CORROSION POLICY AND OVERSIGHT

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY OF DEFENSE

FOR ACQUISITION, TECHNOLOGY, AND LOGISTICS

BASIC CORROSION OVERVIEW:

AN INTRODUCTION
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Course Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
Define corrosion.
Describe the economic, environmental, and safety significance
of corrosion.
Explain why metals corrode.
Describe the differences between inspection and monitoring.

More information on all of the topics covered today can

be found in your course manual.

Introduction
Which of these show corrosion?

Definition of Corrosion
The deterioration of a material, usually a metal, or its
properties because of a reaction with its environment.

Importance of Corrosion
Cost of Corrosion (1 of 3)

Total Direct Cost of Corrosion in U.S.

$276 billion per year
3.1% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP)*

Its easier to control corrosion to a reasonable limit than

to eliminate it completely.
*Source: Corrosion Cost and Preventative Strategies in the United
States, September 2001, Report FHWA-RD-01-156

Importance of Corrosion
Cost of Corrosion (2 of 3)

Importance of Corrosion
Cost of Corrosion (3 of 3)
Losses include corrosion of:
Residential property:
Water heaters
Home plumbing
Exposed metal surfaces like gutters and downspouts

Industry:
Deterioration of public infrastructure such as:
Bridges
Public buildings
Water-supply and waste-water disposal systems

Importance of Corrosion
Excessive Maintenance, Repair, and Replacement
Direct Costs of Corrosion (1 of 8)

Corrosion preparation begins in initial design of system

Prevents frequent breakdowns
Limits excessive maintenance, repair, and replacement costs

Over time, corrosion maintenance is more costly than

avoidance
Design phase preparation includes:
Substituting more corrosion-resistant materials
Changing operating conditions of system
Applying other corrosion control measures

Importance of Corrosion
Lost Production and Downtime
Direct Costs of Corrosion (2 of 8)

Importance of Corrosion
Product Contamination
Direct Costs of Corrosion (3 of 8)

Corrosion may contaminate

Foods during production and storage
Drinking water through distribution lines
and plumbing-system components

May result in
Unsightly water (red/brown)
Illnesses and deaths

Pharmaceutical contamination may

cause
Product loss during manufacture
Premature deterioration and loss of
potency during storage

Corrosion on interior of a metal food

container

Importance of Corrosion
Loss of Product
Direct Costs of Corrosion (4 of 8)

Losing a product due to leaks can have significant direct

and indirect costs
Direct costs include value of the product itself, cost of repairs,
associated costs of downtime, including shutdown and startup, and
disposal costs of contaminated products
Indirect costs often result in other damage many times greater than
the cost to repair or prevent the leak

Importance of Corrosion
Loss of Efficiency
Direct Costs of Corrosion (5 of 8)

Corrosion Allowance on offshore platform leg in Cook Inlet, Alaska

Importance of Corrosion
Accidents
Direct Costs of Corrosion (6 of 8)

Importance of Corrosion
Increased Capital Costs
Direct Costs of Corrosion (7 of 8)

Adding extra material to a system for corrosion control

can increase cost for construction and maintenance
Protective coatings
Cathodic protection systems
Equipment for injection of corrosion inhibitors

Importance of Corrosion
Fines
Direct Costs of Corrosion (8 of 8)

An oil containment boom deployed by the U.S. Navy

surrounds New Harbor Island, Louisiana

Photographer unknown
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oil_containment_boom.jpg

Importance of Corrosion
Accidents
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (1 of 4)

Point Pleasant Bridge over the Ohio River following

structural collapse on December 15, 1967 due to
corrosion

Importance of Corrosion
Accidents
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (2 of 4)

Natchitoches, Louisiana, 1965

Importance of Corrosion
Accidents
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (3 of 4)

Parking Garage Collapse, St. Paul, MN

Caused by Corrosion of Reinforcing Steel, St. Paul,
Minnesota

Importance of Corrosion
Appearance
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (3 of 4)

Importance of Corrosion
Environmental Cost
Indirect Costs of Corrosion (4 of 4)

