New Directions in the Psychology of Coaching: The Integration of

Mindfulness Training into Evidence-Based Coaching Practice

Gordon B. Spence
School of Psychology
University of Sydney
Sydney
Australia
November 2006

Submitted in partial requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

I declare that this submission is my own work and that to the best of my knowledge and
belief it contains no material previously published or written by another person, nor
material which has been accepted for the award of another degree or diploma at a
university or other institute of higher learning except where due acknowledgement is
made in the text.

Gordon B. Spence

ii

Acknowledgements
It is tempting to compare the experience of writing a doctoral dissertation with
some triumph of human endurance; like scaling a mighty Himalayan peak, sailing singlehandedly around the world, or sitting through any Kevin Costner movie. However, when
I consider the number of people who have helped me get to this point, the metaphor that
comes most readily to mind is that of the football (soccer) team.
So, as an expression of my thanks and appreciation to some very important
people, I thought Id reveal my team sheet:
Me (Striker): After all, I was the one up front who (ultimately) scored the winner!
Dr. Anthony Grant (Right Wing): Played with flair and panache. Working with
Tony has been intellectually stimulating and immensely enjoyable. Most importantly, in
the moments when it all got too hard, his support and encouragement were critical for reenergising me and helping me to stay the course. Im glad I did so!
Dr. Michael Cavanagh (Left Wing): Plays with precision and is great on the ball.
Despite joining the campaign halfway through, Michaels inputs greatly enriched the
final result. This is a guy you definitely want playing on your team!
My Research Team (Midfielders): The engine room. Anyone who denies the
possibility of free energy hasnt worked with these 25 willing souls. Without this group
of enthusiastic doers, much of this research would not have been possible.
Venerable Tedjadhammo (Midfield): The teams most enlightened player. I am
very grateful to Bhante for helping me with vital preparation for Studies 3 and 4.
Spending time with him has been joyous. I have learnt a great deal from our many chats.
Suzi Skinner and Simone Sietsma (Sweepers): In the heat of battle everyone
needs trusty companions. These are two of the best! Whilst they will doubtless say they
didnt do much, both Suzi and Simone have helped rescue my sanity on many occasions.
Blythe OHara (Central Back): Mrs Reliability. Blythe was fantastically
supportive and I am especially grateful to her for the proof reading she enthusiastically
attacked in the final days!
Dr. Suzy Green (Left Back): The original pocket rocket! Suzy provided valuable
assistance on Studies 2 and 3 and has been a constant source of encouragement.
Dr. Travis Kemp (Right Back): A good man in a crisis. Had the uncanny knack
of knowing just when to offer some wise words, help or his unique perspective.
And finally to my wife and best friend
Anita (Goalkeeper): Rock solid at the back! Whenever things have been a little
chaotic out on the field (and they often were), I was blessed to have the unwavering love,
support, patience and encouragement of this truly remarkable woman. Happily, as we
have passed the PhD relationship examination, we can approach the next phase of our
lives confident of meeting almost any challenge. However, given the imminent arrival of
our first child, it is probably best I claim quiet - rather than supreme - confidence!!
I would also like to acknowledge the encouragement and understanding of family
and friends, who have stood on the sidelines for almost 5 years (The Crowd). Whilst I
suspect many have found my slavish dedication to this endeavour a little mystifying, their
support has never gone unnoticed. I am greatly looking forward to being normal again
and giving these important relationships the care and attention they deserve.
iii

Table of Contents
Abstract......

Chapter One: Introduction and Overview

Introduction....
Overview of dissertation

1
3

Chapter Two: On the Professionalisation of the Coaching Industry and Evidence-Based

Coaching Practice
Introduction.... 14
Coaching: A contemporary approach to an age old quest 20
The rise and fall of the Human Potential Movement 24
Emergence and evolution of the coaching industry.. 31
Maturation of the coaching industry. 35
The movement toward evidence-based coaching practice 43
Conclusion.......... 47
Chapter Three: Coaching in the Australian Context: An Industry Profile
Introduction....
A little known industry.
Mental health issues in coaching..
Study 1: Survey of Australian Life Coaches and Executive Coaches...
Method...............
Participants and procedure
Results....
Current coaching practice............
Background experience and coach training..
Ethics and professional affiliations...
Discussion......
Coaching and mental health issues...
Duty of care in an unregulated industry...
Limitations....
Conclusion..........

48
49
51
52
52
52
54
54
58
60
60
62
67
70
71

Chapter Four: Developing the Evidence-Base: An Evaluation of Professional and Peer

Life Coaching
Introduction.... 72
The concept of self-regulation...... 75
Coaching and cybernetics..... 80
Existing coaching research....... 86
Study 2: Life Coaching Evaluation. 88
Method 89
Participants and procedure. 89
Cognitive-behavioural solution-focused coaching. 91
iv

Measures.
Results
Discussion..
Mental health screening..
New directions in the psychology of coaching..
Limitations..
Conclusion.................

94
95
99
101
103
104
107

Chapter Five: Mindfulness and Goal-Directed Behaviour: New Interest in an Old

Concept
Introduction.... 109
Goal-directed self-regulation 110
The role of attention and awareness in self-regulation. 114
The Concept of Mindfulness..... 118
East meets west: The confluence of two literatures. 123
Alternative conceptualisations. 125
Mindfulness and Coaching. 135
Developing mindfulness.. 136
Mechanisms of mindfulness. 138
Discussion.. 145
Conclusion..... 148
Chapter Six: The Impact of Mindfulness Training on Mindfulness, Goal Attainment
and Wellbeing
Introduction....... 149
Mindfulness and behaviour change. 150
The cultivation of mindfulness 151
Mindfulness Interventions: Empirical Findings... 152
Interventions based on meditation and non-judgemental observation 153
Socio-cognitive interventions. 158
Cognitive-attentional interventions. 160
Study 3: Developing Mindfulness. 161
Method.. 163
Participants and procedure.. 163
Mindfulness training programs 165
Measures.. 168
Results... 170
Quantitative analysis 172
Qualitative analysis.. 182
Discussion. 191
The impact on mental health and wellbeing 192
The impact on goal attainment 194
Limitations 195
Conclusion............ 197

Chapter Seven: Applying Goal Attainment Scaling in Coaching Contexts: A Useful

Tool for Researchers and Practitioners
Introduction... 199
The measurement of goal attainment in coaching research. 200
Goal Attainment Scaling.. 203
GAS: Strengths and limitations 207
Research considerations... 210
The challenges of facilitating goal attainment. 212
Conclusion..... 216
Chapter Eight: The Integration of Mindfulness Training and Cognitive-Behavioural
Solution-Focused Coaching Practice
Introduction... 219
The integration of mindfulness training and coaching 219
Study 4: Health Coaching Evaluation... 222
Method.. 223
Participants and procedure.. 223
Health coaching programs 227
Mindfulness training kits. 229
Measures.. 231
Results... 232
Goal attainment 233
Other study variables 239
Supplementary analyses... 242
Discussion..... 245
Limitations 248
Conclusion......... 249
Chapter Nine: General Summary and Conclusions
Introduction.......
Limitations of this dissertation...
Implications for researchers...
Future directions in coaching research...
Implications for practitioners.....
Implications for the coaching industry..
Conclusion.

251
253
255
258
262
265
266

References.... 268
Appendix A
The survey questionnaire used in Study 1 (Chapter 3)...... 298
Appendix B
Copies of all measures used in Studies 2, 3 and 4. 301

vi

Appendix C
Sample materials from Study 2: Life Coaching Evaluation (Chapter 4)... 310
Appendix D
Developing Mindfulness training manuals used in Study 3 (Chapter 6).. 348
Excerpt from manual used in the Attention Training condition (p.349)
Excerpt from manual used in the Mindfulness Meditation condition (p. 354)
Excerpt from manual used in the Mindful Creativity condition (p. 359)
Appendix E
Other sample materials from Study 3 (Chapter 6). 378
Appendix F
Example of a creative project completed by a participant in Study 3................... 383
Appendix G
Sample materials from Study 4: Health Coaching Evaluation (Chapter 8).. 385
Appendix H
Mindfulness Training kits used in Study 4.... 414
Appendix I
Chapters published or accepted for publication in the peer reviewed press. 423

vii

List of Figures
Figure 3.1. Total coaching clients.. 55
Figure 3.2. Coaching hours per week....

55

Figure 3.3. Accumulated coaching hours..

55

Figure 4.1. Generic depiction of a feedback loop.. 78

Figure 4.2. Generic model of self-regulation. 82
Figure 4.3. Pre-post change in goal attainment...... 98
Figure 4.4. Pre-post change in goal commitment......

98

Figure 5.1. Three components of mindfulness.. 122

Figure 6.1. Mean MAAS scores at pre, post and follow-up.. 174
Figure 6.2. Mean depression scores at pre, post and follow-up 176
Figure 6.3. Mean anxiety scores at pre, post and follow-up. 177
Figure 6.4. Mean stress scores at pre, post and follow-up. 179
Figure 8.1. Mindfulness training homework completion rates.. 233
Figure 8.2. Participant perceptions of GAS charts... 244

viii

List of Tables
Table 2.1. General characteristics of psychotherapy, mentoring, and training. 19
Table 3.1. Most common coaching issues. 57
Table 3.2. Background experience and coach training.. 59
Table 3.3. ICF standards for professional conduct with clients.... 67
Table 4.1. Sex and age of participants in Study 2........

90

Table 4.2. The GROW model... 93

Table 4.3. Means and standard deviations for all dependent variables. 97
Table 5.1. Guidelines for the use of mindfulness training in coaching. 147
Table 6.1. Sex and age of participants in Study 3. 164
Table 6.2. Outline of the Mindful Creativity program.. 167
Table 6.3. Means, standard deviations and ANOVA for program engagement
factors.. 171
Table 6.4. Means and standard deviations for MAAS scores... 173
Table 6.5. Post hoc comparisons by group and time for mean MAAS scores. 175
Table 6.6. Means and standard deviations for mental health and wellbeing
variables... 178
Table 6.7. Means and standard deviations for goal attainment. 181
Table 6.8. Program evaluation data grouped by response category.. 183
Table 7.1. Example of a goal attainment scaling chart.. 204
Table 7.2. The goal attainment scaling process. 205
Table 7.3. The ordinal display of GAS data.. 211
Table 8.1. Sex and age of participants in Study 4. 225
Table 8.2. Frequency of goal attainment across GAS outcome levels.. 234
Table 8.3. Extent of goal attainment in relation to baseline level. 235
Table 8.4

Goal attainment by levels of progression. 235

Table 8.5. Frequency of goal attainment relative to goal.. 236

Table 8.6. Goal attainment frequencies at end of phase I. 238
Table 8.7. Goal attainment frequencies at end of phase II... 239
Table 8.8. Means and standard deviations for mindfulness, mental health,
metacognition and wellbeing variables 241
Table 8.9. Comparison of MT completion rates in Study 3 and Study 4.. 244
ix

