0m).

6x6 LRP

gears; single dry-plate, hydraulically actuated clutch.

Suspension:

16.7ft (5.1m);

low profile,

6x6 drive and heavy armament.

4BD1

14.3gal (54

liters);

Defender

10/130

liters).

slope (grade)

Defender 90/1 10/130

45 degrees.

diesel (4 in-line cylinders)

Left:

The Defender XD Multi-Role

Combat Vehide |MRCV|

is

intended for use by rapid

deployment and
and can be
1

built

special

forces,

on 90,

MO

or

30 chassis, with a similar

weapons capability

to

that of

the S0V. This particular version

is

armed with an M2HB

0.5in

heavy machine gun.

161

Spu.ial Foiuis

McDonnell Douglas Helicopters

AH-64D Longbow Apache
he

US Army's search

for an attack helicopter lasted so

t;long that an interim machine

procured, but the program
fielding of the

finally

AH-64 Apache

in

criticized until the 1991 Gulf War,

opportunity to demonstrate

AH-

the

(qv)

984.

The AH-64 was widely

it was finally given the

when

capabilities in

its

- had to be

achieved success with the

combat. During

AH-64 penetrated deep

supporting US special operations

that brief campaign the

into hostile

territory,

forces

attacking

armor and

Iraqi

radars,

all

of

and

them with great

success.

The
the

latest

development, the AH-64D Longbow Apache, has

radome

distinctive

Longbow

the Westinghouse

for

millimeter-wave fire-control radar atop the rotor mast. Inside

the

radome

with the

is

a rotating antenna

aircraft's avionics

whose output

integrated

is

and the radio frequency seeker

in

the Hellfire missiles to provide an outstanding all-weather

capability against tracked vehicles,

defense weapons
Above: US

Army McDonnell

Douglas AH-64D Longbow

Apache. The millimeter-wave

Longbow radar
radome atop

is

the

located

in

the

mast and can

penetrate rain, fog and smoke,

giving

360-deg coverage against

prototype flew

in

March 1991 (with

smoothly to service entry

in

it

ground

dummy radome)

fog, rain,

and smoke,

all

of which defeat conventional

hit

(in

targets.

helicopter's survivability criteria are very demanding,

minutes after being

air

and the program proceed

scans through 360 degrees for airborne targets and through 270 degrees

90 degree segments) for ground

The

vehicles,

1996.

The Longbow radar can penetrate

FLIR and TV;

wheeled

and rotary- and fixed-wing aircraft.The

it

being required to

by 12.7mm bullets from below the aircraft and by

20mm

fly

for 30

bullets in

airborne targets and

270-deg

many

against ground targets.

AH-64Ds

(TADS) and the pilot night vision system (PNVS). It is armed with a chin-mounted M230
30mm Chain Gun, and carries up to 16 Hellfire missiles or up to 75 2.75in folding-fin aerial

for the

US Army are being

produced by remanufacturing
AH-64As.

162

first

sites,

specified areas. The aircraft

is

fitted

with the target acquisition and designation system

rockets (FFAR) or a combination of the two. Air-to-air missiles can also be carried.

The AH-64D Apache Longbow has been ordered by the armies of the Netherlands, the
UK, and the USA, all of which will deploy it in support of special operations. It is an
outstanding aircraft which will add considerably to the combat potential of its users.

Weapons & Equipment

Specifications
Origin:
United States.

Type:
Gunship.

Dimensions:
Main

rotor diameter 48.0ft

(14.6m); length (rotors

turning) 58.3ft

7.8m);

(1

height 15.3ft (4.7m).

Weight
Empty- 11,3871b (5,165kg);

maximum

take-off

21,0001b

(9,5250kg).

Power

plant:

Two General
GE-701C

Electric

T700-

turboshafts, each

rated at 1,800shp(1,342kW).

Range:
-

Internal fuel

260nm

(428km); with drop tanks

918nm

(1,701km).

Speed:

Maximum

level

(365km/h);

197kt

maximum

cruising

-158kt(293km/h).
Ceiling:
Service

hover

14,765ft (4,500m);

(in

ground

effect)

17,210ft (5,245m).

Crew:
2

Left:

(pilot,

WAH-64 Apache

The

helicopter
British

copilot/gunner).

is

on order

Army, with 67

first

in

attack
the

in

GKN Westland

production at the
factory

for

at Yeovil, England, the

being due to enter service

2000.

They

will

be operated

by the Army Air Corps lAACi

in

both conventional operations

and

in

support of special forces,

such as the SAS and SBS.

Far left:

An early production

WAH-64 Apache. Weapons

comprise a chin-mounted M230
Chain Gun, and a mix
missiles, 2.75in

of

folding-fin

Hellfire

aerial

rockets (FEAR), or air-to-air

missiles. This

fighting

very sophisticated

machine

is

fitted

the Target Acquisition

with

and

Designation System (TADS) and

the

Pilots

Night Vision System

(PNVS).

163

Splcial Forces

Mil Mi-24
Specifications
Origin:
Russian Federation.

Type:
Gunship.

Dimensions:
Main

rotor diameter

56.75ft (17.3m); length

(rotors turning) 64.9ft

(19.8m); height 21.3ft

(6.5m).

Weights:
Empty- 18,5201b

maximum

(8,400kg);
off

take-

27,760lb (12,500kg).

Power plant
Two Klimov TV3-1

17 Series

turboshafts; each

III

2,200shp(1,640kW).

Range:
Internal fuel

-405nm

(750km); combat radius

(max

load)

86nm

(160km); four external

The

tanks- 155nm (288km).