Importance of Corrosion
Changes in Engineering Practice

Better direct assessment efforts

Better designs

pH and Corrosion
pH Scale with Common Items
Diluted Hydrochloric Acid
pH=2.0

Sodium Bicarbonate
pH=8.5

Beer
pH=4.5

Sound Concrete
pH=12.8

Neutral

Acid

Base

0
Vinegar
pH=3.0

Pure Water
pH=7

Concentrated Hydrochloric Acid

pH=0

14

Concentrated Sodium
Hydroxide Solution
pH=14.0

Household Ammonia
pH=11.0

pH and Corrosion
Polarization
Describes changes in potential due to passage of
electrical current
Limits amount of current associated with corrosion
Slows corrosion

pH and Corrosion
Passivation
Passive films are chemicals that form on metal surfaces
due to reactions with their environment
May be protective, but typically are not on carbon steel
Provide increased corrosion protection on corrosion-resistant
alloys (CRAs)
Many cannot be seen

pH and Corrosion
Passivation: Scale

Is a surface film that deposits

on metal surfaces from liquid
water and may also provide
corrosion protection
Also describes reaction
products of metals with hightemperature environments

Atmospheric Corrosion

What are the four classifications of atmospheric

corrosion?

Industrial
Marine
Rural
Indoor

Atmospheric Corrosion
Above-ground Storage Tank
Combined Effects

Atmospheric Corrosion
Industrial

Atmospheric Corrosion
Marine
High concentrations of windborne salt may be carried many
kilometers (miles) inland
Hygroscopic materials absorb
water and release water only
during conditions of very low
relative humidity

Atmospheric Corrosion
Rural
Few strong chemicals

Potential for stress corrosion

cracking from:
Dusts fertilizers
Gases ammonia (NH3)

Atmospheric Corrosion
Indoor
Can be controlled when air is kept above dew point

Is generally less corrosive

Electronics processing and control rooms often use
positive pressures to limit ingress of outside, moist, and
contaminated air
Vapor-phase corrosion inhibitors prevent corrosion
during shipping and storage in warehouses that are
protected from rain but are not heated

Water
Overview
Condensed water necessary for metallic corrosion at low
temperatures
Hydrocarbon-wetted metal surfaces prevent or limit
corrosion

Water
Effects of Mineral Deposits (1 of 3)

Water
Effects of Mineral Deposits (2 of 3)

Water

Effects of Mineral Deposits (3 of 3)

Fluid velocities affect corrosion rates

Leaks on bottom of 3%
AFFF mixture lines

Water

Effects of Temperature

High temperatures generally increase all chemical

reactions, including corrosion reactions
High temperatures lower solubility of dissolved gases
Pressure alters boiling points. Pressure vessels and
downhole environments often have liquid water up to
250C (400+F).
Degree of ionization of water depends on temperature,
and this alters the pH at which water is neutral

Water
Microbially-influenced Corrosion
Microbially-influenced corrosion
(MIC) and bacteria that can
produce MIC can be classified
as:

Planktonic bacteria that

freely float or "swim" in a
body of water
Sessile bacteria that are
attached to surfaces and
become motionless

Soils
Air-soil interface is most corrosive location for buried
soils
Underground corrosion varies with soil types
Soil moisture and access to air determine the amount of
corrosion

Metallurgy Fundamentals
Overview
Materials are chosen for a number of reasons, and
corrosion-resistance is often less important than
strength, formability, cost, etc.
Almost all metals used in engineering applications are
alloys
Stronger than pure metals

Properties
What are some of the mechanical properties to
consider when selecting a metal?

Tensile and yield strength

Hardness
Ductility
Toughness
Fracture
Creep

Properties

What are the four (4) forms of fracture for many

metals?

Overload (ductile) fracture

Brittle fracture
Creep
Fatigue

Metallurgy Fundamentals
Materials Specifications
Order materials based on standardized materials
specifications

API specifications for oil-country-tubular goods

Unified Numbering System (UNS)
ASTM Specifications
ASME Specifications

Forms of Corrosion
Most Structures and Equipment Experience Multiple Forms of Corrosion

Frequency of Forms of Corrosion

Embrittlement
Intergranular

Fatigue

General

Erosion
Crevice

SCC

Pitting

http://corrosion-doctors.org/Localized/Introduction.htm

General Attack
Introduction
Claiborne Avenue Bridge from Lower 9th Side Photo by
Infrogmation CC-BY-2.5

General Attack
Definition
Proceeds more or less uniformly over exposed surface
without significant attack in a single area
Also called
General corrosion
Uniform corrosion

Most common form, but little engineering significance

Structures become unsightly before they are structurally
compromised

Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals (1 of 2)
Stray current corrosion (electrolysis)
Differential cells due to:
Differential aeration
Temperature differences
Changes in soil types

Stress areas
Sharp areas
Different microstructures (e.g. in welds)

Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Coupling of Two or More Metals (2 of 2)
Galvanic corrosion of galvanized piping in connection
with bronze valve

Galvanic Corrosion

Environmental Effects on Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic Corrosion
What are some ways you can control galvanic
corrosion?

