188 Aircraft structures and systems

There is one small drawback with inertial navigation, and it is the build-up
of errors. Any slight inaccuracy in measuring accelerations will be multiplied
up by the flight time, and this will give rise to further errors in calculating
position. For short journeys with modern systems, the error is small, but
extended journeys may see significant errors arise. For the purposes of
normal navigation, this is not usually a major issue, but INS cannot be relied
upon to position an aircraft accurately enough for automatic landings, for
instance. Over extended flight, the errors may be corrected by using some
of the other methods described here, such as GPS, where necessary.

@CI..?NRiiH3 R q@4

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

Fully programmed flight

It is now quite possible to fly the aircraft automatically, by programming way
points, arrival times, flight levels and so on into the autopilot system. The
aircraft system will set the speed, height and bearing as required, making
automatic corrections for wind speed and direction, and allowing the flight
plan to be modified at any time by the pilot. By combining some or all of
these systems, an aircraft could fly an entire flight without pilot intervention.
In the future, it is likely that many civil aircraft will not have pilots at all, but
will be pre-programmed to fly a particular route unaided. System failure is
largely prevented by having several back-up systems, and as a last resort
the aircraft could be controlled from the ground to complete a flight safely.
The main problem with this would not be a technical one; it would be
passenger resistance to a pilotless aircraft. However, once it can be sho'"'
that automatic systems are safer than human pilots, this means of flying
certainly become available.

Objectives: to describe the. principles of electrical systems, how and what

power is generated, how it is distributed around an aircraft, what it is used for,
and the backup systems used in case of an emergency.

INTRODUCTION
An aircraft in flight requires a significant amount of power, much of which is
electrical. Clearly, it is not feasible to store enough energy in batteries to
provide large quantities of power for the duration of a flight, due to the weight,
space and cost involved. Batteries store energy inefficiently, so the aircraft
must generate the power needed continuously during flight. The power
required depends on the electrical demands from the aircraft, of course, but an
allowance must be made for the emergency and failure conditions, so that the
aircraft can operate within acceptable safety margins as required by the
ulations. Since the primary source (and ultimately the only source) of power
the aircraft's engines, it is important to appreciate that the output capability
these, and hence the electrical output, will vary during flight- as the aircraft
nroaches to land, the engines will be throttled back, hence less power will be
lable to run generators. The electrical system must take account of this. In
situation where a complete engine failure takes place, the aircraft must have
way of maintaining at least some function in the electrics, to try to bring the
down safely.
The loads will depend on the type of aircraft. Typically, a large airliner will
high demands in terms of in-flight entertainment systems (IFE) and other
ger-related systems such as food preparation. Conversely, a fighter will
ly have a powerful radar system and possibly other weapon-related
that will create high demands on the electrical system.

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The electrical system may be
broken down into a number of
main areas:
1.
Po
wer
gen
erat
ion,
stor
age
and
con
ver
sion
2
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tectio
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4
.
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The details of the above depend, of
course, on the type of aircraft, its size,
number of engines and its missions.
Clearly a light aircraft such as a
Cessna 152 will need a different setup
from an Airbus A380, and different
again from a Eurofighter Typhoon.
These different types will have other
systems that differ, and again this will
affect the architecture of the electrical
system.

B
A
S

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Electrical
supplies
for
all
purposes, not just for aircraft,
come in two main types
DC or
direct current, where the voltage
remains essentially constant with
time, and AC or alternating
current, where the voltage varies
continuously, usually
as a
sinusoid.
Each
type
has
advantages and disadvantages,
and the two must exist separately,
although it is possible to convert
between them.
DC is primarily used at low voltage, and
the standard voltage for aircraft is
28V. Other voltages may be used,
but are usually derived where
needed. DC may be used to
charge batteries, and these
batteries will then return DC
voltage into the circuit when
required. Where a considerable
amount of power is needed, this
will demand high currents (since
power = volts x amps), and high
currents require thick, heavy
cables to transmit them. Since
currents are generally higher in

low-voltage circuits, losses due to

electrical resistance are higher, and
these losses result in heating of
cables. In extreme, overload cases,
electrical fires can result, so the circuits
must be protected from exceeding their
rated current. Low-voltage DC is nonlethal to humans. Provided the voltages
are the same, two or more DC supplies
may be connected (tied).
AC is generally used at higher
voltage (230-240V for household
mains supplies for instance, and
115V/200V on aircraft). The higher
voltage means that lower currents flow
for a given power, hence cables may be
smaller and lighter. Since alternating
current does not show a constant
voltage with time, there are time-related
factors to consider - these are
frequency, measured in hertz (Hz,
cycles per second), and phase,
measured as an angle relative to a
reference or datum. If two supplies are
to be connected together, then both the
frequency and the phase must be
identical, or large currents will flow
between them. This has important
consequences for aircraft, as will be

Electrical systems

191

seen later. For aircraft systems, the AC

system is a three-phase system, with
each phase carried in a separate wire
(this is explained later in this chapter).
Loads may use one or all three phases
(rarely two), and there are different ways of
wiring the phases. (Household mains is
also three-phase, although each dwelling
will generally only receive one phase.
Larger consumers such as industrial sites
will have a three-phase supply.)
Electricity can only flow around a
circuit- a return path is needed (except in
extreme cases like lightning). In many
cases this is through the airframe itself
(called 'ground'), although this may not be
sufficient, in which case a bonding lead will
be supplied, or a dedicated ground
connection will be included in the wiring
loom.

