Lecture 4

Chapter 2: Wave Motion

 3D wave equation
 Spherical, cylindrical waves

Chapter 3: Electromagnetic theory

 Review of basic laws of electromagnetism
 Maxwell’s equations
 Plane waves: Cartesian coordinates
   
i k r t 
 r , t   Ae k  r  kx x  k y y  kz z

Wave eq-ns in Cartesian coordinates:

 
  x, y , z , t   Ae
i k x x  k y y  k z z t

  x, y , z , t   Aei k x  y z t  , ,  - direction cosines of k


k  k x2  k y2  k z2

2   2  2 1
Importance of plane waves:
• easy to generate using any harmonic generator
• any 3D wave can be expressed as superposition of plane waves
 Three dimensional differential wave equation
Taking second derivatives for   x, y , z , t   Aei k x  y z t 
can derive the following:
 2  2
  k
2 2
  2

x 2
t 2

+ 1  2
 2   2 2
   k
2 2
 t
y 2

+ 
 2 combine and use: v
  k
2 2
k
z 2

 2  2  2
    k 2
 3-D differential wave equation
x 2
y 2
z 2

 2  2  2 1  2
 2  2  2 2
x 2
y z v t
 Three dimensional differential wave equation
 2  2  2 1  2
Alternative expression  2  2  2 2
x 2
y z v t
Use Laplacian operator:
 2
 2
 2 1  2

2  2  2  2   2 2
2

x y z v t

Using =kv, we can rewrite   x, y , z , t   Aei k x  y z t 

  x, y , z , t   Aeik x  y z  vt 
function of x  y  z  vt 
It can be shown, that:
  x, y , z , t   f x  y  z  vt  f, g are plane-wave solutions of the diff. eq-
n, provided that are twice differentiable.
  x, y , z , t   g x  y  z  vt  Not necessarily harmonic!
In more general form, the combination is also a solution:
   
  
  x, y , z , t   C1 f r  k / k  vt  C2 g r  k / k  vt
 Example
Given expression   x, t   ax 2  bt ,where a>0, b>0:
Does it correspond to a traveling wave? What is its speed?
Solution:
 1. Function must be twice differentiable
 
 2 x  3 b
x t

2  2

 6ax 4 0
x 2 t 2

2. Wave equation:
 2  2  2 1  2
 2  2  2 2
x 2
y z v t

6ax 4  0 Is not solution of wave equation!

This is not a wave traveling at constant speed!
 Spherical waves
Spherical waves originate from a point 2-D concentric water waves

source and propagate at constant speed in

all directions: waveforms are concentric
spheres.
Isotropic source - generates waves in all
directions.
spherical wave
Symmetry: introduce spherical coordinates
x  r sin  cos 
y  r sin  sin 
z  r cos 
Symmetry: the phase of wave should
only depend on r, not on angles:

 r    r , ,     r 
 1  2 Spherical waves
  2 2
2

v t
Since  depends only on r:
1   2  
 2  r 
r r  r 
2

 2 evaluates to the same

 2 
1
r 
r r 2

x  r sin  cos 
Wave equation:
y  r sin  sin 
1 2 1  2
r   2 2 ×r z  r cos 
r r 2
v t
1   2 
2  r 
2 1 2 r r  r 
2

r   2 2 r  1    
r 2
v t  2  sin  
r sin     
1 2
 2 2
r sin   2
 Spherical waves
2 1 2
r   2 2 r 
r 2
v t
This is just 1-D wave equation
In analogy, the solution is:

r r, t   f r  vt 
f r  vt 
 r , t  
- propagates outwards (diverging)
r + propagates inward (converging)
Note: solution blows up at r=0

In general, superposition works too:

f r  vt  g r  vt 
 r , t   C1  C2
r r
 Harmonic Spherical waves

f r  vt 
 r , t  
r
In analogy with 1D wave:
Harmonic spherical wave

 r, t   cosk r  vt 
A
r
A ik r  vt 
 r , t   e A - source strength
r
Single propagating
Constant phase at any given time: kr=const pulse
Amplitude decreases with r
A
 Spherical harmonic waves
cosk r  vt 
A
 r, t  
r

Decreasing amplitude makes sense:

Waves can transport energy (even
though matter does not move)

The area over which the energy is

distributed as the wave moves outwards
increases

Amplitude of the wave must drop!