Design
Materials selection
Electrical isolations
Barrier coatings
Cathodic protection
Modification of environment

Pitting Corrosion
Definition
Localized attack on a metal
surface at locations where overall
metal surface is relatively
uncorroded and is often covered
with passive films or scales
Results in cavities or holes

Most common way of removing

deposits by mechanical removal
using pipeline pigs or similar
devices

Pitting Corrosion

What are some ways to control pitting corrosion?

Material selection
Modification of environment
Protective coatings
Electrochemical techniques
Design

Crevice Corrosion
Definition
Major difference between crevice corrosion and pitting
corrosion is scale of corrosion initiation site
Electrochemical mechanisms of crevice corrosion:
Oxygen-concentration cell corrosion
Metal ion-concentration cell corrosion

Crevice Corrosion
What are the three principal options for controlling
crevice corrosion?
Materials selection
Design
Cathodic protection

Filiform Corrosion
Definition
Filiform corrosion underneath transparent protective
coating

Filiform corrosion on skin of aircraft

(Courtesy Kingston Technical
Software)

Filiform Corrosion
Control
Corrosion, particularly on painted surfaces, can be
prevented by:
Properly cleaning and preparing metallic surface
Applying coating only to thoroughly-cleaned and dried surface

Environmental Cracking
Definition
Can lead to catastrophic failure
Inspectors must find cracks before they reach critical
flaw size

Environmental Cracking
Control

Tensile stress
Alloy composition and structure
Corrosion environment
Corrosion potential
Temperature

Corrosion fatigue
Definition
All metals and many other materials can degrade due to
corrosion fatigue

Corrosion Fatigue
Examples
Cracked fuselage on Aloha Airlines Flight 243 in 1988,
photo from
http://www.airdisaster.com/photos/aloha243/6.shtml
(photographer unknown)

Collapsed Alexander Kielland semisubmersible platform in the North Sea,

1980

Corrosion Fatigue
Control
Use conventional methods of corrosion control
More corrosion-resistant alloys
Corrosion inhibitors
Cathodic protection

Intergranular Corrosion
Description

Intergranular corrosion:
Can happen in many different alloy systems including carbon
steels
Is an attack on, or adjacent to, grain boundaries of metal or alloy

Can occur:
In heat-affected zones of welds, where local segregation
concentrates some alloy constituents
When through-section grain boundaries are exposed in wrought
metals (plate, extrusions, etc.)
In many different alloy systems

Dealloying
Copper-based Alloys
Performance of Alloys
Dezincification of a chrome-plated scuba tank valve

Selective phase attack of

nickel-aluminum bronze

Dealloying
Cast Irons
Performance of Alloys
Dealloying in cast irons involves dissolution of iron-rich
phases leaving porous matrix of graphite and iron
corrosion products

Fretting Corrosion
Description
Happens when small oscillations in metal-to-metal
contact abrade protective films on metal surfaces and
produce accelerated corrosion
Sometimes considered a form of erosion corrosion

Fretting Corrosion

Examples:

High Temperature Corrosion

Definition
Deterioration of metal at
temperatures where direct
chemical reactions between
metal and environment cause
material to degrade
Usually associated with
formation of thick oxide or
sulfide scales

Corrosion Control
What are the most common methods of corrosion
control?
Protective Coatings
Corrosion Inhibitors and Chemical/Physical Treatment of
Water
Cathodic Protection
Anodic Protection

Corrosion Control
Corrosion Control Expenditures by Type
Organic Coatings
Metallic Coatings
Metals and Alloys
Inhibitors
Anodic/Cathodic Protection
Polymers
Services & Others

Protective Coatings
Role of Paint, Protective Coatings, and Linings on Storage Tank

Protective Coatings

Applying Protective Coating to Existing Structure

Cost Breakdown

Surface Preparation
Permits and Scaffolding

Materials
Inspection and Other
Costs

Protective Coatings
Coating Systems
Serve as barriers keeping aggressive environments
away from their substrates
Corrosion inhibitors can be added to coating which, when
wetted, are released into corrosion-causing moisture to limit
corrosion
Galvanic metallic coatings (like zinc) can be applied to
substrates
Some systems combine more than one of three methods

Protective Coatings
Barrier Coatings

Protective Coatings
Inhibitive Coatings

Protective Coatings
Sacrificial (Galvanic) Coatings

Protective Coatings
Abrasive Blasting
Surface Preparation
Abrasive blasting to prepare a pipeline for recoating in
field