Abstract
Although the field of coaching psychology has witnessed some theoretical and
empirical advances in recent years, this has yet to translate into a commonly accepted
theoretical and empirical foundation for coaching practice. Rather, coaching practice has
run well ahead of related theory and research, and resulted in the establishment of an
industry that lacks firm foundations. This doctoral dissertation reports on a series of
reviews and empirical studies designed to further the development of evidence-based
coaching practice (EBCP).
A review of the relevant literature revealed that the development of solid
evidence-based foundations is critical if coaching is to realise its promise and potential.
As events surrounding the decline of the human potential movement (HPM) in the 1960s
and 1970s have indicated, the absence of theoretically-based rationales and solid research
support may be a reliable predictor of decline for particular treatment modalities. Whilst
the development of EBCP has important implications for the formal preparation of
coaches, pedagogical recommendations to industry educators are difficult whilst the
characteristics of the coaching industry remain hidden.
In order to develop the profile of the Australian coaching industry, a survey was
conducted of 148 practicing coaches. The results of this study revealed the presence of a
diverse local industry. Despite the existence of a small core of highly experienced
practitioners, the majority of coaches appeared to have little coaching experience and
greatly varied skills and experience. Interestingly, only 20% of respondents reported any
formal training in psychology or the other helping professions. Given recent data that
suggests mental health issues may sometimes be encountered in coaching (Green, Oades,

& Grant, 2006; Spence & Grant, in press), it is concluded that the majority of coaches
lack the skills and knowledge to identify and deal effectively with such eventualities. As
the development of an informed strategy for dealing with mental health issues would
move the practice of coaching onto a more professional footing, it is recommended that
coaches receive basic training in the identification and appropriate referral of such issues.
Much of the work presented in this dissertation is based on the presupposition that
client outcomes can be optimised through the use of EBCP. However, as this assumption
has yet to be empirically tested, a total of 63 participants took part in a 10-week life
coaching program. The results showed that when life coaching was conducted by coaches
trained in cognitive-behavioural solution-focused (CB-SF) coaching methods (i.e.
professional coaching), as opposed to untrained peers (i.e. peer coaching), participants
were more engaged in coaching and reported significantly greater goal attainment, goal
commitment and environmental mastery.
Effective goal-directed self-regulation requires that individuals remain focused on
their goals overtime, whilst managing a steady stream of disturbances that can destabilise
goal directed effort. In this regard, the construct of mindfulness has much conceptual
relevance. Mindfulness reflects the unique human capacity for directing conscious
awareness via the controlled deployment of attention. After an extensive review of the
scholarly literature, three alternative conceptualisations are presented (i.e. Eastern
religious, socio-cognitive and cognitive-attentional perspectives), accompanied by a
description of the mindfulness skills training practices associated with each.
A total of 72 participants then took part in a study to assess the impact of three
mindfulness training (MT) programs on mindfulness, goal-directed self-regulation,

xi

mental health and wellbeing. The results revealed that all the MT programs were
effective in significantly increasing mindfulness and a variety of mental health and
wellbeing indicators. Importantly, MT was also found to significantly increase goal
attainment; suggesting that MT may be a valuable addition to EBCP.
Goal attainment is a key dependent variable in coaching research. However, the
measurement of goal attainment has yet to receive much attention in the coaching
literature. As most empirical coaching studies have reported findings based on measures
that rely exclusively on subjective measures of performance (measures that are
susceptible to several forms of distortion and bias), some key issues relating to the
measurement of goal attainment are reviewed and explored in detail. From this review,
goal attainment scaling (GAS) is identified as a potentially useful methodology with
which both researchers and practitioners can document and evaluate coaching outcomes.
The final study pulls together the threads from work presented to that point, and
integrates them into a practice framework for coaching. A total of 42 participants took
part in this study, which investigated the efficacy of using MT and CB-SF coaching to
facilitate the attainment of health goals. The results showed that the delivery of MT prior
to (rather than after) CB-SF coaching was more effective in facilitating these outcomes.
This suggests MT may be important in coaching for helping people prepare for change.

xii

Chapter One

Introduction and Overview

Introduction
Since the term positive psychology was first coined nearly a decade ago
(Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), much has been done to further the study of
positive subjective experience, positive personal traits, and positive institutions
(Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). Consistent with its guiding principles,
findings from positive psychology research are now beginning to be applied across
multiple domains (Linley & Joseph, 2004) and, most importantly, for the benefit of
individuals who reside along all points of the mental health continuum. This includes not
only those who seek relief from psychological distress and mental illness (the traditional
focus of psychology) but also those who seek optimal levels of personal functioning and
wellbeing (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Indeed, in a recent volume entitled
Positive Psychology in Practice, Linley and Joseph (2004) proposed a working definition
of applied positive psychology as the application of positive psychology research to the
facilitation of optimal functioning (p. 4).
This dissertation is primarily concerned with the facilitation of optimal personal
functioning and wellbeing. More specifically, it focuses on the use of coaching as a
means of facilitating such outcomes. Coaching is a generic personal and professional
development methodology, which Grant (2005) describes as a systemised process by
which individuals are helped to explore issues, set goals, develop action plans and then

act, monitor and evaluate their performance in order to better reach their goals (p. 4).
Insofar as coaches guide these important pursuits by helping individuals draw out and
build upon their personal strengths and resources (Grant & Stober, 2006), coaching
directly addresses the agenda of positive psychology. To the extent that coaches bring a
scientific understanding of human beings to bear on various factors that promote personal
growth; coaching can be considered a form of applied positive psychology.
While there are many coaches seeking to ground the practice of coaching in
rigourous foundations (Cavanagh & Grant, 2006; Kilburg, 2004; Peltier, 2001), the
coaching industry as a whole has yet to identify a commonly accepted theoretical and
empirical foundation for coaching practice. As a result, the coaching literature is
currently dominated by highly commercialised self-help manuals, proprietary coaching
systems, and pop psychology books that make few solid links to several relevant,
established bodies of knowledge (such as psychology, organisational theory, education or
the scientific management literature). Consequently, coaching practice has run well ahead
of related theory and research, resulting in the establishment of an industry lacking firm
theoretical and empirical foundations. Devoid of these foundations, the practice claims of
the industry have tended to be completely unsubstantiated and accompanied by highly
sensationalised consumer marketing. Anecdotal reports suggest that these factors have
created considerable ambivalence and scepticism towards the coaching industry, along
with a perception that coaching is merely the latest fad in a long list of fads (KampaKokesch & Anderson, 2001).
This ambivalence and scepticism is unfortunate, however, as coaching would
appear to provide a unique platform for dispensing user-friendly applications of

psychological knowledge. Fortunately, recent developments within the field of coaching

psychology are beginning to strengthen the linkages between coaching practice and
relevant theory and research (Cavanagh, 2006; Grant, 2003a; Green et al., 2006; Spence
& Grant, in press; Stober, 2006). The work presented in this dissertation seeks to
continue this trend and is underpinned by the belief that, for coaching to fulfil its promise
and potential, the coaching industry must continue to lay a foundation for coaching
practice that is grounded in this way.

Overview of Dissertation
This dissertation documents the progression of a diverse body of work designed to
advance the emerging field of coaching psychology. It is specifically motivated by a
desire to promote a greater level of professionalism in coaching practice and, as such, it
explores several questions of an applied, theoretical and empirical nature. The reader is
advised that much of the research presented in this dissertation has been presented as
papers or posters at academic conferences (Spence, 2003, 2004a, 2004b, 2005, 2006) and,
at the time of writing, two chapters (Chapter 3 and Chapter 4) had either been published
(Spence, Cavanagh, & Grant, 2006) or accepted for publication (Spence & Grant, in
press) in the peer-reviewed academic press.
It should also be noted that the intervention studies presented in this dissertation
were specifically designed to reflect certain real-world realities. For example, the two
coaching studies reported (in Chapter 4 and Chapter 8) were conducted using designs and
methods that were meant to reflect (as accurately as possible) typical coaching
engagements. As such, these studies were conducted with adult community samples,

delivered across extended timeframes (8 to 10 weeks) and using coaching methods that
allowed coaches to spontaneously respond to the needs of participants (the coachees).
Whilst this has resulted in studies that are more complex and lengthy than is usual in
conventional social psychological research (making them somewhat challenging to
replicate), these decisions were taken to ensure that the research did not become overly
sanitised. By not taking the research too far into the laboratory, it was hoped that the
studies would yield much of practical value to the field.
The underlying theme of this dissertation is self-regulation. Interestingly, it is
possible to relate the concept of self-regulation to both the coaching industry, and to
individuals who seek out coaching services. As such, the work is presented in two parts.
In the first part (Chapters 2 and 3) it is argued that the future of the coaching will depend
heavily on the degree to which an unregulated coaching industry can effectively agree on
standards for the activities that will be critical to its future growth and development (such
as research, education and training). In the second part (Chapters 4 through 8) the focus
switches to an extensive examination of human self-regulation and, in particular, the
degree to which goal-directed self-regulation can be enhanced by the integration of
cognitive-behavioural solution-focused (CB-SF) coaching and mindfulness skills
training.
Chapter 2 begins with an exploration of issues related to the professionalisation of
the coaching industry. After introducing the term coaching, and briefly outlining a
number of key points that distinguish it from other forms of human assistance (such as
psychotherapy, mentoring and training), a generic definition of coaching is provided.
Next, in order to properly engage in a discussion about the future direction of coaching,

some understanding of its historical antecedents is required. As such, a significant portion

of Chapter 2 is devoted to outlining the context that preceded the emergence of the
coaching industry. This includes a detailed analysis of the rise and fall of the human
potential movement (HPM), which occurred between the 1940s and 1970s. Importantly,
this analysis found that the decline of this well-intentioned personal development
movement resulted from an inability to regulate its activities and critique itself; resulting
in a proliferation of outlandish practices, sensationalism, hype and (eventually) the loss of
public trust (Weigel, 2002). Given that the coaching industry in Australia (and most other
countries) is currently unregulated, it is argued that the events surrounding the decline of
the HPM create a compelling case for the coaching community to work towards greater
levels of professionalism.
Next, the notion of evidence-based practice is presented and defined as the goal of
optimizing client outcomes by translating the evidence derived from research into
practice (Wampold & Bhati, 2004). It is argued that the development of professional
coaching would be greatly enhanced by the adoption of evidence-based coaching practice
(EBCP), and that psychologists have much to offer the development of that practice.
Given that the adoption of EBCP would have major implications for the formal
preparation of coaches, psychologists appear to have an important role to play in ensuring
that the curriculum of industry educators adequately address the fundamentals of the
approach. Until more is known about the education, training and basic practices of
coaches in the Australian context, however, it would be premature to make any
pedagogical recommendations to industry educators.