POWER
GENERATION,
STORAGE
AND
CONVERSION
As has already been said, it is not feasible
to store enough electrical energy to meet
the demands of the aircraft in flight, so
storage is limited. The vast majority of the
energy used will need to be generated in
flight, and the main method for this is to use
some form of engine-driven generators.
With multi engined aircraft, it is normal to fit
one generator to each engine. There will
also often be an auxiliary power unit
(APU), and this, too, will drive a generator.
Light aircraft will not normally have an AC
system, so a single DC generator will be
fitted to each (or the only) engine.
However, the designer has a degree of
choice when it comes to larger
aircraft, depending on the electrical
demands. It is possible to generate only AC
power, and to convert this to supply the DC
systems. It is likewise possible
to
generate only DC and derive AC power
by converting it, although the maximum
power that can reasonably be used is
limited by the current that can be drawn.
The backup systems will often require that
it is possible to convert between the two in

any case. Most large airliners and many

combat aircraft generate both supplies, but
also have the facility to convert between them.

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192 Aircraft structures and systems

attached to a rotating shaft, and the

entire assembly is known as the
armature.
In fact, a DC generator generates an
AC voltage internally. This is then
rectified (the negative half of the sine
wave is inverted), then smoothed to
create a DC voltage with an acceptable
ripple. Most generators contain several
coils, each of which will generate a sine
wave of different phase from the others
(Figure 14.1) - when these are
combined, the result is a smoother
output. The rectification is achieved by a
commutator inside the generator - two
brushes are in contact with insulated
metal contacts that each extend halfway around the generator shaft, so
the electrical connection is reversed
as the shaft rotates. Diodes prevent
the current flowing backwards between
coils in the generator. With a simple
generator using permanent magnets to
provide the field, the induced voltage
is proportional to the rotational speed,
so the voltage at minimum expected
generator speed needs to be sufficient
(in this case, 28V). For gas turbine
engines this is less of an issue than for
piston engines, since turbines tend to run
at a relatively high speed even at idle.

o
n
Direct current is created by using a DC
generator, which is normally engine driven
from the accessory gearbox. The voltage
produced by the generator coils will be
proportional to the speed at which the
generator is driven, usually a fixed ratio of
engine speed determined by the gear ratio,
and the load on the system. However, to be
usable, the output voltage must be kept
within acceptable limits - typically 10% of
the nominal voltage of 28V. This is
achieved by a regulation system, which
increases the output of the generator
automatically in response to the voltage
falling.
The electrical power is generated by
rotating coils of wire inside a
magnetic field, which induces an EMF in
the wire. The coils of wire are
However, this still produces a generator
that is larger and heavier than is ideal,
and energy is wasted at
higher speeds.
The alternative is to configure the
generator to produce only what is
required at all speeds, and this is
achieved by using separate field coils
instead of magnets to create the
magnetic field through which the
armature

(/)

Time/p
hase
angle

Figure 14.1 Rectified output of internally

generated AC. Each set of coils produces a sine
wave, which is then rectified to a half-sine by the
commutator. With multiple coils, the resulting
voltage is shown by the heavy line running along
the peaks of each sinusoidal voltage output. The
remaining ripple on this line can then be smoothed
to produce a clean, steady DC voltage,
normally 28 volts.

Electrical systems

193

coils pass. The current through the field

coils determines the strength of the field,
and this is automatically adjusted by the
regulator to maintain a constant output
voltage.
No method of energy conversion (which
is what a generator is) can be
100% efficient- there are always losses.
In this case, the losses are due to
hysteresis and resistance heating in the
windings. In low-power systems, natural
convection and radiation may be
sufficient to remove this heat, but for
large generators, which generate many
kilowatts of electrical power, even a
small loss results in a lot of heat to be
removed. This heat removal is very
important to ensure a long, reliable
operating life and to avoid fires. The
generator will normally have cooling
holes around the body, bearings at
each end of the shaft to reduce friction
and large brushes to allow for large
currents without excessive heating. The
cooling air may be forced, for instance by
using ram-air from a scoop outside the
aircraft skin or engine nacelle, and the
forward speed of the aircraft creates a
small pressure that pushes the air
through the generator.
The drive to the generator may be
through a splined shaft, or via a pulley
and belt. Larger generators will use a
splined shaft, as it is more robust and
needs little or no maintenance. The
belt-and-pulley arrangement has the
advantage of being simple and light, but
does require routine adjustment to avoid
slippage of the belt. This is achieved by
having one of the mountings as a slot,
rather than a bolt hole, so one side of the
generator can be swung in or out to
tension the belt. The same system is
used on car alternators.
In smaller aircraft, especially those
powered by piston engines, the
engine speed at idle is too low to
produce a usable voltage from a
generator. In this case, an alternator
may be used instead, in which AC
power is created, then rectified and
smoothed outside of the alternator (or
sometimes within it). Alternators have

the characteristics of being able to

produce significant power over a wide
range of rotational speed. In this case a
three-phase, frequency-wild alternator
provides outputs to a rectifier, consisting
of a bank of diodes. Effectively, the
diodes do the same job as the
commutator in a generator. The term
'frequency
wild'
means
that the
alternator runs at a fixed proportion of the
engine speed, which itself varies of
course, so that the frequency of the
output is not fixed. As in the generator,
the field supply may be varied to regulate
the output voltage. This works because
the field strength (flux) varies in
proportion to the field current. To remove
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devices previously used. Solid-state

regulators are smaller, lighter and more
reliable than mechanical devices.