Anchor pattern of pipeline

ready for field recoating

Protective Coatings
Waterjetting
Surface Preparation

Protective Coatings
Pickling
Surface Preparation
Inexpensive cleaning procedure
Followed by thorough rinsing and drying
One of cleanest and most active surfaces for further
processing
Involves sheet, plate, coil stock, and other forms of
metal, but is rarely used in field

Protective Coatings
Geometric and Access Considerations
Surface Preparation

Protective Coatings
What are the primary reasons for coating failures in
order of importance?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Poor surface preparation and cleanliness

Poor coating application
Poor or inadequate inspection
Poor specifications (both construction and coating)
Poor component design
Murphys Law

Protective Coatings

Coating Degradation (1 of 3)
Normal ageing phenomena include:

Blistering
Checking, alligatoring, or cracking
Chalking and discoloration
Lifting or undercutting paint film

Protective Coatings
Coating Degradation (2 of 3)

Protective Coatings
Coating Degradation (3 of 3)

Protective Coatings
Wraps and Linings
Air-soil interface is most
corrosive location on many
buried pipelines
Loose soil does not provide
effective electrolyte for
cathodic protection
Pipeline coatings are often
damaged by soil motion and
abrasion

Protective Coatings
Wraps and Linings
Rubber lining being glued onto interior of large-diameter pipe

Debonded liner caused by rapid pressure

release in fluid piping system

Protective Coatings
Metallic Coatings

Used to limit corrosion rates

Can be:
Anodic to their substrate (zinc, aluminum, or cadmium on steel)
Cathodic (chrome plating, precious metals, etc.)

Water Treatment
Applied only to enclosed systems
Economics often dictates that mechanical treatment is
first approach with limitations
Surface waters are classified by their salt contents

Fresh water
Seawater
Brines
Brackish waters

Water Treatment
Chemical Water Treatment
Corrosion inhibitors are chemicals that, when added to
water, reduce corrosion rates as much as 95%
Passivating inhibitors may also be used in protective
coating formulations
Most commercial corrosion inhibitor packages are
complex blends of many different chemicals
Chemicals can be damaging to elastometric seals and
similar polymeric components of a system
Corrosion control is only one reason for water treatment

Cathodic Protection
Overview
Electrical means of corrosion control
Protected structure becomes cathode in electrochemical cell

Pipelines are most common structures to be cathodically

protected
Cathodic protection substantially reduces oxidation
current (corrosion) on structure being protected
Cathodic protection does not stop corrosionit reduces
corrosion rate, hopefully to negligible, or at least
acceptable, rate

Inspection, Monitoring, and Testing

What is the difference between inspection and
monitoring?
Inspection
Process used to determine condition of system at time of
inspection

Monitoring
Process used either periodically or continuously as a tool for
assessing need for corrosion control or effectiveness of
corrosion control methods

Inspection
Goals
Determine if structures exposed
to environment conform to safe
parameters of original design
Establish whether corrosion
has consumed corrosion
allowance
Are conducted in organized and
systematic manner
May be Scheduled or
Unscheduled

Inspection
Types
Scheduled Inspections
Planned in advance
Conducted during scheduled plant downtimes

Unscheduled Inspections
Occur because of a failure, usually
Result in expensive shutdowns
Determine what needs to be done to resume safe operations

Inspection
What are some common inspection techniques?

Visual (VI)
Radiographic (RT)
Ultrasonic (UT)
Eddy-current (ET)
Liquid penetrant testing (PT)
Magnetic particle (MT)
Positive material identification (PMI)
Thermographic

Inspection
Visual (1 of 2)
Techniques
Oldest, simplest, and least expensive nondestructive
test methods
Inspectors examine objects visually by:

Using magnifying glass

Probing discreetly with penknife
Viewing inaccessible areas with boroscopes and remote
television cameras

Inspection
Visual (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Ability to:
Scan large areas quickly
Identify pit depths and pitting rates
Use video techniques in areas where personnel access is denied

Limitations:
Must shutdown during internal inspection
Borescopes and cameras only work during operation if process
is transparent
Only identify surface defects

Inspection
Radiography (1 of 4)
Techniques
Uses penetrating radiation from x-ray tube or radioactive
source to detect surface and subsurface flaws
Measures amounts and absorptive characteristics of
materials between radiation source and detector
Useful for detecting voids, inclusions, and pit depths
Less effective in locating cracks unless the orientation of the
crack is known

Inspection
Radiography (2 of 4)
Techniques
Schematic of film radiography of a metal with a corrosion
pit, an internal crack, and internal porosity defects.