Thus, Chapter 3 examines the profile of the coaching industry using a survey
designed to assess the coaching experience, occupational background, formal education
and training, ethical practices, and professional affiliations of coaches in the Australian
context (Study 1). The results indicated the existence of an extremely diverse local
industry. Despite the existence of a small core of highly experienced practitioners, the
majority of coaches reported little coaching experience and great diversity in skills,
education and training. Of particular interest were the findings that whilst fewer than 20%
of respondents reported a background in the helping professions (i.e. psychology,
counseling or social work), more than 10% of respondents indicated that they commonly
coached clients in relation to issues associated with serious psychological distress (e.g.
fears about personal loss, social isolation, self esteem).
The latter results are somewhat alarming as they suggest that the majority of
coaches lack the skills and experience to identify and appropriately respond to the mental
health issues likely to arise in coaching. For example, a recent study reported by Green,
Oades and Grant (2006) found that 52% of volunteers for a life coaching program had
clinically significant levels of psychological distress. This suggests that coaching may be
perceived as a form of socially acceptable therapy. Given these findings, it seems
inevitable that coaches will encounter clients who have significant mental health issues.
Chapter 3 concludes with a detailed discussion of mental health issues in coaching
and, in particular, the legal duty of care that might be found to exist in a coaching
relationship. This discussion identifies a need for coaches to be trained in the
identification of mental health issues and procedures relating to the referral of clients to
mental health professionals. Helping coaches to develop an informed strategy for dealing

with mental health issues is important for the professionalisation of the coaching industry
for two reasons. First, it would demonstrate that coaches offer a sophisticated and
differentiated service to the market, one that adds real value to clients by ensuring the
most appropriate intervention is selected. Second, coaches who employ such a strategy
will not only be working to discharge the legal and ethical duty of care owed to clients,
they will also be helping to build the credibility of the industry.
Whilst Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 focused on various issues related to the
professionalisation of the coaching industry, in Chapter 4 focuses on the practice of life
coaching and its empirical validation. As life coaching is increasingly used by people
seeking to attain important personal goals, it holds some promise as an experimental
platform for psychologists interested in studying goal-directed behaviour. To date,
however, psychologists have not played a major role in the development of this field;
rather the public thirst for personal development has typically been satisfied by highly
commercialized pop psychology approaches that promise much in the way of results but
lack empirical validation or theoretical grounding (Grant, 2005).
Much of the work presented in this dissertation is based on the presupposition that
client outcomes can be optimised through the use of EBCP. However, as no studies have
been conducted that compare the efficacy of EBCP with other approaches, this claim
cannot be advanced with any confidence. Chapter 4 addresses this gap in the literature by
testing the hypothesis that evidence-based life coaching is associated with better client
outcomes than less-informed approaches. To test this hypothesis, a randomised controlled
trial was conducted using a community sample of 63 adults (Study 2). Participants were
assigned to one of three conditions: professional coaching, peer coaching or a wait-list

control. In the 10-week coaching phase of the study, life coaching was delivered using
two different formulations; one using coaches trained in CB-SF coaching methods (the
professional coaching condition), and the other using untrained peer coaches who were
expected to employ a more intuitive, commonsensical approach to life coaching (the peer
coaching condition).
The results provided some initial support for the hypothesis that EBCP optimises
client outcomes, with participants in the professional coaching condition reporting greater
levels of goal attainment, goal commitment and environmental mastery compared to their
peer coaching counterparts. Interestingly, life coaching appeared to have little impact on
the wellbeing of participants; an outcome frequently promised by industry marketeers
(Grant, 2001a). However, this result may partly be explained by the nature of the
intervention (which targeted goal attainment rather than wellbeing) and the use of mental
health screening, which (by excluding individuals with elevated levels of
psychopathology) most likely created a sample of relatively happy individuals unable to
report large pre-post coaching changes in wellbeing.
The modest findings reported in Chapter 4 are important as they bring a measure
of realism to a field that has frequently made over-enthusiastic claims of efficacy. Whilst
the results show that CB-SF life coaching can be useful for improving some aspects of
self-regulation and wellbeing, it is clearly no panacea. Nonetheless, life coaching still has
great potential as a platform for helping individuals develop their ability to regulate an
array of personal and professional endeavours. As such, the remainder of this dissertation
is dedicated to exploring how CB-SF coaching might be improved by the addition of
techniques specifically designed to enhance goal-directed self-regulation.

Awareness and attention play key roles in supporting goal-directed effort, via the
unique human capacity for directing conscious awareness through the controlled
deployment of attention. Thus, Chapter 5 begins by discussing the impact of
consciousness on self-regulated behaviour. In particular, it focuses exclusively on the
construct of mindfulness, which is generically defined as the awareness that emerges
through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally to the
unfolding of experience moment by moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1990, p. 145). Interest in
mindfulness has increased considerably in the past 20 years (Baer, 2003) and has begun
to capture the attention of the coaching community (Silsbee, 2004). As yet, however, the
construct has not been theoretically or empirically connected to the practice of coaching.
After acknowledging the Buddhist origins of mindfulness, and examining shared
understandings of the construct in the scholarly literatures of the Eastern religious
traditions and Western psychology, three theoretical perspectives are identified and
outlined. These perspectives include: the Eastern religious perspective, which
acknowledges the centrality of mindfulness to the contemplative traditions of Buddhism
and Hinduism (Kabat-Zinn, 1990); and two perspectives drawn from Western
psychology: a socio-cognitive perspective (Langer, 1989) and a cognitive-attentional
perspective (Wells & Matthews, 1994). Each perspective advocates a different approach
to the cultivation of mindfulness, varying according to the emphasis placed on the use of
internal or external stimuli. After reviewing each approach in turn, a number of
mechanisms are proposed to help explain why the development of mindfulness skills
might enhance self-regulation and, hence, be a useful addition in coaching. Six potential
mechanisms are outlined: (i) the liberation of attentional resources; (ii) disruption of

habitual thought-action sequences; (iii) exposure and response prevention; (iv)

metacognitive change; (v) self-efficacy; and (vi) values clarification.
Chapter 6 continues this discussion by outlining a number of interventions that
have been designed to cultivate mindfulness. In line with the three conceptualisations
presented in Chapter 5, empirical support for these interventions is reviewed. Most
importantly, this chapter contributes a line to the growing body of mindfulness research
by reporting findings from a study that assessed the efficacy of three alternative forms of
mindfulness training (MT). In line with earlier research findings, it was expected that
each of the training programs would significantly increase levels of mindfulness, and be
associated with a number of improvements in mental health and wellbeing. In addition,
this study tested the hypothesis that MT on its own would enhance participants goaldirected effort (as measured by changes in pre- and post-MT goal attainment). To ensure
an adequate test of this hypothesis, the MT programs did not incorporate any elements
that might facilitate (or coach) participants towards the attainment of their goals.
Based on the conceptualisations outlined in Chapter 5, three MT programs were
designed and delivered to a community sample of 72 adults over a six week period
(Study 3). Participants were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: attention
training (AT), mindfulness meditation (MM), mindful creativity (MC) and a control
group. As expected, the results indicated that all MT groups reported significant posttraining increases in mindfulness (compared to controls), along with a variety of
improvements in mental health and wellbeing. Interestingly, post-MT levels of goal
attainment significantly increased across all the experimental groups. As the MT
programs were not designed to coach trainees towards goal attainment, this study

10

provides some evidence to suggest that the acquisition of mindfulness skills (on their
own) may enhance goal-directed self-regulation. It was therefore concluded that MT may
have some utility within a coaching context.
Such a finding should, however, be interpreted with some caution. This is because
the measurement of goal attainment in Study 3 was based exclusively on subjective
assessments of performance (i.e. self-report). This is the issue taken up in Chapter 7.
Specifically, it is argued that coaching research needs to ensure that it does not rely too
heavily on subjective assessments of goal performance; measures that are susceptible to
several forms of distortion and bias (e.g. recall inaccuracy, performance rationalisations).
Ideally, coaching researchers would attempt to control for these potential sources of
distortion.
Goal attainment scaling (GAS) is presented as an alternative research tool that
may help to improve the validity of this aspect of coaching research. A detailed
description of the goal scaling procedure is provided, along with some recent proposals
about the treatment of GAS research data and statistical analysis using parametric and
non-parametric tests. Fortunately, GAS has also been widely used as a practice
methodology, an additional feature that makes its potential use in coaching especially
attractive. Whilst the approach does have several limitations, GAS has many positive
attributes that make its use within coaching contexts potentially beneficial (e.g.
flexibility, greater objectivity). In addition, there is good reason to believe that GAS may
itself serve to facilitate goal attainment by moving individuals from a deliberative to an
implementation mindset (Gollwitzer & Kinney, 1989).

11

Having explored this important measurement issue, Chapter 8 draws together the
threads from work presented to that point and integrates them into a practice framework
for coaching. Importantly, this chapter provides the first articulation of a theoreticallycoherent rationale for the integration of MT and CB-SF coaching. In keeping with the
focus of this dissertation on applied research, an exploratory study was then conducted to
investigate the utility of this practice framework for health coaching. In addition, this
chapter also sought to address several issues of practical importance to the success of this
integrative framework (e.g. the delivery of MT, the use of GAS).
In the final study (Study 4) a community sample of 42 adults were randomly
assigned to one of three conditions: MT/CB-SF coaching, CB-SF/MT coaching, or a
general health education (GHE) placebo control group. In order to determine when MT is
most effectively delivered during the coaching process, a cross-over design was
employed to systematically vary the sequential delivery of MT and CB-SF coaching.
Although the results indicated that the two coaching conditions were equivalent in many
respects, participants in the MT/CB-SF condition tended to report higher levels of goal
attainment and more improvements in mental health than both the other conditions.
Notably, the delivery of MT before CB-SF coaching appeared to help participants extract
greater value from coaching (as evidenced by greater goal attainment).
In addition, supplementary analyses revealed that the GAS procedures used in this
study appeared to possess qualities that have importance to goal-directed self-regulation,
and that the delivery of MT using pre-prepared stimuli (i.e. digital audio files) appeared
to be successful in raising MT practice completion rates (compared to rates reported in

12

Study 3). Overall, this final study provides some basis for recommending that further
work be conducted on the use of MT within coaching contexts.
The final section of this dissertation (Chapter 9) is a general summary and
conclusion that summarises the previously presented research; highlights the original
contributions of this dissertation; discusses the implications of the research for
researchers, practitioners and the coaching industry; before presenting some directions
for future research. It is concluded that when coaching practice is grounded in
theoretically-based rationales and solid research support, it can he highly effective in
delivering a range of desired outcomes that support positive human experiences. As such,
the further development of EBCP is highly recommended.

13

Chapter Two
On the Professionalisation of the Coaching Industry
and Evidence-Based Coaching Practice
Introduction
As this dissertation will make repeated reference to the coaching industry, it is
necessary to commence by clarifying what is meant by that term. The Collins English
dictionary defines an industry as a branch of commercial enterprise concerned with the
output of a specified product or service (Hanks, 1988, p. 780). Thus, the term implies
collectivity. It implies the existence of a group of individuals, organisations or collectives
who are united by a common interest in producing specific products or services that are
valued by particular societal groups (i.e. target markets). Thus, a working definition of
coaching industry can be proposed as follows:

A group of individuals, organisations or collectives who are primarily

concerned with the development and delivery of coaching-related products
and services.