the generated power, instead of a

commutator used in the generator, which
alternately contacts each brush as the
armature rotates, the alternator armature
has slip rings, which are complete,
unbroken rings, and each brush runs only
on one slip ring.
Regulation may be achieved by a
range of methods, but in principle these
involve reducing or eliminating the field
supply when a threshold voltage,
current, or both, is reached. Once the
output falls, the field supply is restored.
This happens many times per second
- typically 50 to 200Hz. Most modern
systems use solid-state regulators rather
than the mechanical
Where there is more than one
DC power source on an aircraft,
which is usually the case, it is
desirable that there is no break in
the supply, even for a moment, if
an engine or generator fails in
flight. Many electrical systems are
sensitive to power drop-outs. In
the case of a twin-engine aircraft,
for example, each generator will be
connected to its own DC bus
(which will be explained later). It is
common to have these buses
connected to each other, so that
the generator of one bus can
supply the loads on both if the
other generator output is lost.
However, this can cause problems
with the regulators, causing the
generators to 'fight' and each
regulator trying to control the
output of both generators. This can
de-stabilise the system. The
problem is resolved by connecting
the generators together using
equalising coils, which smooth out
any instability between the two
units by ensuring the field currents
are balanced.

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Generating AC power is rather more
complex than DC in some ways,
because of the choice of arrangements
that may be used, and the need to
match frequency and phase if the
buses are to be interconnected. Since
the system consists of three phases,
there are several ways in which the
phases may be connected to loads, but
that will be explained later.
Where the voltage output from a
DC system may be easily described,
assuming it is fairly steady with time,
the output from an AC system can be
measured or described in different
ways. Since the amplitude (voltage)
varies continually with time, it is
possible to identify the peak voltage
and use that to define the signal.
However, the power, measured in
watts, is not equal to the peak voltage
multiplied by the peak current. Also, if
the voltage is simply averaged over the
cycle it will be zero, since the cycle has
a negative half and a positive half. The
most common way of specifying the
voltage of an AC supply is therefore to
use the RMS, or root-mean-square,
value. The voltage at each point in time
is measured, and squared. These
values are then averaged over a whole
cycle and the square root calculated.
This gives what may be considered to
be a usable average value. It turns out
that for a pure sine wave the RMS
value is 0.707 (i.e. ..j2) times the peak
value.
There is a further complication with
AC power, and that is the power
factor. For purely resistive loads, the
current varies directly with voltage, so

multiplying RMS voltage by the

RMS current gives the power in
watts. The output of most
alternators is large, however, so it
is expressed in kilowatts (kW).
Where the loads have significant
capacitive
or
inductive
components, though, there will be
a phase difference between the
current and voltage, and this will
change the power delivered and
the
power
consumed.
The
relationship between these two is
called the power factor (PF). For
this

Electrical systems

Figure 14.2 Electrical generator. This is an integrated-

195

drive generator or lOG, which has a constant-speed drive

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unit incorporated. The generator (actually an

alternator since it generates alternating current) is
driven from the accessory gearbox of a main gasturbine engine, to which it is attached, and the
constant-speed drives converts the variable speed of
the engine to a constant speed input to the generator.
This means that the frequency output of the generator
will be constant, and can be matched to the other
generator or generators on the aircraft. The three
output cables can be clearly seen at top left. This
particular lOG is fitted to a Boeing 767.

reason, the output of an alternator (and

the power consumption of AC loads) is
therefore normally measured in kVA
(kilovolt-amps), where the power factor is
equal to the effective power, measured in
kilowatts, divided by the apparent power,
measured in kVA.
The principle of operation of the
alternator itself, though, is the same as
that already explained for alternator
supplying a DC system - a magnetic
field is created within the alternator and
the armature, with coils of wire attached,
rotates to induce a voltage. For an AC
system, the output is always in three
phases. In its simplest form, there would
be two wires per
s
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phase emerging from the alternator, but

the wiring is normally arranged so that
some of these are combined. There are
two options - star wiring or delta wiring
(Figure 14.3). Star-wired systems use a
common wire for one of the output
terminals, giving a total of four wires for
the three phases. The voltage at each of
the phase outputs, with reference to the
common terminal, is 115V peak. The
second option is delta wiring, where each
phase is connected to the other two in a
triangle (hence delta). In this case there
are only three terminals, and the voltage
on each phase must be measured
relative to another phase. This gives a
peak voltage of 200V.

Fi
x
e
dfr
e
q
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y
or
fr
e
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yw
il
d
?
Most AC systems used on aircraft use a
fixed frequency of 400Hz, or cycles per
second
(each cycle
taking
2.5
milliseconds). This gives several
advantages:
1.