Radiograph showing erosion

corrosion at a piping elbow.

Inspection
Radiography (3 of 4)
Techniques
Benefits:
Can use either electronic cameras instead of film
Creates permanent image record
Requires minimal surface preparation since coatings and thin
surface deposits are transparent
Works on most materials
Shows fabrication errors, weld defects, and weight-loss
corrosion

Inspection
Radiography (4 of 4)
Techniques
Limitations:

Allows inspection of local areas only

Does not provide depth of defect information with 2D images
Requires access to both sides of inspected equipment
Requires radiation safety measures
Needs free access for radiation source
Misses crack-like defects if not oriented favorably
Expensive

Inspection
Ultrasonic (1 of 3)
Techniques
Sound waves detecting different patterns in the part

Inspection
Ultrasonic (2 of 3)
Techniques
Benefits:

Requires direct access to only one side of inspected material

Provides accurate measurement of thickness and flaw depth
Can penetrate thick materials
Permits estimation of maximum allowable pressures based on
measurements and ANSI/ASME B31G, API 653, API 510,
API/ASME 579 and similar codes

Inspection
Ultrasonic (3 of 3)
Techniques
Limitations:
Requires extensive training and
experience
Has limited use on thin materials
May not be suitable for on-line
inspection of hot equipment due
to temperature limitations

Inspection
Eddy Current Inspection (ET) (1 of 2)
Techniques
Works on any electrically conductive
material
Allows inspectors to analyze signals
from cracks, bulges, corrosion pits
to correlate flaws

Inspection
Eddy Current Inspection (ET) (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Relatively simple and rapid method
Makes surface defects easier to be seen
Works on all nonporous materials

Limitations:
Requires extensive training
Is limited to conductive materials
Has limited penetration depth

Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT) (1 of 2)
Techniques
Used to locate crack-like surface
defects on a variety of non-porous
materials (metals, polymers, and
concrete)
Also called dye penetrant inspection
(DPI)

Inspection
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT) (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Is relatively simple and rapid
Makes surface defects easier to be seen
Works on all nonporous materials

Limitations:

Requires skilled inspectors

Is limited to surface defects
Requires direct access to surface being inspected
Requires chemical cleaning and disposal
Permits paint and other coatings to mask defects

Inspection
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) (1 of 2)
Techniques
Two principle advantages over dye
penetrant inspection:
Detect near-surface flaws (e.g. hydrogen
blisters or weld defects) that would be
missed by penetrant inspection
Sometimes detect smaller flaws than would
be detected with penetrant inspection

Inspection
Magnetic Particle Inspection (MT) (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Relatively simple and rapid method
May detect fine cracks missed by visual and dye penetrant
inspection
May reveal shallow subsurface flaws

Limitations:

Requires extensive training of inspectors

Allows ferromagnetic material inspection only
Requires clean, smooth surfaces
May have reduced sensitivity from paint or coatings

Inspection
Positive Metal Identification
(PMI) (1 of 2)
Techniques
Uses portable X-ray
fluorescence spectrometers to
identify and confirm
composition of corrosionresistant alloys
Analyzes surface in seconds
and compares it with preloaded
spectrum providing nearest
match

Inspection
Positive Metal Identification (PMI) (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Identifies alloys quickly and accurately

Limitations:

Cannot differentiate between carbon steels

Will not detect other light elements
May get false results from surface contamination
Requires direct access to cleaned surface for analysis
Has a high initial equipment cost

Inspection
Thermographic (1 of 2)
Techniques
Uses infrared cameras to
detect temperature differences
in equipment.
Used as a remote inspection
technique to determine fluid
levels in storage tanks and for
a variety of other purposes

Inspection
Thermographic (2 of 2)
Techniques
Benefits:
Is a nonintrusive remote technique
Can detect temperature changes as low as 5F (3C)
Allows identification of hot or cold spots due to fouling,
maldistribution of flow, settling of sediment or other debris, and
loss of internal refractory lining

Limitations:
Cannot determine corrosion or wall thinning

Inspection
Overview
Allows operators to determine if corrosive conditions and
corrosion rates are changing
Can be used to determine if environments are becoming more or
less corrosive

Determines effectiveness of corrosion control methods

such as chemical inhibitor injection

Review
This course covered:
The definition of corrosion.
The economic, environmental, and safety significance of
corrosion.
Why metals corrode.
The differences between inspection and monitoring.