Speed:

Maximum

level

168kt

maximum
- 140kt

(310km/h);

cruising

(260km/h).
Ceiling:

Service- 14,765ft

Mil Mi-24,

more widely known under its

West when it first appeared

surprise to the

NATO
in

name
The

1974.

of "Hind,"

came

Mil design

bureau took the

as a

major

(NATO = Hip) and married them to a new

whose prime mission was moving an infantry squad of eight
men around the battlefield. The airframe was fitted with armor for protection and with
weapons to suppress hostile fire. This first production version (Mil 24A = Hind-A) entered
existing engines and transmission of the Mil Mi-8

airframe to produce an aircraft

service

in

1972

The next major version was the Mil Mi-24D (Hind D), which included many changes,
most of them resulting from the decision to make its primary role a helicopter gunship, with

(4,500m); hover (out of

ground

effect)

7,200ft

(2,200m).

Crew:
3

(pilot, copilot, flight

engineer).

the infantry-carrying capability reduced to minor importance. This involved

new

nose, with individual cockpits for the

protection. Armament
gatling,

was

latest

version of this

very effective attack helicopter

the Mil-24P (NATO

is

F),

which

Hind-

Hind-E with the

is

chin-mounted

2.7mm

machinegun replaced by a
fixed

30mm

cannon on the starboard

of the

side

single

GSh-30-2 twin-barreled

version

Right:

same

export

fuselage. The

designated

is

3 5 P.

A frontal view of the

aircraft,

showing the

cockpit for the two crew, with

the twin barrels of the GSh-302

protruding forward of the

starboard side of the nose.

These aircraft are normally

deployed

in

mixed aviation

regiments alongside

Mil

Mi-24V

(Hind-E), but are also very

suitable for use on

special

operations.

164

improved by

fitting

installed

which resulted

in

the

tail

rotor being

fitting a totally

also received greatly

improved

an undernose, stabilized, 4-barrel

and the hard-points on the stub wings were upgraded.

pylon to the port side.

Above: The

also

two-man crew, who

moved from

In

addition,

new

2.7mm

engines were

the starboard side of the

tail

Weapons & Equipment

The Hind-D was

Soviet campaign
in

in

a great success

and achieved

Afghanistan, although there

the Mi-24V (Hind-E), which

is

was

fearsome reputation during the

still

room

generally similar to the Hind-D, but

is

armed with AT-6

tank missiles and revised electronics and avionics. Yet another development
(Hind-F) which

is

ill-fated

for improvement.This resulted

is

anti-

the Mil Mi-24P

generally similar to the Hind-E but has a fixed, twin-barreled

GSh-23L

in

the nose instead of the turret-mounted four-barreled JakB.

Left:

An early model

(NATO

Mi-24

Mil

Hind-A). This aircraft

used the same power-train and

dynamic components

totaly

new

wings.

It

canopy
in

(NATO

Mi-8

the

Hip)

fuselage and stub

the

for

2-man crew and

passenger compartment

windows
ground

Mil

had a low, wide

troops could

the

the

as

but with a

to

fire

raise

their

the
at

rifles

targets.

Below: This civilian-looking

version

is

a wolf

clothing. The

Mil

in

sheep's

MI-24PS

is

operated by the Russian Ministry

of the

Interior special

and

used for surveillance and

to

is

deploy

SWAT teams

forces

in

assault

operations against criminals,

such as drug gangs and hostage
takers.

165

Special Forces

Sikorsky LH-60 Blackhawk

Above:

An MH-S3

(left)

One OF the MOST

and an

MH-60 Blackhawk

since been

deployed by a Lockheed HC-

seats for

one of the most

role.

sophisticated versions of the

The

produced

many

as well as

I30P Hercules. The USAF's MHis

in

UH-60

the world, the

running Utility Tactical Transport Aircraft System (UTTAS) competition

approach the refueling drogues

60

widely used military helicopters

has taken part

countless special forces operations. The basic helicopter was the winner of the long-

in

(right)

in

large

numbers

foreign customers.

In

US

for the

the transport version there

passengers, which can be replaced by four

aircraft

is

fitted

in

the 1970s and has

Navy, Marine Corps, Army, and Air Force,

litters

is

crew of three, with

for the casualty evacuation

with a winch above the starboard door and a hook beneath the

fuselage.

Blackhawk.

been produced for the special operations role, of which the

one of the most advanced. This is fitted with a nose-mounted APQ174 terrain-following radar, AAQ- 6B FLIR, night-vision imaging system, and a moving-map
display. It has angled stub-wings for fuel pods and armament comprises two pintle-mounted
0.5in M2 machine guns and Stinger air-to-air missiles. The aircraft also carries a
comprehensive range of navigation, communications, and electronic warfare equipment.
variety of versions have

US Army's MH-60K

is

Right:
in

US Army troops emplane

a line of U-60 Blackhawks.

The UH-60 had a long and

development period

controversial

but has

now become one

of the

most extensively used and

helicopters in

successful

world.

It

is

widely used

the
in

forces operations.

special

Specifications
Origin:

Range:

United States.

Standard fuel

Type:

1,200nm (2,224km).

Transport/gunship/special operations.

Speed:

Dimensions:

Maximum

Main

(268km/h).

rotor diameter 53.33ft (16.36m); length (rotors turning) 64.9ft

Weights:
-

Service

1,2841b (5,1 18kg);

maximum

take-off

20,250lb

plant.

US versions

160kt (296km/h); normal cruising

145kt

19,000ft (5,790m); hover

(in

ground

effect)

9,500ft

(2,895m).

two General

at 1,550shp (1,151

T700-GE-701A

Electric

T700-GE-700

kW) each; export

turboshafts, rated

versions -two General Electric

turboshafts, rated at 1,723shp

(1,285kW) each.