The
impedance1
for
loads
containing
active (capacitive
or
inductive) components, such as
motors, is fixed because the
frequency is fixed. This means that
performance of the loads will not
change with engine speed, provided
the supply voltage can be maintained.
2.
Provided
the
phases
are
synchronised between the buses,
buses may be
linked (tied),
preventing power drop-outs in the
event of partial power loss
and allowing load sharing between
alternators.
1 Impedance is the equivalent of resistance
but for AC rather than DC systems, and it varies
with frequency for active loads.

Electrical systems

197

3. Some loads are based on a fixed

reference frequency, and in many
cases
the
400Hz
supply
is
sufficiently precise. With variablefrequency supplies, this reference
frequency
must
be
created
separately.
However, this system does have some
drawbacks. In order to maintain a fixed
frequency and phase synchronisation
over a range of engine speeds, the
alternators must be driven at an exactly
constant speed. This is normally
performed using either a constantspeed drive unit (CSDU), and in some
cases this is built into the alternator,
which is then known as an IDG or
integrated-drive generator (Figure 14.2).
In either case, the constant-speed drive
must provide a continuously variable
transmission ratio, and allow very precise
adjustment of the speed and phase to
maintain synchronisation. To do this,
CSDUs employ a hydraulic coupling a hydraulic pump and a hydraulic
motor in series. The speed of the pump
is at the proportion of the engine speed
determined by the drive ratios in the
engine's accessory gearbox, and the
delivery is fixed by the design of the
pump. The motor is a swash-plate motor,
and so its displacement per revolution
can be varied by changing the angle of
the swash-plate. (Swash-plate motors
and pumps are described in Chapter
Fifteen.) Since it must use the fluid
output from the motor at exactly the
same rate as it is delivered, reducing the
displacement will cause the speed to
increase, giving control over the ratio of
the hydraulic transmission. A governor
then controls the transmission so that
its speed remains constant over the
entire speed range of the aircraft's
engines.
CSDUs are complex and unreliable
components. They are also heavy,
expensive to buy and maintain, and
consume power, which is then

Volts

Co
mm
on

115

Phase 2
._Phase 3

,r \"///

200V

;
Phase 1

,,....---....

max

timom,3.

..............
'

\
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;
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I
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1

1-------------- Phase2
1----------------Phase3

Figure 14.3 Star and delta wiring. Three-phase

loads (and generator coils) may be connected in
two ways. The configuration shown on the left is
called star wiring, where each phase of the load is
wired from one supply phase to a common return
(often called ground), seen here as the point where

P
h
P
h
P
h

...._,./

,./

...

""'"'"

the three loads are connected. The voltage across

each load is 715V peak. In the right figure, the load
phases are connected between phases, called delta
wiring. In this configuration, the voltage across each
load is 200V peak (see Figure 74.5), so currents will

...

be higher if the impedance is the same. However;

no return connection is required.

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discharged as heat. Obviously, a way of
eliminating
them
would be very
attractive. Because the alternator would
no longer run at a constant speed, such
a system would have variable frequency,
and phase synchronisation between
alternators would not be possible. The
loads within the electrical system would
therefore need to be able to cope with a
frequency-wild system. Since it is no
longer possible to tie AC buses together

Figure 14.4 Three-phase electrical supply. The

three-phase supply consists of three separate
voltage supplies, each phased at 720 to the
others. The potential of each line is at 715 V
peak with respect to aircraft ground (earth), and
200 V peak with respect to the other phases. So
a three-phase supply contains three live lines
and one ground. Since the three lines are out of
phase, each line acts as a return to the others at
some part of the cycle, or 'ground' may be used,
depending on how the equipment is wired.

when their individual alternators are running,

an alternator failure would result in a
momentary drop-out of power on the bus it
supplies, until a contactor can be operated to
tie another bus and restore power. This issue
can be critical, and can affect systems design
and choice of components.
Until recently, frequency-wild systems
were rare. However, with
increasing pressures to reduce weight and
energy losses and increase reliability, the
benefits offered are more attractive.
G
r
o
u
n
d
p
o
w
e
r
When an aircraft is on the ground, it is
undesirable to use either the main engines
or the batteries to supply power needed for
servicing, or for the services needed during
turnaround, such as internal lighting for
servicing

Electrical systems

Figure 14.5 Ground-power cart. A ground-power

cart, seen here in the foreground alongside an

aircraft tug, supplies AC and/or DC power to the
aircraft through a ground-power receptacle. It allows
some of the electrical systems on the aircraft to be
powered without the need to run the aircraft's engines
or auxiliary power unit, reducing fuel use and noise.
On most large aircraft, the hydraulics may also be
run using the electrical hydraulic pumps provided as
part of the backup
systems. Photo: C Barcenilla

199

and embarking and disembarking

passengers.
Running
the
main
engines wastes fuel, as they must be
run at very little load just to provide
electrical power, and using the
batteries will mean they are not fully
charged for the next flight, removing
the safety margin they provide. It is
common to use an auxiliary power unit
(APU) if power is needed for short
periods. APUs are described in
Chapter
Sixteen.
For
extended
periods, or when power is required
intermittently,
ground
power
is
preferred. This consists of a cable that
connects onto a receptacle on the
outside of the aircraft, supplying AC,
DC or both. The other end of the cable
is connected to a ground-power cart,
consisting of a large diesel engine and
the appropriate electrical generators,
together with controls. Such a cart is
often known in the UK as a 'Houchin',
after a manufacturer of these items.
Some airports provide ground power
through cabled supplies at the stands.
P
o
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o
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a
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e
Clearly, no aircraft will be able to store
enough energy to supply its electrical
requirements for an entire flight - the
exception being, perhaps, a microlight
aircraft. Some energy can be stored,
though - in fact it is required by the
regulations for most aircraft. For large
aircraft, it is mandatory that enough
electrical energy is stored to supply its
minimum requirements for 30 minutes
of flight following a complete power
failure. Normally, such a failure is a