Whilst definitions of coaching will shortly be explored, it is sufficient at this point

to say that these individuals (i.e. the industry) are united by a common interest in
facilitating the personal and professional development of others (the general aim of
coaching). Beyond this, however, little can be said with precision. Unlike other

14

occupational groups that are relatively easy to define (e.g. doctors, lawyers, teachers), the
coaching industry is currently shrouded in uncertainty. The major reason for this is that
few attempts have been made to profile the industry by empirical means and, as such, the
knowledge base of the coaching industry tends to consist of little more than anecdotal
evidence and hearsay. As such, comparatively little is known about the composition of
the industry, including the demographics, background experience and educational history
of those who have adopted the title coach (Grant & Cavanagh, 2004). Whilst anecdotal
reports suggest the industry has attracted a diverse range of practitioners, with a diverse
range of skills and experience, the characteristics of these individuals remain relatively
obscure. As a result, it is difficult to determine whether the industry is adequately
equipped to perform its primary function: the facilitation of human development.
In this chapter it will be argued that the future of coaching will depend heavily
upon whether an unregulated coaching industry can successfully self-regulate various
activities (such as research, education and training) that are critical to its future growth
and development. As the rise and fall of the human potential movement (HPM) showed
in between the 1940s and 1970s, the promise and potential of innovative practices can be
easily lost when its practitioners fail to adopt a measured and coordinated approach
towards their development (Weigel, 2002). Given the absence of a well-developed
scholarly coaching literature, there is good reason to believe that the activities of the
coaching industry are neither measured nor coordinated.
The chapter begins with a brief discussion of what is meant by the term coaching
and by differentiating it from other forms of human assistance. A generic definition is
then provided and core themes identified. Next, coaching is contextualised by identifying

15

some of the historical antecedents that preceded the emergence of the industry. This
includes an analysis of the HPM and an explication of factors thought to have contributed
to its decline in the early 1970s. Discussion then turns to the current status of the
coaching industry and, in particular, to increasing recognition of the need for coaching to
move towards a more professional footing (Grant & Cavanagh, 2004). It will be argued
that, although coaching is unlikely to achieve full status as a profession, the industry has
much to gain from continuing to aspire to this status.
After acknowledging the important contribution that psychologists can make in
the professionalisation of coaching, the concept of evidence-based practice is introduced
and its role in the maturation of the field discussed. The adoption of an evidence-based
practice model carries important implications for the formal preparation of coaches.
However, before any pedagogical recommendations can be made to industry educators,
greater clarity is needed about the profile of the industry. The chapter concludes by
identifying the need for a survey of practitioners, in order to establish the current
practices and background experience of coaches in the Australian context.

Definitions of Coaching
Definitions of coaching vary in two fundamental ways. First, they can vary
according to the specific aims of coaching. For example, executive and workplace
coaching definitions tend to place emphasis on the development of skills valued within
organisational contexts. Accordingly, Peltier (2001) describes an executive coach as:

16

Someone from outside an organisation [who] uses psychological skills to

help a person develop into a more effective leader. These skills are applied
to specific present-moment work problems in a way that enables this person
to incorporate them into his or her permanent management or leadership
repertoire. (p. xx)

Similarly, health coaching reflects a specific orientation towards achieving change

in health behaviours. As Palmer, Tubbs and Whybrow (2003) conceive it health
coaching is the practice of health education and health promotion within a coaching
context, to enhance the wellbeing of individuals and to facilitate the achievement of their
health related goals. (p. 92) In contrast, life coaching is more generic and not bound to
one particular domain of human activity. Hence the following:

Life coaching is a powerful human relationship where trained coaches assist

people to design their future [and] coaches aid clients in creating visions
and goals for ALL aspects of their lives and creating multiple strategies to
support achieving those goals. (Williams & Davis, 2002, p. xiii, emphasis in
original)

Second, definitions also vary according to the type of process being described.
For example, some definitions view teaching and direct instruction as central elements of
the coaching process (e.g. Druckman & Bjork, 1991; Parsloe, 1995). This is based on an
assumption that the coach possesses more expertise than the client, leading to a more

17

directive style of coaching that involves the coach teaching, or telling, the client what to
do in order to attain their goals.
Other definitions, however, place greater importance on the themes of facilitation
and self-directed learning (e.g. Hudson, 1999; Landsburg, 2003; Whitmore, 1996). These
definitions are underpinned by the assumption that clients are capable of formulating
their own solutions, a process that can be stimulated through the use of non-directive
questioning and active listening. According to this view, the client is the expert in their
life and the best judge of what action should, or should not, be undertaken when working
towards goals. Rather than being mutually exclusive, Cavanagh (2005) argues that these
directive and non-directive coaching styles can be most effective when used together.
Nonetheless, the conceptual differences reflected in these definitions indicates that some
confusion has existed regarding the precise nature of coaching and how it might differ
from other forms of human assistance (such as psychotherapy, mentoring and training).
According to Stober and Grant (2006), the fundamental coaching characteristics
include: (i) a collaborative and egalitarian relationship between coach and coachee; (ii) a
primary focus on constructing solutions and goal attainment processes (rather than a sole
focus on the analysis of problems); (iii) an assumption that clients do not have clinically
significant mental health problems (i.e. their concerns are non-clinical); (iv) an emphasis
on collaborative goal setting; and (v) the idea that coaches can facilitate positive
outcomes in the coachees specific area of learning without high levels of specialised
knowledge in that same area. In contrast, psychotherapy, mentoring and training tend to
be more domain specific, less client centred and less egalitarian (see Table 2.1).

18

Table 2.1.
General Characteristics of Psychotherapy, Mentoring and Training
Intervention

Description

Psychotherapy

Tends to be focused on repairing or curing client dysfunctionality,

with clients encouraged to reflect on emotionally charged past
experience. As therapists are often seen as possessing a high degree
of domain specific knowledge, therapeutic relationships tend not to
be egalitarian.

Mentoring

Involves the transfer of personalised knowledge. This typically

occurs when an experienced senior person passes on highly specific,
expert knowledge to someone less senior with less expertise. As
such, these relationships are not equal.

Training

Training programs involve the transfer of highly specific skills and

knowledge; competencies that trainees are expected to absorb for the
purpose of performing effectively on post-training tasks. Training
agendas are determined by the trainer and are usually fixed.

Source: Grant (2003b)

As many different forms of therapy exist, it is difficult to generalise about psychotherapy. Given this
diversity, the characteristics presented here are necessarily broad.

A Generic Definition of Coaching

In essence, coaching is a methodology that helps to facilitate personal and
professional development by helping individuals to develop skills and improve
performance across a broad range of settings. Grant (2003a) has proposed the following
generic definition:

[Coaching is] a collaborative solution-focused, results orientated and

systematic process in which the coach facilitates the enhancement of life
experience and goal attainment in the personal and/or professional life of
normal, nonclinical clients. (p. 254)

19

The Coaching Boom

According to Naughton (2002), coaching has undergone a global boom during
the past decade. Whilst it is difficult to say exactly how common coaching has become,
enough material can be found in the popular press, trade publications and the internet to
indicate that it is not an insignificant industry. For example, it has been estimated that
10,000 full-time coaches practice in the United States alone (Naughton, 2002), whilst
unsubstantiated claims have also been made that coaching is the second fastest growing
industry in the US (Zeus & Skiffington, 2005).
In addition, the internet-based coach training provider, Coach U, claims to have
trained 11,000 coaches in 51 countries since 1992. It has been estimated their graduates
coach over 50,000 individuals worldwide per week (Coach U, 2006). Similarly, the
International Coach Federation (ICF) reports a membership base of 9,500 members in 70
countries (ICF, 2006). Whilst the accuracy of these statistics is uncertain, the figures do
at least point to the existence of a sizeable industry and considerable interest in coaching
worldwide.

Coaching: A Contemporary Approach to an Age Old Quest

The popularity of coaching can be readily explained. From the preceding
discussion it is clear that coaching is primarily concerned with human growth and
change, and is based on the philosophical assumption that individuals have vast
reservoirs of untapped potential within them and are naturally inclined towards
developing that potential (Stober, 2006). Such notions are not new, however, and are
easily detected in the writings of classical humanism. For example, Socrates and Aristotle

20

both held a decidedly optimistic view of humankind. Not only were they among the first
to recognise that the human capacity for thought and reason offered potential answers to
the mysteries of the universe (Tarnas, 2000), the use of these capacities for the attainment
of self-knowledge and truth came highly recommended. As Aristotle wrote in the
Nichomachean Ethics (cited in Grayling, 2003):

We ought not to listen to those who counsel us to think as mere mortal men
should think Rather we ought to strive towards attaining something great,
and leave nothing unattempted in the effort to live conformably with the
highest thing in us. Our rationality might be modest in quantity, but in
power and value it outstrips everything else about us. (p. 31-32)

The self-development imperative is also evident in the ancient Greek precept

know thyself. Socrates stressed the importance of self-knowledge and the discovery of
truth via rigourous questioning, continuous discourse and thoughtful self-reflection. For
Socrates an understanding of ones psyche and its proper condition were necessary
preconditions to the attainment of happiness. According to his prescription, one should
strive to live a life that is good for the soul (Tarnas, 2000).
Whilst political and religious authorities have not always welcomed the ideas
conveyed by the early humanists (Grayling, 2003), two millennia have done little to
diminish interest in human potential or questions related to the good life. Whilst the
current discussion does not require a detailed history of classical and modern humanism,
some acknowledgement of recent developments helps to place the emergence of the
coaching industry within its proper context.

21

Humanistic and Existential Psychology

The foundations of coaching are most obviously reflected in the central tenets of
humanistic-existential psychology. Arguably the most important of these is the
humanistic assumption that, at the deepest levels, individuals have strong positive
directional tendencies (Maslow, 1954). As Abraham Maslow, the earliest proponent of
humanistic psychology, argued:

a reasonable theoretical, and empirical case has been made for the
presence within the human being of a tendency toward, or need for growing
in a direction that can be summarized in general as self-actualization, or
psychological health (Maslow, 1962, p. 155)

According to Maslow, this tendency towards self-actualisation is apparent

whenever higher order needs become salient for an individual following the satisfaction
of lower order needs. In other words, as basic physiological and social needs are met (e.g.
food, shelter, parental love), individuals become more motivated to develop their innate
talents and capacities and, in so doing, get closer to the core of their being.
An important aspect of Maslovian theory was that it explicitly acknowledged the
role that sociocultural systems play in the development of human growth and
development (Sipe, 1987). That is, Maslow understood that self-actualisation relied on a
supportive sociocultural system that could promote the realisation of human potentialities
by providing both (i) the means to satisfy lower order needs, along with (ii) opportunities
for development and self-expression. Rogers (1961) shared a similar view. Like Maslow,
he believed that an innate actualising tendency provides the impetus for human growth

22

and development. However, in order for one to become a fully functioning person
(analogous to Maslows self-actualised state), the social environment must be supportive
of an individuals developmental efforts.
However, Rogers noted that it was more common for society to thwart and
constrain this inner nature. He argued that, from the earliest stages of development,
individuals learn that the positive regard they need from significant others and society is
often contingent upon them behaving in accordance with externally endorsed societal
norms and values. This stifles healthy personality development because it impels people
to act incongruently and not according to core aspects of the self. In contrast, supportive
environments are those which provide individuals with sufficient unconditional positive
regard to promote engagement in experiences that are congruent with the values and
interests of the developing personality (Rogers, 1961).
In line with his theorising, Rogers believed that the primary function of a therapist
was to provide clients with something that society generally had not. That is, a warm
supportive environment in which a client is able to tell their story in the presence of
empathy and non-judgmental understanding. In so doing, client-centred therapists attempt
to build a phenomenological understanding of the clients world. This understanding can
then be used as a basis for client-therapist collaboration, one in which the therapist helps
the client to develop their own solutions and a more clarified sense of self (which can
support more congruent functioning).
Several authors have noted the relevance of humanistic psychology to coaching
and, in particular, the importance of Rogerian techniques for establishing truly
collaborative coaching relationships (Peltier, 2001; Zeus & Skiffington, 2005). Further,

23

Stober (2006) argues that humanistic psychology is critical to coaching because it links
change to an innate master motive (i.e. the tendency towards actualisation) that specifies
how and under what conditions positive change occurs.
As the humanistic-existential approach was beginning to be established as the
third force in psychology, many of its core assumptions and ideals began to find
expression in the activities of the HPM (Sipe, 1987). As the HPM is of particular interest
and importance to this thesis, it is pertinent to examine some of the factors that
contributed to its rapid rise in popularity, and more importantly, its eventual decline.