(pilot, copilot,

crew

chief).

Passengers:
11.

(Specifications

many minor

166

range (four fuel tanks)

Crew:

(9,185kg).

Power

level

ferry

Ceiling:

(19.76m); height 16.9ft (5.13m).

Empty

319nm (292km);

above are

variations

for a typical transport variant; there are

between

different models.)

Weapons & Equipment

AH-1W

Bell
The AHWar

HueyCobra was rushed

meet

into service as an interim gunship to

SljperCobra
Vietnam

requirement, using the well-proven UH-i rotor and transmission system married

The

to a new, slim fuselage.

initial

service variant

was the AH-IG, but

this

has been

progressively upgraded or replaced, with the latest of the single engine models being
IS.This remains

in

service with the

The US Marine Corps followed

from the Army AH-

S,

US Army and

a different path,

which

by having twin engines, longer

larger diameter main rotor.The standard

weapon

theAH-

Below: The 'interim' design AH-

at least seven overseas armies/air forces.

is

tail

an

led to the

boom

AH- W, which
1

differs

and forward fuselage, and a

Ml 97 cannon

in

or eight Hellfires

missiles,

Army

in

two pods, 4

and many others. The

(5),

and Thai

Army

2.75in rockets

AH-

is in

in

service with the

into

the Vietnam

War and
in

many armies and

end

the

two pods, Sidewinder air-to-air

US Marine Corps (230), Turkish

the

of

AH-IW

large

service with

air forces

at

1990s. This US

Marine Corps aircraft

latest

during

service

numbers remain

an undernose turret,

but a wide variety of other weapons can be carried on the stub wings. These include eight

TOWs

was rushed

to

is

the

twin-engined

standard.

8).

Specifications
Origin:

Power

United States.

Two 1,625shp (1,212kW) General

Type:

limited to a total of

Gunship.

(1,288kW) continuous running.

plant:

Dimensions:

Range:

Main

Standard

rotor diameter 48.0ft (14.63m); length (rotors turning) 58.0ft

(17.7m); height 14.2ft (4.32m).

Maximum

10,2001b (4,627kg);

maximum

T700-GE-401 turboshafts,

for take-off

and 1,725shp

343nm (635km).

Speed:

Weights:
Empty

fuel

Electric

2,032shp (1,51 5kW)

take-off

14,7501b

level

190kt (352km/h).

Ceiling:

(6,691kg).

Service

12,00ft (3,660m); hover

(in

ground

effect)

14,750ft

(4,495m).

Crew:
2 (pilot, gunner).

Left:

The US Army's AH-

generally similar to the

IS

is

AH-IW

but has only a single Textron-

Lycoming engine, smaller rotor

and shorter tail-boom.

addition, the

canopy

In

is

fabricated from a series of

flat

armored-glass plates, rather than

molded

<
\y

rf

"-^_VvA

as

in

the

AH-IW.

Special Foiu s

Lockheed C-130 Hercules

The Lockheed C-130 Hercules
it

entered service

Century;
a

it

combines

wide variety of

in

April

Hercules of the
flares

infra-red

USAF deploys

decoy ground-launched

to

missiles

as

it

comes

in

over a drop zone. The Hercules

is

one of the greatest aircraft

aviation

service
in

955 and

it

will

special

It

is

forces

in

in

entered

remain

production well into the 2

Century.

168

in

history;

1st

constant use by

around the world.

will

remain

in

It is

built;

production well into the 21st

strategic range with tactical short-field capability; and

roles, including

electronic warfare, and gunship.

Below: Lockheed MC-I30E

quite simply, the greatest military transport ever

is,

1955 and

it

can be used

in

transport, parachute operations, tanker, surveillance,

in

service with the

US

Navy, Air Force, Coast Guard, and

many foreign air forces, and is widely used by special forces.

The first gunship, the AC- 30A, was a conversion of the first production model, and was
armed with 4 20mm Vulcan cannon, 4 7.62mm miniguns and flare-dropping equipment.These
served in Vietnam and proved so successful that they were followed by
of an enhanced
version, AC- 30E ("Pave Spectre") which had increased armor protection, improved avionics
and greater ammunition stowage; these, less one lost, were later brought up to AC-I30H
standard, with improved engines. Some of the AC- 30As and -Hs were also equipped with a
with

105mm
The

howitzer (Pave Aegis).

latest

gunship

is

the Rockwell

AC- 30U,
1

13 of

which were converted from C-I30H

ACAC- 30As,

standard and assigned to 16th Special Operations Squadron, USAF, where they replaced

!30Hs; these were then transferred to the Air Force reserve, replacing elderly

Weapons & Equipment

Specifications
Origin:

Speed:

United States.

374mph (598km/h)

Type:

Ceiling

Transport/gunship/special operations.

33,000ft (10,000m) with 100,0001b (45,000kg) payload.

Dimensions:

Crew:

Wingspan 132.6ft (39.7m); length 97.75ft (29.3m); height 38.25ft

Transport role 5 (2

(11.4m).

Passengers:

Weight

Max 92

Maximum

take-off 155,0001b (69,750kg).

troops, or

at 20,000ft (6,060m).

pilots, navigator, flight

64 paratroops,

or

74

engineer, loadmaster).

patients, or 5 standard

litter

freight pallets.

Power plant
4

Allison

T56-A- 5 turboprops; 4,300hp per engine.

(Specifications

many minor

Range:

above are

variations

for a typical transport variant; there are

between

different models.)