result of losing power on all

engines - multiple generator
failures are otherwise virtually
unheard of.
This energy is stored in batteries, which
under normal operation are
constantly charged from one of the
main electrical supplies. Some
batteries are of the lead-acid type,
as used in most cars, although
nickel-cadmium batteries are also
used, which are capable of a
higher energy density and can
supply higher currents for short
periods. Batteries would typically
be located in the forward avionics
bay in an airliner. Battery voltage
is commonly 28V, and require an
AC-powered charger or other
means of supplying a higher
voltage to drive the charging
current. 24V batteries are also
found, which gives adequate
supply voltage in an emergency
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d
s
y
s

and means the batteries can be

charged directly from a 28V DC bus
without
requiring
any
voltage
conversion. However, this system
gives less control over the battery
state and rate of charging. Typically, a
separate battery is used for starting
the auxiliary power unit.
In emergency cases, the first
operation is to remove every single
non essential drain on the electrical
system. This is called load shedding
and happens automatically, since only
the systems that are absolutely
essential, such as basic instruments
and flight controls, are connected to
the battery bus. In the event of failure,
this bus is automatically disconnected
from the other buses by the bus-tie
contactor, and is then powered solely
by the batteries. The bus-tie contactor
allows loads on the battery bus to be
driven by the main DC system
under
normal
operation, but
allows rapid
t
e
m
s

disconnection in an emergency. This

contactor is normally designed not to
allow current to flow from the battery
bus to the main DC bus(es), preventing
inadvertent discharge of the batteries.
Commonly, the battery bus is split
into two - the 'hot battery bus',
connected directly to the batteries,
and a separate battery bus, connected
through a bus tie (see Power
Distribution). Where it is essential to
supply some AC power in an
emergency, DC from the batteries can
be converted to AC, as described
below.
P
o
w
e
r
c
o
n

v
e
r
s
i
o
n
In most large aircraft, both AC and
DC power are generated by engine
mounted generators. However, in
smaller aircraft, and under certain
conditions in large aircraft, it is more
convenient, or necessary, to convert

Figure 14.6 Transformer-rectifier. Normally

located in the avionics bay in an airliner or
combat aircraft, the transformer-rectifier takes threephase AC and converts it to DC. The thinner; multi
core cable entering the unit at upp_er-centre is the
input, and the output is through the two
separate cables below it. The output cables
are much thicker- because the voltage has
been transformed down, the output current will
be higher for a given power.

Electrical systems

201

between the two types. This will allow

both supplies to be maintained in
emergencies, and simplifies the power
systems on aircraft of a size that does
not warrant complex electrical systems.
In both cases, there are two distinct
operations
required
voltage
conversion and conversion between AC
and DC.
Conversion from 115V/200V AC to
28V DC is carried out by transformer
rectifiers (TRUs), and is probably the
easier to understand. The high-voltage
AC
supply
passes
through
a
transformer, reducing its voltage to
around
28V. This signal, still at 400Hz AC,
must now be converted to DC. This is
performed by a rectifier, which mirrors
(rectifies) the negative half of the AC
wave. Combining the rectified outputs of
the three phases gives a signal that is
already reasonably steady, as the
rectified outputs overlap (Figure 14.2). A
smoothing circuit then reduces the
ripple on the rectified signal, so that it
more-closely resembles a pure DC
signal.
Conversion from DC to AC is slightly
more difficult. The first units used a DC
motor to drive an alternator, all
contained within a single unit known as
a rotary inverter. Although they are still
used occasionally, they generally are of
low efficiency and are unreliable.
Modern systems use a device called a
static inverter, and as the name
suggests these have no moving parts.
The DC supply is first converted to AC
using electronics (a wave generator).
This is then amplified and regulated to
produce the required 115V/200V output
at the desired power output. Each phase
must be created separately, although
the three are usually combined into a
single physical unit. The three phases
must, of course, be synchronised so
that the correct phase relationship is
maintained between them.
Power conversion capacity from DC
to AC is quite limited due to the

currents needed from DC - it is not

possible to generate all the AC power
needed for a large aircraft from any DC
source, as the current draw from the DC
supplies would be enormous. For this
reason, conversion is usually limited to
specific requirements, or to supply the
minimum equipment needed in an
emergency.