The Rise and Fall of the Human Potential Movement

The origins of the HPM are to be found in the work conducted by Kurt Lewin and
other social psychologists during the 1940s. Emerging from a need to address post-war
interracial tensions, Lewin and his colleagues developed a unique group-based approach
for providing human relations training to small groups of community leaders (Yalom,
1975). The aim of these groups was to facilitate learning about group processes (e.g.
cohesiveness, scapegoating, etc) and use basic principles drawn from group dynamics,
philosophy, and psychotherapy to help community leaders work more effectively with
different groups in different contexts (Weigel, 2002). Following the success of these early
T-groups (as they became known), the approach was developed and became a basis for
training people in basic human relations skills.

The Emergence of T-Groups and the Encounter Movement

By 1950 interest in T-groups had grown to the extent that they became the
exclusive focus of the newly established National Training Laboratories (NTL), whose
24

employees worked assiduously at refining and researching the approach (Lieberman,

Yalom, & Miles, 1973). Whilst NTL initially focused on clinically oriented T-groups, by
1956 the first groups were being run with corporate executives (Highhouse, 2002). This
proved to be extremely successful. As Highhouse (2002) notes, organisations were quick
to see the potential of T-groups as a developmental tool and, by the mid 1960s, estimates
suggested that over 20,000 business men and women had participated in NTL groups.
The early 1960s also saw the emphasis of T-groups begin to swing away from its
original focus on education and more towards group therapy for normals. The new
focus was based on the argument that T-group education was more than just acquiring
interpersonal skills and an understanding of group processes, and nothing less than full
self-discovery and the development of ones full potential (Wechsler, Messarik, &
Tannenbaum, 1962; Yalom, 1975). Shortly after, groups began to emerge that focused on
the developmental interests of non-clinical groups. Wechsler et al (1962) argued that this
was an important development because:

No convenient learning vehicle is typically available to the pseudohealthy person, tensions below the surface debilitate realization of potential
capacities, stunt creativity, infuse hostility into a vast range of human
contact, and frequently generate hampering psychosomatic problems (p. 35)

As noted by Lieberman, Yalom and Miles (1973), and later by Sipe (1987), the
rapid growth of these new groups coincided with an increasing need among the American
citizenry to cope with adverse sociocultural forces, such as an increasing sense of
depersonalisation and social isolation, and a growing need to protect ones public image

25

within a competitive market-driven economy. Thus, personal change groups became

something of a social oasis (Yalom, 1975), a place where individuals could find respite
from the harsh realities of life and be rewarded for interpersonal honesty, disclosure of
self-doubts and perceived weaknesses.
As the goal of the groups shifted from education to personal development, so did
the name of the groups, with T-groups (training in human relations) and sensitivity
training groups (training in interpersonal sensitivity) giving way to an array of other
labels. Importantly, Carl Rogers was a vocal advocate of these groups and his generic
term encounter group was used to subsume a multitude of groups that sought to facilitate
personal growth by expanding awareness, promoting inter- and intra-personal exploration
and encouraging the release of dysfunctional inhibitions (Highhouse, 2002; Weigel,
2002). Yalom (1975) characterised some of the major groups as follows:

Sensory Awareness Groups: Placed emphasis on deepening interpersonal

relations by breaking free of physical and social inhibitions and the value of
action (over the intellectual integration of experience);

Psychodrama Groups: Used a range of techniques (e.g. role playing, role

reversal) to accelerate and deepen the emotional intensity of group experience;

Synanon Groups: Relied on the use of verbal attack games to strengthen the
interpersonal skills of members, based on belief that sustained attacks in areas
of weakness builds strength;

Marathon Groups: Personal growth facilitated via short, uninterrupted, high

intensity group interactions that promote confrontation, self-disclosure and
attempt to strip down inhibitions by inducing fatigue.

26

According to Weigel (2002), the public interest in encounter groups (and

particularly marathon groups) grew gradually in the late 1950s. Eventually, after a series
of professional endorsements from luminaries such as Rogers and Maslow and
widespread media coverage, encounter groups spread like wildfire from being therapy,
to being the ultimate personal growth experience, to being a full-fledged social
movement (p. 192). This social movement is what is typically known as the HPM.

A Profile of the Human Potential Movement

Broadly speaking, the HPM refers to an amorphous collection of practitioners
who were bound together by a common belief that you dont have to be sick to get
better and that self-actualisation is best facilitated when like-minded individuals gather
together and mutually seek personal growth (Howard, 1970). By the late 1960s the HPM
had become so popular that Life magazine commissioned a journalist to spend 12 months
documenting the activities of the movement. In her book, Please Touch: A Guided Tour
of the Human Potential Movement, Howard (1970) made the following observations
about the HPM phenomenon:

[It is] a business, a means of recreation, a subculture, a counterculture, a

form of theatre, a philosophy of education, a kind of psychotherapy, and an
underground religion, with its own synods, sects, prophets, schisms and
heretics. (p.4)

Howard (1970) also noted that the HPM was propelled by the energies of a
diverse range of practitioners including teachers, theologians, trainers, artists,

27

psychologists, sociologists and social workers. The movement was highly fragmented,
and few practitioners appeared to know anything about others working within the field.
The HPM was also typified by anything goes eclecticism, a scattergun approach that
drew upon an array of techniques from group psychotherapy, psychodrama, Gestalt
therapy, body therapies, theatre and dance. This eclecticism was justified on the basis that
human individuality requires access to a wide range of techniques, such as guided
imagery, creative movement, role playing and sensory awareness exercises (Howard,
1970).
In addition, Howard presented evidence of the movements popularity in North
America (Howard, 1970, see pages 258-267) by noting the existence of: 18 organisations
who sold or offered laboratory or sensitivity training (six NTL divisions, 12 other); 87
growth centres (that conducted encounter groups and sensitivity training); 41 companies
who had employed some form of group training (including American Airlines, General
Electric, Esso and Monsanto); and 65 universities or colleges that had been involved
(officially or unofficially) with encounter groups or laboratory training, including
Stanford University, University of Texas and Harvard University.
Finally, it was also noted that the HPM had extended well beyond North America
and that T-groups, sensitivity training and encounter groups had either become
established, or been attempted, in countries such as Japan, Australia, France, Holland,
along with an array of countries in South America, Africa, the sub-continent and Eastern
Europe (Howard, 1970).

28

The Degeneration into Faddism and Extremism

After reaching a pinnacle in the mid to late 1960s, the popularity of T-groups,
encounter groups and the assortment of other personal growth laboratories had
diminished considerably by the 1970s (Highhouse, 2002). As it will be shown, the
coaching industry has much to learn from the circumstances that surrounded the
degeneration of this social movement.
Although a variety of factors appear to have contributed to the decline of the
HPM, a major contributor appears to have been its dwindling research focus. Whilst there
seems little doubt about NTLs early intentions towards research (they founded the
Journal of Applied Behavioural Science as an outlet for small group research), Highhouse
(2002) notes its research agenda had become largely non-existence by the beginning of
the 1970s. This disconnection from research appears to have occurred as a consequence
of the organisations rapid expansion and its increasing reliance on clinically oriented
staff. According to Bradford (1974), a wave of anti-intellectualism swept through NTL
during the 1960s, and its employee base became less research oriented (often finding it
difficult to remain detached from the groups they were meant to be observing). This
schism between practice and research proved costly to NTL, as it led to a decline in
academic respectability and diluted its talent pool of trainers (Bradford, 1974). Finally,
after a sustained period of declining enrolments and mounting financial losses, the NTL
declared bankruptcy in 1975 (Highhouse, 2002).
A similar pattern was observed for marathon encounter groups. Based on two
extensive reviews of the literature, Weigel (2002) found that doctoral dissertations and
research articles peaked in 1970-71, before quickly dropping away. Weigel concluded

29

that a lack of empirical support was largely responsible for this decline, as the
accumulated outcome research did not support contentions that marathons produce
long-term changes in participants (p. 194). This conclusion coalesces with earlier
findings from a large scale study conducted by Lieberman, Yalom and Miles (1973), in
which they found that encounter groups did not appear to be a highly potent agent of
change.
Importantly, this decline in scholarly interest appears to have corresponded with
an increase in sensationalism, zealotry and poor ethical practice within the HPM. That is,
the disconnection from theoretically-based rationales and solid empirical support ushered
in an era where untested hypotheses, grandiose opinions and intuitions masqueraded as
profound theory (Sipe, 1987). Increasingly, program leaders relied almost exclusively
upon anecdotal evidence, personal testimonials, popular books and personal experiences
to validate their practice claims (Weigel, 2002) and to drive marketing and promotions
(Grant, 2001a). In addition, as popular demand fed the growth of the HPM, many group
leaders found themselves in a position of considerable advantage and profiteering and
unethical practices became more commonplace (e.g. excessively high fees,
inappropriately large groups). Eventually the movement began to acquire a reputation for
hurting people and damaging work relationships (Highhouse, 2002).
Finally, the incompleteness of Maslows theory of self-actualisation may have
been a further contributing factor. Sipe (1987) argues that, whilst Maslow described the
nature of self-actualisation, he did not clearly articulate how this goal was best
approached. This created a theoretical void into which stepped a myriad of new wave
therapies that involved a bizarre melange of talking, screaming, feeling, massaging,

30

meditating, touching, rebirthing [and] brain waving (Sipe, 1987, p. 28). As such, the
decline of the HPM may have reflected the disillusionment and frustration of individuals
who were unable to determine the best path towards the self-actualised state.
Many lessons were learnt from the rise and fall of the HPM. Weigel (2002)
suggests the most salutary lesson to emerge from the era was an understanding of what
happens when:

innovative practices escalate rapidly and unchecked into becoming fads

and thus outstrip the moderating control of serious and careful research.
After all, most of us were trained as scientist-practitioners. The next time
around, I hope that we will be able to exert more control over ourselves, and
that we can rein in our own wishful thinking, our true-believerism, our
greed, and even our egos. (p. 196, emphasis in original)

In sum, the HPM appears to have suffered from an inability to regulate its
activities. Despite many of its members being trained scientist-practitioners, as theory
and research decreased in importance, so the movement began to lose the ability to
critique itself. Devoid of its critical faculties, the practices of its members became more
outlandish and extreme. Sensationalism and hype became rampant. Eventually, after
losing the publics trust, the movement fell almost completely from view (Weigel, 2002)

Emergence and Evolution of the Coaching Industry

The suggestion that the HPM died in the mid 1970s is somewhat misleading.
Whilst the demise of NTL in 1975 did indicate the end of an era (Highhouse, 2002),

31

public interest in human growth and development continued to remain high. Evidence for
this can be found in the strong demand that existed for personal development books and
audio cassettes throughout this period (Fried, 1994). The spirit of the HPM appears to
have lived on during this period, even if its methods did not.
After the 1970s only a few organisations ran encounter groups using the robust,
confrontational models of earlier times (e.g. Landmark Education, Erhard Seminars
Training (est)). Rather, by the 1980s the market was showing a clear preference for
personal and professional development programs that were more informative and placed
a stronger emphasis on self-directed learning (Weigel, 2002). A number of human
performance systems also emerged around this time (e.g. Neuro-Linguistic Programming
(Bandler & Grinder, 1979) and Neuro-Associative Conditioning (Robbins, 1987)) and
were augmented by an assortment of books, tapes, training programs and motivational
seminars (Grant, 2001a).
The term coaching appears intermittently in the literature prior to the 1980s and
was generally limited to the study and enhancement of sports performance (e.g. Gaylord,
1967; Griffith, 1926). Contemporary usage of the term tends to be much broader,
however, with coaches interested in addressing performance issues across multiple
domains of life (Grant, 2003b). As such, developments within the HPM can be
considered forerunners to the emergence of the coaching industry. Whilst opinion is
divided on whether coaching was an offshoot of the aforesaid human performance
systems (Robbins, 1991) or the business world (Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001;
Zeus & Skiffington, 2005), both appear to have been strongly influential.