2,356 miles (2,049nm) with max payload; 2,500 miles (2,174nm)

with 25,000lb

(1

1,250kg) cargo; 5,200 miles (4,522nm) with no

cargo.

which were scrapped. The AC-I30U

40mm

single

and

howitzer,
trainable

is

armed with

L60 Bofors cannon, an Ml 02

25mm GAU

single

mount. There

05mm

cannon on

comprehensive targeting

is

(AN/APQ-I80 fire-control radar; Low Light

TV with laser target designator and rangefinder;
AN/AAQ-I 7 forward-looking infra-red) which, in

package
Level

and

combination with advanced navigation systems, enable

AC-I30U

the

under

all

two

to engage

targets simultaneously

weather conditions.

Also supporting special forces operations

MC-I30, the

Combat Talon
role

latest
II,

equipment

being

version

of which 26 are

includes:

service. Special-to-

in

APQ- 70

radar

the

is

MC-I30H

the

an enlarged

in

^"^

1~~

\.

nose radome, with a FLIR turret underneath; low-level

extraction system; and classified defensive systems. Earlier
Fulton recovery system
aloft,

which

in

which was engaged

to the rear of the aircraft

where

MC-

30s were also

with the

fitted

the ground released a balloon to carry a wire

nose hooks. The wire was then automatically transferred

special

in

man on

winch hauled the man aboard. This system, which must

have been extremely exciting for the

man

involved,

was tested but

never, as far as

is

known,

used operationally.

Transport variants are used to deliver special forces into hostile territory. This can

strips. In

over

was done,

air-landing,

Many

sites;

radius of

raid

or into

C- 30s regularly land on and take-off from 3,000ft (930m)

dirt

740nm

maximum

of 64

42km). C- 30s also carry out

1

Clamp

fully

equipped paratroops

vital

resupply missions, by

is

operations version, with

special

Fulton STAR equipment and

the
a

'Pinocchio'

nose radome.

Its

very low-level

is

penetration of hostile airspace

to

make very

either special

delivery of

precise

operations

paratroops or resupply drops.

parachute or low-level extraction.

users of first-generation C-I30s are

either of the basic design (eg, C-

new

Entebbe

for example, during the

the paratrooping role, C-I30s carry a

combat

MC-1 30E-C

Combat Talon

task

include landings at airfields, as

unprepared landing

Above: Lockheed

now

30H) or the C-

replacing

30J,

which

is

them by new-build
virtually a

new

engines, propellers, avionics, electronics, fully digitized systems, and a

aircraft,

aircraft,

with

two-man,

fully

automated cockpit.
In

one form or another, the C-I30 looks certain to remain

2020s at least.

special operations, until the

in

service, particularly

on
Left:

The C-I30 makes a

and maneuverable

versatile

gunship and various versions

(AC-I30A/E/H) have been

produced, armed with weapons

7.62mm Mimguns,

such as

0.50m heavy machineguns,

20mm

40mm

Vulcan cannon,

cannon, and even a

05mm

howitzer. They also carry sensors

to

locate

targets

in

and engage

hostile

the dark.

169

,r

^vrar

SPtCIAl FOIU

Submarines for Special Forces

All submarines can be used for covert delivery and recovery of special forces to hostile

Specifications

it should be noted that the distance from the shore depends upon
The tasks for such special forces can include: attacks by combat
swimmers on enemy shipping or installations; reconnaissance, surveillance; infiltration/

coastlines, although

Overall length:

the depth of water.

65ft(19.8m).

Approximate range:
125nm.

Submerged

across the beach; and beach reconnaissance

exfiltration

speed:

preparation for amphibious

in

Shown here are examples of the most sophisticated submarines operated by the
US Navy, and of two North Korean classes, which show what a relatively unsophisticated
landings.

8kt.

Diving depth:

navy can achieve.

not known.

Propulsion:

US Navy Swimmer Delivery Submarines

internal batteries.

Crew:

The

stealth of nuclear-powered submarines make them

employment in the swimmer-delivery role. Any US Navy submarine
can carry a small number of SEALs, but eight have been converted to carry Dry-Deck
Shelters (DDS): six Sturgeon class SSNs - one DDS each: and two much larger Franklin-class
former ballistic missile submarines - two DDS each. SEALs or other special forces can join

2.

maximum

high speed, long

16 swimmers,

depending on equipment.

the submarine
Right above:

A Sturgeon-class SSN

from surface

The

with a Dry-Dock Shelter (DDS)

abaft the
forces

deploys special

sail

during Exercise Ocean

Venture 93. A DDS can

accomm-

odate, launch, and recover a single

Swimmer
a

RIBs or canoes.

of

right:

One

of SDV used

of various

types

by SEALs for world-

wide deployments. These vessels

are due to be

new Advanced

replaced by the

Delivery System, in

which the swimmers

accommodated

in

will

be

hours and

are increasingly used to deliver

special

forces

to

hostile

shores.

a watertight cylinder

is

from helicopters or

with a large door at the after end and an internal hatch

The

DDS

can house, launch and recover one

The current Swimmer Delivery Vehicle

Now

Swimmer

the

will

carry a crew of

swimmers

captain/helmsman

is

the

Delivery Vehicle

can be installed

in

about 12

flexibility.

SDV Mk8, which is being replaced by the

maximum of six SEALs in "dry

are unpressurized vehicles which carry a

under development, however,

(ASDS) which
delivering

DDS

air-transportable, further increasing special operations

SDV Mk9. These

will

in

is

Swimmer

the "Advanced

two and 8-16 swimmers

rather

greater

comfort than

Delivery System"

inside a pressure hull, thus

the

in

SDV The

current

be a submariner, supported by a SEAL navigator.There

will

be a lock-

chamber in the floor of the craft, which will also be able to mate with a parent
is
done today by deep submergence rescue vehicles (DSRVs). Estimated
characteristics of the ASDS are shown in the specifications above.
in/lock-out

submarine, as

Six
will

Such nuclear-powered submarines

port, or can transfer at sea by parachute, by abseiling

(SDV), special inflatable boats, canoes and other stores. A

a pressure-hull.