POWER
DISTRIBUTION
CIRCUIT
PROTECTION

AND

B
u

Since
the
electrical
power
is
generated principally by generators on
the engines, and also in some
circumstances at the auxiliary power
unit, a distribution system is needed to
take the power to where it is to be
used. The first point at which the
supplies and distribution system come
together is the buses (sometimes
called busbars) -a series of large
copper bars or strips capable of
carrying all the current required for the
whole aircraft. These may be located
on or near the flight deck, or in an
avionics bay,
Electrical systems

202 Aircraft
structures and
systems

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203

typically beneath the flight deck,

although other locations are possible.
One copper bar is needed for DC,
and a further one for each AC phase,
although the combination of three
phases is normally referred to as
the 'AC bus'.
However,
it isdown
oftenfurther,
desirable
to split
the supplies
especially

where multiple
generators
are used. OnOJ
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DC
buses,
an emergency
DC busbattery
or hot bus,
battery
bus,a separate
and two or more AC buses perhaps one per engine for multiengine
aircraft. Of course, if a frequency-wild
AC system is used, then a separate
AC bus must be provided for each
alternator, and they cannot be
connected unless an alternator has
failed.
For load sharing, it is normal to
provide a method of linking the
buses
together known as bus-tie
contactors, or simply bus ties. In
normal flight
(all systems working), these may
c connected or they may be
be
disconnected and only tied in the
event of supply failures. Some DC
bus ties are configured to allow current
in one direction only, and are known as
reverse-current contactors. In some
cases, such as the C-130, buses may
a

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be prioritised: there is a 'Main' DC

bus and an 'Essential' one, with a
reverse-current contactor installed
between them so that extra current
may flow from the Main bus to the
Essential one, but not in the reverse
direction. The principle is that the
more-important equipment is run from
the Essential bus, so that if the Main
DC generator fails the loads on the
Main system will effectively be shed
automatically, reducing the load on
the Essential generator.
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conn
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betw
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buse
s,
and
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circu
its,
are
princ
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contr
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by
relay
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simultaneously, which is necessary

for three-phase supplies of course,
and may even be wired to open
some contacts and close others
in a single operation (for instance
changeover contacts, where a
current is switched
from one path to another).

'f

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(/)

Figure 14.7 Aircraft electrical system. The

electrical system in most aircraft is quite complex,

with parallel redundant systems for safety. All
essential systems con be supplied from more than
one of these systems, and the systems themselves
can be cross-fed if required. In this way no single
failure, and only a limited number of unlikely
multiple failures, can cause a complete loss of
electrical power. Illustration courtesy Raytheon
Corporate Jets Inc.

distribution

From the buses, power is distributed

around the aircraft. This generally
takes the form of a wiring 'ring' both ends of a complete loop are
connected to the bus, with suitable
circuit protection. This allows the
current to flow either way around the
circuit, reducing peak currents and
reducing

E --

204 Aircraft structures and systems

Figure 14.8 Circuit breakers and

breaker panel. This is the panel above

the crew's heads on a Boeing 767,

showing ius! some of the many circuit
breakers needed. Some breakers here
have been 'pulled' to disconnect them,
and in this case have been fitted with
flags to indicate this (inset), as the
aircraft is undergoing maintenance. A
small collar fits under the breaker head
to ensure if is not inadvertently closed, to
protect maintenance personnel working
on the aircraft.

the chance of mechanical

failure in the wiring breaking the
circuit. The wiring takes the
form of round, stranded wires,
similar to mains cable, bundled
into larger groups called looms.
Connectors at suitable points
allow the various loads to be
connected where required.
There
may
be
several
kilometres of wire in a typical
airliner.

The current-carrying
capability (not the
power-carrying
capability) of a
wire is determined by
the cross-section of its
conductors. Thus a
high voltage system can
deliver a given amount of
power with a smaller
current, hence requiring
thinner wires, than a
low-voltage one.
However, low voltages
are safer. A 28V system
will cause little or no
sensation of electric
shock, and is non-lethal,
to someone coming into
contact with it, whereas
voltages above about
1OOV are considered
lethal. The actual
probability of death
depends on the current
passing through the
person's body rather than

Electrical systems

o
t
e
c
t
i
o
n

205

voltage, so the lethal voltage varies widely,

depending on the current's path through the
body, the person involved, whether it is AC
or DC, and several other factors. Highvoltage DC causes muscle clenching
(spasm), sometimes preventing release of
the person's grip on the source of
electricity, whereas AC does not (it causes
alternate spasm and release as the current
reverses).
It's important that the wire is correctly
rated for the current it will carry, and that it
is proof against moisture and other
degradation. IYiany aircraft, especially
military aircraft, may stay in service for half
a century or more. The insulation is
typically
PTFE (polytetrafluoroethane),
although
new polymers
are being
developed all the time. It needs to provide
good mechanical strength and abrasion
resistance to prevent chafing, good
electrical resistance and be resistant to
chemical, water and biological attack
(fungi, insects, rodents) and also to
ultraviolet light. The conductors within the
wires are invariably of stranded copper,
providing good electrical conductivity and
allowing the wire to bend and flex without
breaking.
Loads are often placed on distribution
circuits in logical groups. In the event of
problems, the crew must know that if they
choose to isolate (switch off) a circuit, the
systems that will be lost are logically
grouped. For this reason, there are quite a
lot of separate distribution circuits, allowing
the crew to be very selective about what
they disable. Each circuit is protected, as
described below.