32

The Sociology of Coaching

Coaching has become a broad descriptor for a particular approach to facilitating
personal growth and optimal human functioning. While traditionally used to describe a
means of facilitating educational outcomes, sporting achievement or organisational
performance, its usage appears to have expanded well beyond these boundaries (Grant,
2005). According to Naughton (2002), the impetus for this expansion can be linked to a
gradual breakdown in social networks across the Western world (most notably America)
during the 1990s. That is, whilst higher living standards in industrial nations have
generally been accompanied by more options for directing the course of individual lives
(Easterbrook, 2003), increased social disconnection appears to have deprived people of
the social support needed to make important life decisions. Naughton (2002) suggests:

anxiety, ambition, and the challenges of modern life had combined to

create a market for men and women who could provide, for a fee, a service
that older generations have once performed for younger generations as a
part of the social contract. (p. 7)

Worldwide interest in coaching has burgeoned over the past decade and it is now
associated with almost every field of personal and professional endeavour. For example,
coaching services explicitly address a variety of issues across multiple domains of life,
including career direction (Bench, 2003), intimate relationships and sex (Britton, 2005;
Notarius & Markman, 1994; Weiner-Davis, 2003), weight-loss (Weight Watchers
International, 1998), creativity (Maisel, 2005), retirement planning (Bench, 2004), stress
management and coping (Smith, 2003), spirituality (Bench & Ronan, 2004; Linn, 2003),

33

parenting (Carter, Izumo, & Martin, 2003), financial affairs (Moynes & Friedman, 1998),
and business development (Leimon, Moscovici, & McMahon, 2005).

Industry Life Cycles

Viewed from the perspective of industry life cycles, coaching would appear to be
following a typical evolutionary pathway, through embryonic, growth and mature stages
of development (Klepper, 1997). To date, the coaching industry can be considered to
have passed through an embryonic stage (where rapid growth occurs as firms rush to
capitalize on market opportunities) and more recently, in a growth stage (where products
proliferate, competition peaks and then falls away after a shakeout, when weaker
competitors are acquired or driven out of business).
Consistent with these early stages of development, the absence of industry
regulation in Australia (and most other countries) has allowed coaching to grow rapidly.
With no barriers to entry, practitioners have been able to establish themselves relatively
quickly and easily. Once operational, coaches have been free to practice as they wish,
unconstrained by the codes of conduct, established practices and ethical guidelines that
exist in other more regulated fields of endeavor. Similarly, no requirements have been
imposed on industry educators to meet minimum standards in relation to the content or
delivery of coach training. Most coach training schools have tended to be driven by
proprietary coaching systems, whose syllabi have little or no connection to relevant fields
of knowledge, most particularly psychology (Grant, 2003b).
Finally, whilst coaching is firmly established within the pop psychology
personal development literature, a lack of scholarly interest has meant that little has been

34

done to develop the theoretical and empirical bases of coaching. For this reason the
content and quality of current industry practices is open to question. It would seem that
the popularity of coaching and the growth of industry has been driven by the hype and
effervescence of the self-help/personal development genre, rather than the more
moderate, cautious approach offered by theory and research.
This does not appear to be sustainable. As observed by Gazda (1968, cited in
Weigel, 2002), a backlash against a particular treatment mode can be predicted
whenever interest and practice exceeds theoretically-based rationales and solid research
support (p. 194). As has been shown, the HPM suffered from its neglect of theoreticallybased rationales and solid research support. Therefore, if the coaching industry wishes to
avoid a similar fate, it must begin to encourage its members to adopt a particular attitude
towards coaching. That is, practitioners must be encouraged to openly question, critique
and debate what they do, rather than allow good intentions, wishful thinking and
believerism to provide a basis for practice. Such an attitude would infuse the industry
with a level of sophistication and maturity not seen before, allowing passion and
enthusiasm to be balanced by reason and objectivity. An increasing number of industry
members appear to believe that the desired attitudinal change will accompany efforts
designed to elevate coaching to the status of a profession (Grant & Stober, 2006).

Maturation of the Coaching Industry

Current discussions about the future of the coaching industry typically revolve
around the aspiration that coaching should become a profession (Grant & Cavanagh,
2004). It is argued that, in order for coaching to fulfill its potential (and avoid the fate of

35

the HPM), the coaching industry needs to build its credibility by committing to the high
standards of practice that are a defining feature of professions. Whilst the aspiration is
undoubtedly a good one, there is good reason to suspect that coaching may not be able to
attain this status. Nonetheless, it will be argued that the aspiration should be retained for
the potential it has to facilitate the professionalisation of coaching.

Coaching as a Profession
A profession is an occupational group that restricts membership only to those
individuals who comply with certain requirements and standards (Cruess, Johnston, &
Cruess, 2004). Although the status of profession was traditionally limited to the clergy,
doctors, lawyers, professors and engineers (Curran, 1998), the 20th century saw an
increasing number of occupational groups claim this status (e.g. nurses, accountants,
pharmacists) and it is common for occupational groups (like coaching) to at least aspire
to professional rank and cachet (Beker, 2001).
Cruess, Johnston and Cruess (2004) define a profession as:

An occupation whose core element is work based upon the mastery of a complex
body of knowledge and skills. It is a vocation in which knowledge of some
department of science or learning or the practice of an art founded upon it is used
in the service of others. Its members are governed by codes of ethics and profess a
commitment of competence, integrity and morality, altruism, and the promotion
of the public good within their domain. (p.74)

36

Whilst several other definitions have been proposed (e.g. Beker, 2001; Moore,
1970; Perlman, 2004; Schachter, 2005), these definitions tend to reflect a profession as
having the following features:

i. A requirement for members to possess formal academic qualifications;

ii. Adherence to an enforceable code of ethics;
iii. Licensing arrangements that restrict practice to qualified members;
iv. Submission to some form of state-sanctioned regulation;
v. A shared, common body of knowledge and skills.

When assessed against traditional definitions of profession it becomes clear that

coaching is yet to achieve this status, as many of the basic criteria have not been satisfied.
As Grant and Cavanagh (2004) point out, coaching practitioners currently operate within
an industry in which they:

i. Do not have to complete any formal training, nor possess any specific academic
qualifications (except by choice);
ii. Are not bound to any particular code of ethics;
iii. Face no barriers to entry into the industry;
iv. Are not subject to any form of state or industry regulation;
v. Have little linkage to established knowledge bases that have relevance to
coaching.

37

Nonetheless, some members of the coaching industry appear to believe that

coaching is already a profession (see ICF, 2006; Williams, 2006). Grant and Cavanagh
(2004) argue that this misperception is problematic for two reasons. First, it obscures
important issues that the industry needs to address (e.g. an industry-wide code of ethics,
educational standards). Second, claiming that coaching is a profession (when it is not)
diminishes the credibility of the industry in the eyes of true professionals who understand
the current status of coaching.

Profession-as-Social Contract
Despite increasing interest in the establishment of a coaching profession, there is
good reason to suspect that this might be difficult to attain. As Perlman (2004) notes, the
emergence of a profession entails:

...reciprocal commitments from profession and the community: the

profession guarantees the competence and ethical functioning of its
members, and in return, the community grants recognition, authority,
autonomy, a high degree of regulatory control over their work lives, and a
license that restricts practice to qualified members of the profession (p.74).

As such, these commitments represent a social contract which, presumably, is

desired by both parties: the community because it greatly values or needs the services
provided by the profession; the profession because its members are jointly interested in
providing a service to the community. Whilst it seems clear that much of the coaching
industry desires such a contract, it is doubtful whether the broader community shares the

38

desire. In this respect, it is instructive to consider the experience of child care workers in
the United States. According to Beker (2001), momentum for advancing the child care
field towards professional status was created by a growing concern for the welfare of all
children at all times (p.355). In this case, a constellation of issues (e.g. the need for
expanded services, child abuse) appear to have triggered community interest in the
formation of a social contract with child care workers. Whilst Beker notes that it was too
early to conclude (p. 355) whether this interest would result in the formation of a
profession, it seems clear that communities play a major role in such developments.
Indeed, it is easy to see how community interests are served by the existence of
the legal and medical professions. The law and public health are critical to the success of
any society. Thus, it is imperative that members of these occupational groups submit to
societal and economic regulations and work within a set of parameters that seek to protect
the public interest (Childs, 1991). Any failure to do so has the potential to lead to social
disruption (e.g. poor legal representation leading to wrongful imprisonment), or
significant distress (e.g. medical neglect leading to death of a loved one).
Given that coaching is sometimes perceived as little more than a corporate perk or
personal indulgence (Cavanagh & Grant, 2004), it is currently unclear why the
community would wish to seek out a social contract with coaches. However, if the
community were to demand the regulation of the coaching industry (triggering the
formation of a profession), it might occur in one of two ways. In the worst case scenario,
it would occur to protect consumers from widespread unethical practices of the industry.
In the best case scenario, the impetus would come from the recognition that coaching

39

greatly benefits individuals, organisations and the community at large and, therefore, is
an occupation deserving of recognition and status.

The Professionalisation of Coaching

The preceding discussion argued that, despite growing interest from within the
industry, a coaching profession is unlikely to occur in the foreseeable future. However,
that discussion was premised on the assumption that a profession (and the regulation that
generally accompanies it) is naturally desirous. It may not be. Indeed, laissez-faire
economic theories suggest that all the decisions about the operation of a market should be
made without the interference of governments or external agencies (Curran, 1998). As
previously mentioned the coaching industry is currently unregulated and not subject to
any form of external control (with the exception of any relevant consumer affairs
legislation). As such, practitioners are free to operate as they wish, without the need to
adhere to any set of binding principles that would otherwise constrain their promotional
activities, competitive practices and coaching methods, or require them to conform to
certain minimum standards for practice (e.g. educational prerequisites). Clearly this is
reflective of a laissez-faire marketplace.
Although a regulation-free environment provides tremendous freedom to operate,
the lessons derived from the HPM strongly suggest that excessive freedom may be
problematic for a service industry like coaching. Thus, the onus falls upon the coaching
industry to self-regulate some portion of its activities (lest it befall a similar fate). It has
been argued that a government sanctioned or regulated coaching profession is some way
off. Nonetheless, it seems sensible that the industry retain the ideals and goals of a

40

coaching profession and use it to help coordinate the activities of those within the
industry. In so doing, the industry would effectively be adopting an aspirational goal that
could help to elevate the occupation to a level that at least approximates a profession.