Below: USS Sturgeon (SSN-65I).

is

while submerged.

suits."
Below

DDS

in

ships.

which connects to the submarine's after hatch thus allowing direct access between the two

Delivery vehicle (SDV) or

number

endurance and

particularly suitable for

Passengers:

ASDS

are to be built and will be transportable by C-5 or C- 7 transport aircraft and

1

be capable of operating with suitably modified Sturgeon/Franklin class SSNs or the

Attack Submarine (NSSN). The latter

chamber

will also

for the insertion and recovery of special operations forces. In addition,

with an ASDS-capable Dry

special operations forces

Deck

New

have an integral nine-man lock-out/lock-in

Shelter (DDS), the

NSSN

will

when

fitted

be able to deliver many more

and their equipment.

Sturgeon class

Frai

Number converted to
swimmer delivery

1965
1992-94

1968-70
1982-89

Surfaced

7.350tons

4.460tons

Submerged

8.250tons

4.960tons

425ft (129.54m)

302ft (92.1m)

Original launch

Conversion
Displacement:

Dimensions:
Length

Beam

33ft (10.05m)

Draught

8ft

(9.7m)

28.8ft (8.8m)

29.5ft (9.0m)

Propulsion:

Nuclear reactor

Steam turbines
Propeller

one
2 sets

one 7-bladed

one

I5.000shp

I5.000hp

Power output

Max speed

25kt

Endurance

68 days

Weapons:
Torpedo tubes
Officers
Enlisted

SEALs

Troops

Dry-dock shelters

170

one
2 sets

four 21

m (533mm)

four 2

in

(533mm)

13

13

107

115

16
1

Weapons & Equipment

North Korean Special Operations Submarines

The North Korea Navy

made

has

Above: This

particular efforts to develop small, swimmer-delivery

was spectacularly
revealed on two separate occasions, the first being on 17-18 September 1996 when a
Sang-O (= shark) class boat was captured by South Korean forces while engaged in
infiltrating commandos into South Korea. This particular boat had a crew of seven and was
submarines for use by

special forces.The existence of the latest types

its

North Korean

submarine brought
forces

men

snagging

to

itself

special

South Korea before

on fishermen's nets

commandos. The Sang-O appears to be a North Korean design and some of the
class are fitted for employment as conventional attack submarines, but a number are fitted
specifically for special forces operations. They have a lockin/lock-out chamber and swimmers normally transfer while the
carrying 19

boat

is

and being captured. Such small

submarines have been specially
developed for these missions and
have proved very effective.

at periscope depth.

The second incident occurred in June 998 when one of the

much smaller Yugo-class boats became entangled in fishermen's
1

nets

in

waters south of the border. South Korean frogmen

found the hatches sealed from the inside and the boat had to
be taken to Donghae, where the frogmen obtained entry

torpedo tubes.
although

who

All nine

shot

North Koreans

whom

has

inside had

via the

been shot,

never been established. The

how many
were not detected by the

capture of these two boats raises the question of

missions had been carried out which

South Koreans.

YUGO

Sang-O CLASS
'
.

!_-_.

20

43

1991-'

I960-?

DlSPLAC

Surfaced

256 tons

Submerged

277 tons

90 tons
1

10 tons

Dimensions:

Length

Beam
Draugh

65.6ft

(20m)

12.5ft

(3.8m)

10.2ft

(3.1m)

2.1ft

(3.7m)

15.1 ft

(4.6m)

generator

two

diesels

6.5ft

(35.5m)

Propulsion:

one

Engine
Electric

diesel

motor

Propeller

one

one
one

one shrouded

Performance:

Max speed
Endurance
Diving depth

8.8kt

2.700nm

at 7kt

8kt

550nm

at 4kt

590ft (180m):

Weapons
Torpedo tubes

2/4 21

in

(533mm)

C
Officers
Enlisted

Swimmers

17

6-7

171

3 9

1 1

Special Forces

Index
Page numbers

mentioned

bold type

in

refer to subjects

Chile:

Buzos Tacticos de

captions to illustrations.

in

Buzos Tacticos

la

Armada, 2

del Ejercito, 21

Grupo de Operaciones

Achille Lauro Incident, 22, 6

Unidad Anti-Terroristes, 2

Afghanistan War, 42,

Policiales Especiales, 21

43

Aircraft:

AV-8B, 7

Delta (see United States)

C- 30 Hercules,

20, 76-78, 85-88,

AC- 30, 98
AC-I30H,
HC-I30H,

68- 69

Denmark:

Aktions-Styrken, 21

02- 06

Jaegerkorptset, 21,21

Navy Froemandskorpset,

02- 06
KC-I30.7I
MC-I30E.98.98, 02- 06
1

C-I4I, 62, 86-87

F/AF-l

7,

Egypt:

Task Force 777, 22, 22

8,

21

13,62

Entebbe, 18

P-3 Orion, 108

Amritsar Golden Temple

(India), 30,

30

Anglo-Dutch Amphibious Warfare Group, 38

Falklands War, 51,51,53,55, 56, 94-96

Argentina:

France:

Halcon Brigade,
Assault

rifles

(see

10,

Atlanta City prison

Dragoon Regiment,

13th Airborne

Army

Weapons)