If too much current is allowed to

pass through a cable or loom, the
energy losses due to the electrical
resistance of the cable will cause the
cable to overheat, and if not stopped
this could cause a fire. A fire on an
aircraft in flight
is
generally
considered
to
be catastrophic
(leading to loss of life). By design, all
circuits must be rated for the
maximum load they can carry, and
protection is installed to prevent this
maximum
being
exceeded.
In
domestic appliances, this is normally
achieved using a fuse - a thin piece
of wire that will melt above a specific
current, breaking the circuit. Fuses
are also used in aircraft, but another
device known as a circuit breaker is
faster and more flexible in use. (Note
that circuit breakers are not the
same as contact breakers, and carry
out a different function.) Circuit
breakers
can
be
manually
disconnected ('pulled') to disconnect
circuits, either in flight or during
ground servicing (Figure 14.8).
Circuit breakers are grouped
together in one or more electrical
distribution panels, and have a small
button on the top. When connected,
the button is pushed in, and if they
trip, or are pulled, the button sticks
out. A white or red marker band
under the button makes it easy to
see if a breaker is out. They are
configured so that the circuit cannot
be enabled by holding in the button,
preventing
anyone
manually
overriding circuit protection. Some
circuit breakers have a separate trip
button.

C
i
r
c
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i
t
p
r
2
0
6

A
i

r
c
r
a
f
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p
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s
t
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c
t
u
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e
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c
t
r
i
c
a
l

a
n
d
s
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s
t
e
m
s

E
L
E
C
T
R
I
C
A
L
L
O
A
D
S
The types of electrical loads on an
aircraft are very varied. There are thus
different ways of categorising them, but
for the purposes of this book we can
consider large loads and small loads,
and AC and DC loads.

T
y

l
o
a
d
s
:
Engine and APU starting
Actuation (motors, linear actuators)
Anti-ice, deicing and de-misting
Intake and probe heating
Ug ng
Contro
Avionics
Instruments
Air
conditioning
and cooling
Other loads
Although it is not a hard-and-fast rule, it
is generally found that large loads will be
powered from the AC system, since it is
capable of delivering high power with
moderate currents, making the wiring
lighter. It is also generally the case that
the majority of equipment on the flight
deck is powered from the 28V DC
system, due to its non-lethal voltage.
The starting of engines may be
achieved in many ways. However,
most

airliners use the same system, which is

to start the APU from its own batteries,
then use either electrical power or bleed
air from the APU to start the main
engines - one at a time to limit the
power
required.
Where electrical
starters are used, they are normally DC
machines. The windings and internal
components are frequently arranged so
that after starting is completed the
device will be turned by the engine and
become a DC generator. Such devices
are known as starter-generators. The
benefit of these is a significant weight
saving
compared
to
separate
components.
Some aircraft, notably the Airbus
A380, use electrical actuators for
primary flight controls, as well as
hydraulic ones. This gives a significant
reduction in the number of systems
required, because it is possible to
provide the necessary redundancy
shared between the electrical and
hydraulic systems. An electric motor or
linear actuator would not provide the
right combination of response speed
and power to provide an effective
actuator, so the ones used for flight
controls are electro-hydraulic actuators
- the electrical supply is used to drive a
hydraulic pump, and the actuation is
performed hydraulically. This makes the
actuator self-contained (apart from the
electrical connection), reducing the
weight since hydraulic supply pipes are
not required.
Anti-ice, deicing and de-misting
devices are generally similar in function
- they use electrical heating to prevent
the build-up of ice on critical surfaces,
such as engine intakes, propeller
blades and leading edges. Anti-ice may
use chemical methods as an alternative,
which will create very little load on the
electrical system.
Lighting may be a major consumer of
electrical power. Internal lighting on
passenger aircraft is mandatory, for
safety reasons, and may be powered by

Electrical systems

207

AC or DC. There is also a requirement

for emergency
lighting,
both to
illuminate the cabin and for floor-level
exit lighting. This emergency lighting
must be capable of being supplied from
the batteries in case of complete engine
failure, or post-landing. Cockpit lighting
is very important, of course. Both
ambient lighting and instrument lighting
are provided, and are adjustable in
intensity. Ambient lighting is kept at a
low level during flight to avoid reducing
the crew's night vision. Small reading
lights on goose-neck stems are provided
to allow the reading of charts and
checklists.
External lighting serves a number of
purposes on an aircraft. Strobe lights are
fitted to the fuselage - intensely bright
lights that flash to draw attention to the
aircraft in flight, making it visible to other
air traffic. Navigation lights are located
at the wingtips and at the tail, showing
the orientation of the aircraft. This is
important to other air users, as they
need to know the direction other aircraft
are travelling in. A red light is fitted at the
left (port) wingtip and a green light at the
right (starboard). White lights are fitted at
the tail. Flashing red anti-collision lights
may also be fitted to the upper and
lower fuselage.
Other lighting may be fitted to help the
crew see the state of the aircraft at night.
Wing lights can be fitted, normally at
the leading-edge root, so the entire
leading edge can be seen from the flight
deck at night. This allows the crew to
see visually whether any ice has
formed. Many airliners are fitted with a
logo light, on each side of the fin,
ensuring that the operator's branding
can be clearly seen.
Finally, landing lights are fitted, to
give a clear forward view. These may be
attached to the undercarriage itself so
they are automatically deployed, or may
be fitted in fairings outside the
undercarriage bay. An advantage of
external installation is that the lights may
be used in cloud or bad weather, giving
additional visibility to the aircraft.

Electrical control systems are used in

a wide variety of applications, from antiskid brakes to windscreen wipers, flaps
and undercarriages.