The Contribution of Psychologists

Psychologists are one group with much to contribute to the professionalisation of
coaching and the call for their involvement in coaching has existed for some time
(Brotman, Liberi, & Wasylyshyn, 1998; Garman, Whiston, & Zlatoper, 2000; KampaKokesch & Anderson, 2001). In general, it has been argued that psychologists possess
expertise in principles related to human motivation and behaviour change and, therefore,
are uniquely qualified (and obligated) to protect the integrity of the emerging field by
taking a leading role in activities such as the formal preparation of coaches (Brotman et
al., 1998), the theoretical development of coaching and outcome research (KampaKokesch & Anderson, 2001).
Recent developments within the coaching industry suggest that these calls have
not gone unheeded. Early indications of this can found in the work of coaching
psychologists like Grant (2003b) who lead the development of evidenced-based coaching
psychology by establishing linkages between mainstream psychological theories and
coaching practice. Since that time, psychologists appear to have mobilised and firmly
established a presence within the industry. Evidence for this can be found in several
notable developments that have occurred between 2000 and 2006:

41

The establishment of the first university based postgraduate degree programs in

the Coaching Psychology at the University of Sydney, Australia (2000) and City
University, London (2005);

Publication of the first peer-reviewed empirical life coaching studies (Grant,

2003a; Green et al., 2006);

The establishment of coaching psychology interest groups within both the

Australian Psychological Society (2003) and the British Psychological Society
(2004);

The inaugural Australian Evidence-Based Coaching Conference hosted by the

University of Sydney in 2003. This has since been followed by several other
conferences, symposia and professional forums in coaching psychology;

The emergence of coaching journals and periodicals, including the International

Coaching Psychology Review (peer-reviewed), International Journal of
Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring (peer reviewed), and The Coaching
Psychologist (British Psychological Society);

Publication of the first books on Evidenced-Based Coaching edited by

psychologists (Cavanagh, Grant, & Kemp, 2005; Stober & Grant, 2006);

The recognition given to coaching within the positive psychology literature (e.g.
Green et al., 2006; Kauffman & Scoular, 2004).

As such, psychologists can no longer be considered to exist on the margins of the

coaching industry. Rather, they have become active participants in it, and in so doing,
bring to coaching their understanding of mental health; motivation; systems theory;
personal and organisational growth; adaptation of therapeutic models to the field of

42

coaching; research into effectiveness, resilience and positive psychology (Palmer &
Cavanagh, 2006, p.1).

The Movement toward Evidence-Based Coaching Practice

The scientist-practitioner (S-P) model has been used as a framework for guiding
the critique and refinement of work within psychology for over 50 years. Originally
proposed to guide the formal preparation of psychologists (Raimy, 1950), its basic aim
was to make the discipline more rigourous by having psychologists conduct research and
then apply the results to problems encountered in practice (Lane & Corrie, 2006).
However, as Lane and Corrie (2006) explain, the model has been difficult to
apply because: (i) science has generally been unable to illuminate the realities of
problems commonly encountered by practitioners, and (ii) applied psychology has tended
to develop independently of the research literature that was meant to guide it. As such,
the relevance of the S-P model has been continually debated and several variants of the
S-P model have been proposed, including the informed-practitioner, scholar-practitioner
and reflective-practitioner models (Jenlick, 2005; Schon, 1987). As recognition of the
incompatibility between science and practice has grown, so have alternative models of
professional practice.

Evidence-Based Practice
Unlike the S-P model, evidence-based practice does not involve the production of
evidence that demonstrates that interventions are effective or ineffective. Rather, it
reflects the desire to base practice on the laudable goal of optimizing outcomes by

43

translating the evidence derived from research into practice (Wampold & Bhati, 2004,
p.563). As such, within an evidence-based practice model, practitioners become educated
consumers of research (Stober & Grant, 2006) and take a particular attitude towards the
available information in their field (Stricker, 2002). For Stricker (2002) this attitude is
one of disciplined inquiry, critical thinking, imagination, rigor, skepticism, and openness
to change in the face of evidence (p. 1278). If evidence-based practice is to proliferate
within the coaching industry, this attitude will need to be systematically cultivated.
This has important implications for the formal preparation of coaching. Evidencebase practice models require practitioners to possess an understanding of how knowledge
is generated and validated (via scientific method). Without this understanding it would be
difficult for practitioners to become appropriately informed, as research can differ greatly
in terms of its quality. That is, studies vary in relation to research design, sampling
strategy, sample size, the use of control groups, statistical analysis and treatment
protocols. Further, the spirit of an evidence-based practice model dictates that
practitioners always critically appraise research findings, even when they came from
randomised controlled trials, and other best practice research designs, that can sometimes
be accepted without question (Wampold & Bhati, 2004). Only through an appreciation of
basic research issues can practitioners hope to become capable of translating research into
practice.

Evidence-Based Coaching Practice

Grant (2005) notes that evidence-based coaching practice (EBCP) draws upon
four key knowledge bases (i.e. business and economic science, adult education,

44

philosophy and behavioural science). According to Grant, the behavioural sciences

provide the key body of knowledge for coaching because of their primary focus on the
initiation and maintenance of behaviour change, and the existence of several subdisciplines that can provide knowledge of relevance to coaching populations (e.g. sports
psychology, health psychology, and clinical psychology).
When considering EBCP it can be informative to reflect on existing practice
models that capture the spirit of the approach. One such model is the Local Clinical
Science (LCS) model (Stricker, 2002). An attractive feature of the LCS model is that it
explicitly extends the desired attitude into the working context of the practitioner, thereby
making it local. The LCS practitioner thinks skeptically, critically, openly, and
rigorously during each session, applies relevant research findings, evaluates the outcome
with each patient, and cooperates with, and occasionally initiates, research projects
(Stricker, 2002, p. 1278). According to Stricker (2002), the LCS pervades all aspects of a
practitioners work. In a coaching context, this would include forming hypotheses during
coaching sessions and discussing them with clients, and seeking confirmatory or
disconfirmatory evidence in the immediate response of a coachee (Stricker, 2002).
Simply put, under a LCS practice model, a coach would be encouraged to behave as a
local scientist by employing basic methods of science.
The professionalisation of the coaching industry would seem to greatly benefit
from EBCP and related practice models (such as the LCS). Should these ideals and
attitudes become widespread, it seems inevitable that coaching would become a vibrant,
dynamic discipline committed to the development and delivery of the highest quality
services. Should the coaching community embrace these ideals (and support them with

45

appropriate training and credentialing) then the industry will have gone a long way
towards approximating a profession and establishing its credibility.

EBCP: Implications for the Industry

As indicated in the previous discussion of evidence-based practice, the movement
towards professionalisation carries with it several implications related to the formal
preparation of coaches. First, for EBCP to become a reality, the syllabi of coach training
programs needs to reflect the best available knowledge gathered from the disciplines with
the greatest relevance to coaching (principally business and economic science, adult
education, philosophy and the behavioural sciences). Second, it will be equally important
that training programs: (i) cultivate in students an attitude consistent with an EBCP
approach, (ii) teach the basic principles of scientific method and research methodologies,
and (iii) assist students to develop appropriate practices and procedures based on a
evidence-based practice model. In so doing, practitioners would develop the skills they
required to support an EBCP approach both during and between coaching sessions.
Finally, these programs should place considerable emphasis on the importance of
professional practice. Ideally, this would be based on a code of professional conduct and
a set of ethical guidelines that have widespread industry acceptance. Given the intimate
nature of coaching, students are also likely to benefit from a basic understanding of
mental health issues (e.g. diagnostic criteria, identification, referral procedures) and legal
considerations concerning the duty of care owed to clients.

46

Conclusion
Although these issues inform a useful conceptual framework for the
professionalisation of coaching, and may contribute towards a solid foundation for
coaching practice, little is known about the reality of the Australian coaching industry.
As such, any recommendations that might help coaching to move toward a more
professional footing seem premature whilst the characteristics of the industry remain
hidden. For example, the belief that Australian coaches have little training or experience
in the behavioural sciences is based largely on anecdotal evidence and has yet to be
established empirically. If some degree of standardisation is to occur in coach education
and training, then it will be important to assess the composition of the local industry and
understand where gaps exist in the knowledge and experience of Australian coaches. A
better understanding of the characteristics and practices of Australian coaches (in
particular the breath of their skills, experience and training) will be helpful for advancing
pedagogical recommendations to industry educators. These issues are specifically
addressed in the next chapter.

47

Chapter Three
Coaching in the Australian Context:
An Industry Profile
Introduction
The professionalisation of coaching carries a number of implications for the
Australian coaching industry, the most obvious of which is the need to develop an
evidence-based approach to coaching practice. In order for the coaching industry to guide
its own development in this regard, it will be important that the characteristics of the local
industry be well understood. However, as the main sources of industry information in
Australia are anecdotal reports and hearsay, there is little that can be said with precision
about the Australian coaching industry. This chapter directly addresses this issue by
presenting data from a survey that was designed to sketch a profile of coaches in the
Australian context.
There are several reasons why the development of an industry profile would be
advantageous for the development of evidence-based coaching practice (EBCP). First, it
would help the industry to pinpoint its strengths and weaknesses, and assist in the
identification of key areas for development (e.g. training in mental health issues). Second,
it would provide a yardstick with which to assess its growth and development across time
(by tracking changes in demographics, coaching practices, educational profiles, etc).
Finally, and most importantly, it would help to identify what evidentiary bases coaches

48

have been exposed to (if any) and permit an initial estimation of the degree to which
EBCP might already exist within the Australian coaching industry.
Whilst only one previous attempt has been made to identify salient features of the
Australian coaching industry (Clegg, Rhodes, Kornberger, & Stilin, 2005), the study
presented in this chapter is unique as it sought to assess both the personal and
professional characteristics of practicing coaches (e.g. occupational and educational
backgrounds) and specific aspects of their coaching practices (e.g. mode of coaching,
professional affiliations). The results were reflective of an industry in its early stages of
development. Whilst a small core of highly experience practitioners was noted, the vast
majority of coaches were new to the industry and considerable diversity was found in
occupational and educational backgrounds. The implications of these findings are
explored in detail and discussed in relation to the industrys goal of professionalisation.

A Little Known Industry

Little is known about the profile of the Australian coaching industry. Anecdotal
evidence suggests that the industry is populated by a diverse range of practitioners whose
stock-in-trade is the experience derived from a wide variety of professional and nonprofessional backgrounds. Beyond that, however, little can be said with certainty, as
research into the Australian industry appears to be limited to a single study (Clegg et al.,
2005). In this study Clegg and colleagues focused exclusively on business coaching and
assessed the characteristics of the local industry by surveying 42 coaching firms. Their
interest was in ascertaining: (i) the basic contours of the business coaching industry, (ii)

49

the characteristics that distinguish one firm from another, and (iii) perceptions of the
competitive environment.
Based on their data they drew three conclusions. First, business coaching firms in
Australia tend to be young and small (p.8), with 65% of firms in business for less than
5 years, 86% employing less than 5 people and more than 50% of businesses working out
of home offices. Second, most firms appeared to see themselves as generalists, with only
12% dedicated to business coaching, whilst 51% of firms offered business coaching and
at least two other types of coaching related service (either executive coaching, life
coaching, consulting, training or coach training). Finally, firms in the industry appear to
have a poor appreciation of the competitive environment in which they work, with over
half the respondents unable to identify a single competitor by name.
Whilst this study provided some useful insights into the Australian industry,
particularly in respect of its maturity, several areas of interest remain unexplored. For
example, little is known about the diversity of coaching-related skills, training and
experience amongst Australian coaches. As such, several questions have yet to be
answered about the industry:

1) What background and experience do coaches draw upon in coaching?