Foreign Legion,

riot, 61

10, II,

15,24,24, 102

Atlanta Olympic Games, 62

GIGN, 11,22,23,23,32

Australia:

Marine

1st

Commando

13

lerRPIMa, 23

Infantry,

Naval special forces, 23, 23

Regiment, 16

4th Royal Australian Regiment, 16

Paratroops, 26, 26

Navy Clearance Diving Branch,

RAID, 23

16

Special Air Service Regiment, 16, 16, 17, 61, 102

Austria:

Gendarmerieeinstatzkommando Cobra,

18,

18

Germany:
Grenzschutzgruppe 9 (GSG

9), 9,

Balkan War,

8,

Kommando

5,

8, 22, 28,

Belgium:

Army Para-Commando

Brigade, 18

Escadron Special D'lntervention

Navy frogman

section,

Spezialkrafte (KSK), 29

1,61,62,63,97-99
Grenades (see Weapons)
2 56, 57, 6
Gulf War, 0,
Grenada,

Beirut terrorism, 9

73,

02- 06
1

(ESI), 18, 18

Bergen rucksack, 57

Helicopters:

Bosnia, 13,21,41,56,62

Agusta 109,57,60

"Branch Davidian" siege, 61

AH- 1,71, 108

AH-IWSuperCobra, 167
AH-64D Longbow Apache, 162-163

Brazil:

1st Special

Forces Battalion, 15,

19,

19

Comandos Anfybios, 19
Comandos de Reconhecimento, 19
Grupo de Mergulhadores de Combate,
Grupos de Operaces

PARASAR,

Especials, 19

AS-61 Sea King, 34

AS-90 Cougar, 49
19

CH-3 Sea

King, 17

CH-46,66,71

CH-47 Chinook,

17

CH-53,71

HH-53H

Canada:

Lynx, 106

Joint Task Force

2,20,20

Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 20

172

32,55,78,82-84

Pave

Low

111,13

MH-6J "Little Bird," 69

MH-47E,70, 104

Index

Kosovo,

MH-53J, 102-106
MH-60, 102-106

0,

Kosovo Liberation Army,

MH-60K, 13,69
Mil Mi-8 "Hip,"
Mil

42

Mi-24"Hind," 164-165

Landing

craft,

LCA

Mk2, 39

OH-6, 108
Puma, 26
RH-53D, 85-88

Los Angeles Olympic Games, 6

Sea King, 106

Machine guns (see Weapons)

UH-I, 49,71

Maldives, 30, 3

UH-60 Black Hawk, 17,49,

UH-60Sea Hawk, 17
Westland Commando, 22

108, 160

Mexico:
Force F (Zorros), 38

Weapons)

Missiles (see

Mogadishu, 18,29,55,75, 107-109

Westland Scout, 56

Moluccan terrorism, 55, 79-8

Hungary:

Moscow

Police Special Force, 30

Olympics, 44

Munich Olympic Games,

15,

18,28,41

India:

Commando

Marine

Netherlands:

Force, 31

National Security Guards, 30,

30

Amfibisch Verkennings Peloton, 39

Commandos, 30

Para

Special Protection

Bijzondere Bijstands Eenheid (BBE), 38

Group,

Royal Dutch Marines, 32, 38, 38, 80-8

New

Indonesia:

Komano Pasukan Khusus (KOPASSUS), 17,32

Inflatable boats,

Iranian

Embassy

Irish

02

special forces, 16,17

41
siege, 11,12,

55, 55,

74-75

Norway:
Beredskaptrop police

Ireland, Republic of:

Irish

Zealand:
Special Air Service, 39, 39, 6

Army Rangers Wing, 32, 32

National Liberation Army (INLA),
Republican Army (IRA), 55, 56

Forsvarets Spesail

unit,

40

Kommando

(FSK),40

Marine Jegere, 40

55

Israel:

Air Force Special Operataions Units, 33

paratroop

units,

Operations:

100-101

Achille Lauro Incident,

33

Sayeret Mat'kal, 18

Allied Force,

Sayeret Matkal, 33

Battle for Mogadishu,

Shayetet 13,33,33

Desert

Special forces, 76-78

Desert Storm, 6

Yamam, 33

Desert

Zahal, 32

Eagle

107-109

Shield, 61
1

67,

02- 06
1

102-106
Claw, 61, 67, 85-88
Strike,

Entebbe rescue, 76-78

Italy:

Commando Raggruppamento
Incursori
ESI,

(COMSUBIN),

Subaqui ed
I

1,34,34,35, 69

Iranian

Embassy

siege,

89-93

Just Cause, 61, 62, 73, 73

Mogadishu rescue, 82-84

18

Gruppo

d'lntervento Speziale (GIS), 34, 34, 35

Moluccan Train

Promote

Incident, 79-81

Liberty, 73

Provide Comfort, 6

Klepper canoe, 53

Rescue

Knives (see Weapons)

Restore Democracy, 40, 40

Light Infantry Training

Guidance Bureau, 36

Reconnaisaance Bureau, 36
of:

707th Special Missions Battalion, 37

National Police Unit 868, 37
Special

Grenada, 97-99

Restore Hope, 62, 107-109

Korea, North:

Korea, Republic

in

Warfare Brigades, 37

Safe Passage, 73
Safe Return, 73

Sharp Edge, 73

Uphold Democracy, 62
Urgent

Fury, 61, 62,

97

Wireless Ridge, Falklands War, 94-96

173

Sl'K IM

(MM IS

Army counter-terrorist battalion, 49

commando brigades, 49

P
Pakistan:

Group, 40

Special Forces

Panama, 61 62

Poland:

United Kingdom:

GROM,40

Gurkhas, 15,49,49,50

40

paratroops,

Parachute Regiment, 51,51,52, 94-96

Royal Marines, 39, 96

Portugal:

Grupo De Operacoes

Especials

(GOE),4l,4l

Royal Marines Special Boat Boat Service (SBS),

23,39,52,53,53,54,69, 102-106
Special Air Service (SAS), 8,

Weapons)
Riot guns (see Weapons)
Rocket launchers (see Weapons)

20-23, 29, 32, 39, 40, 4

Rifles (see

55, 56, 60, 6

2,

3,

5,

43, 49, 52, 54-57,

74-75, 84, 89-93,

02- 06
1

United States:
Air Force 1st Special Operations Wing, 13

Russian Federation:

Army

airborne troops, 43

GROM

Security

Morskaya Pekhota (Naval

Forces Operational

1st Special

Detachment

Company, 44
Infantry), 44, 44,

45

43, 49, 60-6

Omsn, 44

(Delta), 8,

60-6

20, 22, 23, 29,

85-88,

02- 06,
1

107-109

Spetsgruppa

"Al'fa,"

Army 82nd Airborne Division, 65, 97, 99

Army 160th Special Operations Aviation

43

Spetsgruppa Vympel, 43

Regiment (SOAR),

Spetsialnoye nazranie (Spetsnaz), 36, 42, 42, 53

Army

Rangers,

60, 69-70,

60, 62-65,

02- 06
1

62-65, 98-99,

107-109

SAS

(see Australia,

New

Zealand, United Kingdom)

US, Marine Corps, 70-73, 70-73,

SBS (see United Kingdom)

Scud

missiles,

102-106

Navy

rifles

Sea, Air,

Land (SEAL) Teams, 22, 53, 6

Naval Special Warfare Development

Seoul Olympics, 37

(NAVSPECWARDEVGRU),

Weapons)
107-109

Group

68

Special Operations Forces (SOF), 13,28,58-62,

58 59 60 61

South Moluccan terrorism, 38

Spain:

Brigada Paracaidista (BRIPAC),46

Fuerza de Accion Rapide (FAR), 46

Vehicles:

Spanish Legion, 15,46,46,47

AML-90 armored

Unidad Especial de Buceadores de Combate

AMX-13 light tank, 47

BMD-3 Airborne Infantry

(UEBC),46

combat

boat,

48

car,

Fighting Vehicle,

BV-202 tracked over-snow transporter, 39

Stun grenades (see Weapons)

Fast Attack Vehicles (FAV), 104

Submarines:

HMMVW (Hummer),

Sang-O class, 36, 171

US Navy Swimmer Delivery Vehicles,
class,

Sweden:

ONI

Land Rover, 39, 47,

66, 68,

M4I

light tank,

Nissan

170

Yugo

field car,

47

Nissan Patrol, 17
PT-76,

National Rescue Unit, 48

47

44

Perentie, 160-161

Range Rover, 18,34

Unimog, 104

Tae-Kwon-Do

martial arts, 37

Turkey:

Air Force, 49

amphibious troops, 48
174

47

158-159

Unidad Especial de Intervencion (UEI),46, 47

Stridsbat

Naval Special Warfare Group, 102

(see

Somalia, 62, 73,

Team

66-70,66-70,97,98,

States)

Shotguns (see Weapons)

Sniper

02- 06

(FAST), 73, 73

Scud-busting operations, 57

SEALs (see United

Fleet Anti-Terrorism Security

107-109, 156-157

04,

60- 6
1

9
Index

Mortars:

60.7mm ECIA, 47

Weapons:
Anti-riot weapons:

Pistols:

Arwen

Royal Ordnance
Assault

134-135

37,

Beretta 92F/M9, 34,

Beretta 92L,

rifles:

7.62mm CETME Model 68,46

AK-47,33,36
AK-74 and AKS-74, 40, 43, 28- 29

Colt

AKM/AKMS.44

Glock

Beretta SC70/90, 34, 34

Heckler

Lawman .357
Daewoo 9mm, 37

revolver,

& Koch

PI

Heckler & Koch P99

Heckler

6A2/Colt Commando,

MI6A3,

SIG P229and P239,

13

Rocket launchers:

17

RPG-7V,

36, 108.

151

AugAI, 32

150-151

Shotguns:

SteyrAug SSG69, 18
Tantal 5.45mm, 41

Beretta, 17

Tikka Finlander,

Mossberg 500 ATP, 47,

Ithaca 37,

7 Plamya, 148

& Weller

El

Sniper

82 stun grenade, 149

3 72, 104,

17,

148

Dragunov SVD,

149

Kukri, 50

32

29

44, 139

NR-2,43

38

M40A 1,141

Machine guns:

Mauser, 47

Browning, 104
heavy machine gun, 52, 70,

146-147

Mauser 86/SP86,

28,

34,47

SakoTRG-21 7.62mm,

M249 Squad Automatic Weapon (SAW),

144-145

Steyr SSG, 38, 39

Sub-machine guns:

PK 7.62mm GPMG, 143

Beretta Model 12,35

RPK, 44

Heckler

Misssiles/missile systems:

& Koch MP

154-155
anti-tank weapon (LAW), 04

8, 28,

MAT49, 23
Madsen Model

Scud-B/AI Hussain, 57, 102-106

Star Z-70B,

152-153

29, 34, 34,

18, 54, 91,

I,

16-1 17

MILAN, 104

08

5,

35,37,38,39,41,47,

14 Hellfire, 70,

Stinger FIM-92 B/C, 70,

18

Sinco and Elbit sniper control equipment,

35

M60GPMC59, 142
MG3 7.62mm, 46

96,

Heckler

Knives:

TOW,

7,

& Koch G3 GS/I, 16

Heckler & Koch G3 MSG, 38
Heckler & Koch PSG7, 28, 34,
M24 Sniper Weapon System, 141

Stun grenades, 38, 57, 84, 93

Light

Accuracy International L96AI, 140

Barret M82, 34

AGM-I

136-137

I,

rifles:

RKG-3M,

72,

Accuracy International .308

RGD-5, 149

M2HB

18

Accuracy International AW,

M203,54,73, 149

Mkl9 Mod

136-137

Remington

Grenades, grenade launchers:

Haley

15

Tokarev 7.62mm, 36

RPG-16,

AGS-

29

P7,

5.45mm, 43

Mauser SP66, 17,28

Steyr

9mm

& Koch Mk23 (SOCOM),

0,77

pistol,

SIG P226, 38,48

54, 58, 59,

130-131

MAC-

underwater

FA MAS, 24, 25,27, 124

Galil, 17,33,41,77, 132-133
Ml 6, 36,72,73

PRI

38

16,39

17,

F88Austeyr, 17

Browning, 36, 39

Daewoo KI/K2, 37

53,

122

46

Sten gun, 121

Sterling

L2A3/L34A I, 120

SteyrAug, 126-127
Uzi and Mini Uzi, 37, 39, 47,

8-

175

Speciai

Forces

Picture Credits
The

publishers wish to thank

E.

ofTRH

Nevill

Pictures for his research services, and

who

companies

agencies, various international services, and

all

the private individuals,

have provided photographs for this book.

US DoD. Back cover:Top, Land Rover; bottom left, DGP-S. Prensa viaTRH Pictures; bottom right,
TRH. Endpapers: Salamander. Page
Paulo Valpolini via TRH. 2-3: Paulo Valpolini via TRH. 4Canadian Defense Forces. 7: US DoD. 8: US DoD. 9: Left, US DoD; right, Rex/SIPA via Salamander. I0:TRH.

Front cover:

Paulo Valpolini via

5:
I

I:

Paulo Valpolini viaTRH.

TRH.

12:

Rex

DoD

Salamander. 14-15: Paulo Valpolini viaTRH. 16-17: Australian

via

via

8:Top, Salamander; bottom, Paulo Valpolini viaTRH. 19: Paulo Valpolini viaTRH. 20: Salamander. 21: Paulo
22: Rex/SIPA viaTRH. 23: Top, Gamma via Salamander; bottom, Paulo Valpolini viaTRH. 24:
Debay viaTRH; bottom, Salamander. 26: Salamander. 27: Paulo Valpolini viaTRH. 28: Bernard &

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Valpolini

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Graefe Verlag
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via
I

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Rex/SIPA

Paulo Valpolini via

TRH.

via

TRH.

Rex/SIPA

36:

& Graefe Verlag

via

& Graefe Verlag

Salamander; bottom, Bernard

32:Top, Salamander; bottom, TRH. 33: Israel Defense Forces via

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London Express News Service via Salamander. 95:Top, London Express News Service via Salamander; bottom,
Salamander. 96:Top, London Express News Service via Salamander; bottom, Salamander. 97: Salamander. 98-99:
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I:

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116-121: Salamander.

22:Top

TRH; right and bottom. Salamander. 124-125: GIAT 26: Top,

Steyr via TRH; bottom, Steyr. 27:Top, Steyr via TRH; bottom, Steyr. 28- 30: Salamander. 3 :Top left, US Air
Force via TRH; top right, US Army. 132-133: Israel Defense Forces. 134: Royal Ordnance Factory. 35: TRH.
36-137: Salamander. 38: Top, Paulo Valpolini via TRH; bottom, Salamander. 39: Top, Paulo Valpolini viaTRH.
and bottom, Salamander; center, TRH. 123:

Left,

40:Top, Accuracy International; bottom, Accuracy International viaTRH. 141 :Top, Rex/SIPA viaTRH; bottom,

US Marine Corps viaTRH. 42: US Army. 43:Top,TRH; bottom, G.D.Taylor viaTRH. 144-145: FN Herstal via
TRH. 146-147: Top, FN viaTRH; bottom, US DoD viaTRH. 48: Top, E. Nevill viaTRH; bottom.TRH. 149: US
Marine Corps. 50: Rex/SIPA via Salamander. 151: Salamander. 52: US DoD via TRH. 53: Left, US Air Force
1

viaTRH;

right,

Salamander. 154: McDonnell Douglas viaTRH.

55:Top, Salamander; bottom, Westland viaTRH.

60- 6 Land Rover. 62:Top, Boeing via TRH; bottom,

TRH. 64: Top, M. Roberts via TRH; bottom, G.D. Taylor via TRH.
65:Top, Salamander; bottom, J. Widdowson viaTRH. l66:Top, US Air Free viaTRH; bottom. Salamander. 167:
70: Salamander. l7l:Top left, US DoD via TRH; top right,
Bell Helciopters viaTRH. 168-1 69: US Air Force.
1

56- 57:
1

Westland

E.

Nevill via

via

TRH.

TRH. 58:TRH.
1

63:

59: Salamander.

GKN Westland

via

Rex/SIPA viaTRH; bottom, Salamander.

176

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Spectacular color photographs and artworks complement intensely

detailed descriptions of international special forces, their daring

operations,

and

their

weapons and equipment.

76 pages of detailed narrative, dramatic pictures, maps,

cutaway drawings, and technical specifications, this is an
indispensable reference work on special forces throughout the world,
In

W-

ISBN 1-84065-021-4

781840 '650211 >

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