A
C
l
o
a
d
s
An important point must be made here
regarding the wiring of AC loads. As
2
0
8
A
i
r
c
r
a
f
t
s
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e
s
a
n
d
s
y
s
t
e
m
s

B
A
C
K

there are three phases, the loads may

be connected in either of two different
ways, known as star wiring and delta
wiring. As has already been seen,
since there is a phase difference
between the three phases, there is a
voltage difference between any two
phases at a given point in time. The
voltage between phases is therefore
200V peak for an aircraft system.
Relative to ground (the airframe) there is
a voltage of only 115V peak on each
phase. For a given power, the current
drawn tends to be higher in the delta
configuration.

U
P
S
Y
S
T
E
M
S
As the electrical system is vital to the
safe and effective operation of an
aircraft, so it is important to ensure that
any failures will still allow the aircraft to
continue safe flight. Systems are
designed on the assumption that at
some point in their life, failures will
occur. These failures can be predicted,
and the results analysed. Generally, no
single failure must be allowed to create
a significant hazard, and predictable
multiple failures must also be allowed
for. This is the main reason why the
systems on board an aircraft
a
r
e
s
o
c
o
m
p
l
e

x
.

The provision of bus ties and

power conversion has already
been
covered in this chapter. AC and DC
generators are generally extremely
reliable, and the major concern in the
electrical system is the engine-out
case. This is especially important with
twin-engine aircraft, since a failure of
one engine leaves little spare electrical
capacity. In particular, Etops operation
(Extended Twin OPerationS), which is
flight over large expanses of water in
twin-engine aircraft, is now common. An
engine failure may occur when the
aircraft is a long way from dry land, so it
is important that the loss of a propulsion
unit is not compounded by a major loss
of electrical power, and the APU is
regarded as a safety-critical item.
APUs are described in detail in
Chapter Sixteen, but the provision of
electrical power from the APU is
relevant here. The APU will drive at
least one electrical generator (and some
large aircraft have two APUs), giving an
additional power source to that provided
by the main engines. In the event of a
loss of a generator or an engine in flight,
starting the APU is standard procedure.
In the unlikely, but not unknown, event
of a second engine failure, the APU will
continue to provide power, and therefore
maintain flight controls. It also alleviates
some of the additional load on the
remaining engine(s) in taking over
some of the load needed to power the
electrical
s
y
s
t
e
m
.
R
a
m
a
i
r

t
u
r
b
i
n
e
s
In the event of total engine and APU
failure in flight, normally from running
out of fuel, many aircraft have a ramair turbine (RAT) that is deployed
automatically from a stowage bay,
usually under the fuselage on an airliner.
It acts like a windmill, and drives a
generator (usually DC) and sometimes
a hydraulic pump. Since the APU will
take some time to start, this provides
vital time to keep control of the aircraft
until the APU reaches full power. If the
problem is lack of fuel, the APU will not
start at all, of course. Although the
power available from the RAT is very
limited compared to an APU or engine,
it is capable of supplying much more
power than the batteries are, giving the
crew vital time in which to attempt to
overcome the emergency. The batteries
are, of course, the final resort.
Where the loss of electrical power is
due to multiple generator failures

Electrical systems

209

rather than loss of engines, the electrical

system may be driven from the hydraulic
system. Electrical pumps provide a
backup for the hydraulic system, but
these may be run in reverse, using the
pump as a hydraulic motor and the
electrical motor as a DC generator. This
provides a further element of redundancy
in both systems.

MORE-ELECTRIC
AND
ALLELECTRIC
AIRCRAFT
With increasing demands on designers
and
operators
to
improve
the
environmental performance of their
aircraft, and to reduce fuel costs, there is
a move towards reducing the reliance on
air drawn from the engines to supply the
cabin pressurisation system, using
electrical operation instead. This process
is being extended towards the goal of
powering all the onboard systems
electrically, replacing hydraulics and
pneumatics. This end-point is known as
the all-electric aircraft, with intermediate
stages being referred to as the moreelectric aircraft.

The drawback of taking compressor

bleed air from the engines is that, as both
the amount of air drawn and the speed of
the engines, hence the engine air flow,
vary independently, it is not possible to
make full allowance for this 'lost' air

when designing the engines, and this

makes the engines less efficient during
some phases of operation. Replacing
engine air bleed with larger electrical
generators allows engine design to be
better optimised for all flight phases,
saving fuel and reducing emissions. The
savings can be considerable. Since the
air used for cabin air systems leaves the
engine at high temperature, and needs
to be cooled before it can be used (see
Chapter Sixteen), the waste heat is
another loss of efficiency that can be
improved.
However, this new approach is a
radical change to the way in which
aircraft systems are designed and is not
without its problems. The amount of
electrical power to supply all of the
needs of the aircraft requires extremely
large generators, and these are bulky
and heavy. Generators normally run
more slowly than the engine shafts that
drive them, requiring a gearbox to reduce
the speed, and this reduces efficiency
and adds weight to the engine. Ideally,
the generator could run at engine shaft
speed, eliminating the gearbox. Work to
make these changes to both engine
and generator designs continues, as
does the re-design of cabin-air systems
to use electric pumps instead of bleed air.
At the time of writing, a number of
new airliner designs being developed
are 'more-electric', with the next
generation probably achieving the final
goal of an all-electric aircraft. The
Airbus A380 is the first example of a
more electric aircraft to enter service.