Note: spherical waves far from source approach plane waves:
 Cylindrical waves
Wavefronts form concentric cylinders of infinite length
Symmetry: work in cylindrical coordinates
 x  r cos 
 r    r, , z    r  y  r sin 
zz
1     1 
2

r  2 2
r r  r  v t
It is similar to Bessel’s eq-n.
At larger r the solution can be
approximated:
Harmonic cylindrical wave

cosk r  vt 
A
 r, t   1   
r 2  r 
r r  r 
A ik r  vt 
 r , t   e 1 2
 2
2
 2
r r  2
z
 Cylindrical waves

Harmonic cylindrical wave

cosk r  vt 
A
 r, t  
r
A ik r  vt 
 r , t   e
r

Can create a long wave

source by cutting a slit and
directing plane waves at it:
emerging waves would be
cylindrical.
 Chapter 3

Electromagnetic theory, Photons.

and Light
 Review of basic laws of electromagnetism
 Maxwell’s equations
 Basic laws of electromagnetic theory
Electric field
Coulomb force law:
 Q1Q2
1
F F
4 0 r 2
electric permittivity of free space

Q1 Q2
Black box
F F

 
F  EQ1 Interaction occurs via electric field
 1 Q2 Electric field can exist even when charge
E rˆ disappears (annihilation in black box)
4 0 r 2
 Basic laws of electromagnetic theory
Gauss’s Law: electric
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)
Electric field flux from an
enclosed volume is proportional
to the amount of charge inside
1
E   q
0
If there are no charges (no
  1
 E  dS  0
q sources of E field), the flux
 

S is zero: E  dS  0
S

More general form:

  1
 E  dS   dV
S 0 V

Charge density
 Basic laws of electromagnetic theory

Magnetic field Moving charges create magnetic field

permeability of free space


The Biot-Savart law for  0 qv  rˆ
B
moving charge 4 r 2

Magnetic field interacts   

with moving charges: Fmagnetic  qv  B

Charges interact with both fields:

   
F  qE  qv  B (Lorentz force)
 Basic laws of electromagnetic theory
Gauss’s Law: magnetic
Magnetic field flux from an
enclosed volume is zero (no
magnetic monopoles)

M  0
 
 B  dS  0
S
 Basic laws of electromagnetic theory
Faraday’s Induction Law
1822: Michael Faraday
Changing magnetic field can result in variable
electric field
d M
emf  
dt normal

 
to area
Formal   d  
version C dt A
E  d l   B  d S area

dS  nˆdA

Changing current in the
solenoid produces changing
magnetic field B. Changing
magnetic field flux creates
electric field in the outer wire.
  
d M  B  dS  B  nˆdA
d M  BdA cos 
angle between B and
normal to the area dA
 Basic laws of electromagnetic theory
Ampère’s Circuital Law
1826: (Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic
Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience)

A wire with current creates

magnetic field around it

All the currents in the universe contribute to B

but only ones inside the path result in nonzero path
integral
Ampere’s law
 
CB  dl  0  I inside _ path
    Incomplete!
 B  dl  0  J  dS
C A

Current density
 Basic laws of electromagnetic theory
Ampère’s-Maxwell’s Law
Maxwell considered all known
laws and noticed asymmetry:
 
Gauss’s  B  dS  0
S
  1
Gauss’s  E  dS 
S 0
q
Faraday’s
  d  

CE  dl   dt AB  dS  Changing magnetic field
leads to changing electric
    field
Ampère’s  B  dl  0  J  dS
C A No similar term here

Hypothesis: changing electric field leads to variable magnetic field

 Basic laws of electromagnetic theory
Ampère’s-Maxwell’s Law Ampère’s law
   
 B  dl  0  J  dS
C A

The B will depend on area:

   
 B  dl  0  J  dS  0i
C A1
   
 B  dl  0  J  dS  0
C A2

Workaround: Include term

that takes into account
changing electric field flux in
area A2:

   E  
Ampère’s-Maxwell’s Law: CB  dl  0 A  J   0 t   dS
 
 
displacement current density
 Maxwell equations
 
Gauss’s  B  dS  0
S
  1 In vacuum
Gauss’s  E  dS 
S 0
q (free space)
  d  
Faraday’s CE  dl   AB  dS
dt
 

Ampère-     E  
Maxwell’s C  B  dl  0   J   0
A

  dS
t 
+     fields are defined through interaction with charges
Lorentz force: F  qE  qv  B

Inside the media electric and magnetic fields are scaled. To account
for that the free space permittivity 0 and 0 are replaced by  and :
  K E 0   K M 0
dielectric constant, KE>1 relative permeability
 Maxwell equations
 
Gauss’s  B  dS  0
S

  1 In matter
Gauss’s  E  dS   q
S 
 

d  
Faraday’s CE  dl   AB  dS
dt


Ampère-     E  
Maxwell’s C  B  dl     J  
A

  dS
t 
+     fields are defined through interaction with charges
Lorentz force: F  qE  qv  B
 Maxwell equations: free space, no charges
Current J and charge  are zero
Integral form of Maxwell equations in free space:
 
no magnetic ‘charges’ SB  dS  0
 
no electric charges
SE  dS  0

   dB  
CE  dl   A dt  dS 
changing magnetic field
creates changing electric
field 
  E 
CB  dl  0 0 A t  dS
changing electric field
creates changing magnetic
field
There is remarkable symmetry between electric and magnetic fields!