2) What kind of education and training do Australian coaches possess?
3) What evidentiary bases do coaches draw on to support their claims of efficacy?

In addition, the unregulated nature of the industry invariably prompts questions

about ethical standards and practices (e.g. Brotman et al., 1998):

50

4) Do coaches discuss ethical issues with clients? If so, how do they do this?
5) What are the boundaries of confidentiality within coaching relationships?
6) What professional affiliations do coaches hold?

As such, the current study was designed to investigate characteristics of Australian

coaching practitioners. The present study extends the scope of previous research (Clegg
et al., 2005) by asking respondents to outline the particulars of their experience,
education and training, ethical practices and professional affiliations.

Mental Health Issues in Coaching

Of significant interest to the current study is the question of mental health issues
and their possible emergence during coaching engagements. A recent finding reported by
Green, Oades and Grant (2006) suggests that life coaching may be attracting individuals
who wish to address an array of mental health issues (e.g. depression, social anxiety) in a
way that reduces the stigma often associated with therapy and counseling. If accurate, the
possibility exists that life coaching may be publicly perceived as a socially acceptable
form of therapy (Cavanagh, 2005). This prompts the question: How well equipped are
coaches for dealing with the mental health issues that may emerge in coaching?
Whilst anecdotal evidence suggests that depression, anxiety, personality disorders
and suicidality are the most common mental health issues found in coaching, open
discussion of such matters is rare within the industry (for an exception, see Berglas,
2002). Given that there are no barriers to entering the industry, it may be that few coaches
possess the requisite skills or confidence to deal with such issues. If so, then coaching

51

engagements have the potential to be counterproductive for clients when mental health
issues are salient to the goals of coaching (Cavanagh, 2005).
These issues are of paramount importance to the professionalisation of the
coaching industry. As discussed, the cavalier practices of leaders of the human potential
movement (HPM) led to an erosion of public trust and the reputation that the HPM was
hurting people (Weigel, 2002). Thus, it is critical that the coaching industry pay close
attention to matters related to duty of care. Given that litigation is currently on the rise in
Australia (Betts, 2004) this issue appears to be ripe for discussion. For this reason a
portion of this chapter will be devoted to exploring the potential links between coaching,
mental health issues and the law. More specifically, the discussion will focus on the legal
obligations that exist for coaching practitioners in an unregulated industry, before
questioning the degree to which existing ethical frameworks assist coaches to discharge
their legal duty of care.

Study 1: Survey of Australian Life Coaches and Executive Coaches

The survey was conducted during the First International Coach Federation
Australasian (ICFA) conference held in Sydney during August 2002.

Method
Participants and Procedure
Respondents were Australian coaches practicing at the time of the survey. A total
of 155 surveys were completed. From this initial pool or respondents, seven surveys were
excluded from the analysis due to the fact that the coaches were not practicing. As such,

52

the final sample was reduced to 148 (out of 403 delegates) representing a response rate of
36.7%. Although the true response rate would have been greater than this (as some
delegates would not have been practicing coaches and, therefore, ineligible for the
survey), it is not possible to report this rate as the total number of practicing coaches was
not known. The sample consisted of 110 females (74%), with a mean age of 42.7 years,
and 38 males (26%), with a mean age 46.0 years. Not surprisingly, 88% of the
respondents were geographically located on Australias eastern sea board (New South
Wales 55%, Queensland 10%, and Victoria 23%). However, as this survey was
conducted in Sydney, this should not be taken as accurate reflection of the geographical
distribution of coaches in Australia.

Survey Instrument
To ensure the highest possible response rate, the survey questionnaire was
designed to be brief and easy to complete. For this reason, the survey consisted primarily
of forced choice items, with respondents selecting from a range of possible responses. To
supplement this data with more detailed information, a small number of free response
items were included (e.g. In your experience, what are the three most common issues
that lead clients to seek coaching?).The final questionnaire consisted of 25 items arranged
in three areas of general interest: (i) current coaching practice; (ii) background experience
and coach training; and (iii) ethics and professional affiliations.
Items were designed to assess the following information: general demographic
data (e.g. age, sex), coaching status, modes of coaching, niche specialisation, industry
background, coach specific training, coaching related experience, professional affiliation

53

and endorsement of a recognized ethical code. The questionnaire was printed on one A4
page (double-sided) and included a short participant information statement and consent
clause (see Appendix A). Conference delegates were introduced to the surveys via a
series of announcements during the conference. To assist, conference organisers agreed
to include the questionnaires in the conference information satchels, with respondents
asked to complete the questionnaires and place them in a sealed collection box located in
the conference foyer. The survey took between 5-10 minutes to complete.

Results
Current Coaching Practice
Practitioners were asked about the depth of their coaching experience, where and
how they practiced, most commonly encountered issues, and niche specialisation (if any).

Coaching Status
To assess the current level of engagement in coaching practice, practitioners were
asked to indicate whether coaching was a full-time or part-time occupation. Over half the
sample (58%) confirmed that coaching was their main occupation. Of these 69%
indicated that coaching had been their main occupation for less than two years, with only
12% reporting greater than five years experience. When asked how long they had been
coaching (irrespective of full or part-time status), approximately one third of the sample
(31%) reported total experience of less than one year, with more than half the total
sample possessing less than two years coaching experience (55%).
In addition, respondents were asked to quantify their experience by estimating
their: (i) total number of coaching clients, (ii) total number of coaching hours per week,
54

(iii) total accumulated coaching hours. As shown in Figures 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3, a sizeable
proportion of the respondents appear to be early-career coaches with 36% of coaches
having coached fewer than 10 clients, 41% reporting less than five coaching hours per
week, and 22% reporting less than 50 hours accumulated coaching experience.
Furthermore, 70% of coaches reported that they coach for less than 10 hours per week.
The data also indicates that the industry may include a core of highly experienced
coaches, as 26% of respondents have coached more than 50 clients, and 38% reported
total coaching experience of greater than 200 hours.

<10

<5 hrs

11-15

5-10 hrs

26-50

11-20 hrs

>50

>20 hrs

Figure 3.1. Total coaching clients

Figure 3.2. Coaching hours per week

<50
50-100
101-200
>200

Figure 3.3. Accumulated coaching hours

55

Modes of Coaching
In this section respondents were asked to indicate: (i) where they conducted the
majority of their coaching sessions, and (ii) what percentage of the time was spent
coaching using face-to-face, email or telephonic means. Over half the respondents (56%)
reported conducting most of their sessions from home, while 16% coached at work, 13%
from a rented office and 15% coached at their clients premises. In addition, face-to-face
coaching was reported as more usual than technology assisted coaching, with 36% of
respondents reporting that they always coach face-to-face (with 27% reporting mostly). In
contrast, only 12% reported that they always coached by telephone (with 10% reporting
mostly). Email coaching was not used by almost three-quarters of the sample (73%), with
only 27% of respondents reporting its use rarely. Only one respondent indicated that they
sometimes used on-line chat to conduct coaching sessions.

Niche Specialisation
Over half the coaches surveyed (55%) reported having a niche specialization. Of
these, 71% reported an executive/workplace coaching orientation, with the remainder
(29%) reporting a life/personal coaching orientation. Whilst these proportions are not
surprising given a coaching literature dominated by executive and workplace coaching
(Kampa-Kokesch & Anderson, 2001), it should be noted that 45% of all respondents did
not name a specialisation. This suggests that a significant portion of the coaching
community perceive themselves as generalists and are willing to coach in multiple
domains and, presumably, across a broad range of issues. A similar finding was reported
by Clegg et al (2005).

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Common Coaching Issues

The three most common issues encountered in coaching are career/business
related issues, relationships/ interpersonal skills, and direction/goal setting issues (see
Table 3.1). Interestingly, the data revealed the presence of several issues that may
indicate clinical or sub-clinical mental health concerns. For example, approximately 10%
of the coaches surveyed indicated that they commonly coach clients in relation to issues
that include self-esteem, self-worth, personal loss, life crises, social isolation and distress.

Table 3.1.
Most Common Coaching Issues (N = 136)
Coaching Issue

Description

Frequency

Career/Business
Issues

Career management and transitions, business generation,

time management, professional development and strategic
development issues

43

Interpersonal Issues

Leadership and interpersonal skills development, team

building and conflict management

40

Goal Setting

Issues related to life direction and purpose, goal

clarification, resolving ambivalence, exploring options and
assistance setting goals

40

Work-Life Balance

Developing stress reduction strategies, more family time,

exploring new interests, finding hobbies and reduced hours
in office

25

Mental Health

Issues related to developing self-esteem, negative life

events, social isolation and distress

15

Financial

Debt reduction, increasing savings, financial and retirement

planning

12

Health & Fitness

Increasing exercise levels, improved dietary habits, more

sleep, weight reduction and more holiday time

11

Whilst these issues do not indicate the presence of mental health issues with
certainty, experience suggests that such a link is likely to exist, particularly in cases

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where distress is great enough to motivate clients to seek assistance. As it will be shown,
recent evidence indicates that serious mental health issues are emerging in coaching
engagements. However, given that few coach training programs offer any formal training
in the recognition or referral of mental health issues, it is unlikely that practitioners are
adequately equipped to deal with such situations (Grant & Zackon, 2004).

Background Experience and Coach Training

In this section, participants were asked to indicate: (i) which industry they spent
most time working in prior to becoming a coach, (ii) what sort of coach specific training
they had received, (iii) and what forms of coaching-related experience they had acquired.

Industry Background
As can be seen in Table 3.2, the industry group most well represented in this
sample was consulting. Whilst this was not unexpected, the disparity between consulting
and other corporate sector groups (particularly human resources and trainers) was
surprising, as was the small number of helping professionals (e.g. psychologists, social
workers, nurses) who, when taken together, accounted for only 20% of the sample. Other
industry groups accounted for 7% of the sample and included the armed services,
information technology, sport and recreation, tourism and the dramatic arts. Caution
should be exercised in interpreting these results, however, as the survey was conducted in
a setting that would have attracted a disproportionate number of coaches affiliated to the
ICFA, making it non-representative of the wider coaching community.

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Coach Specific Training

Over 90% of coaches in this sample reported the completion of some form of
training. Of these 62% completed their training within a coach training school, 20%
completed tertiary study in a coaching related field, such as psychology or social work,
whilst 13% received training in some other helping-related methodology, such as inhouse workshops or Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP). Of the training reported by
respondents, 68% was completed within the last 5 years (84% within the last 10 years).
Encouragingly only 5% of respondents were untrained, whilst only 2% based their
practice of some form of in-house training or intensive workshop.

Table 3.2.
Background Experience and Coach Training
Industry Sector

Type of Coach Training

Consulting

24

Coach Training School

62

Human Resources

14

Tertiary Institution

20

Counseling / Psychology

14

Neuro-Linguistic Programming

11

Training

13

No formal training

Marketing / Finance

13

Other

Education

11

Social Work

Others

Coaching Related Experience

Respondents also reported on other forms of experience that either developed or
broadened core coaching skills. Most popular amongst these were training (57%),
consulting (41%), counseling (48%) and natural therapies (33%). Less frequently

59

reported experience included psychology (31%), meditation (10%), social work (9%),
youth work and sport (both 8%). Interestingly, while 31% of respondents claim an
experiential background in psychology, less than 20% indicated any formal tertiary level
study in behavioural science. This may indicate a lack of clarity over the boundaries
between practice in psychology and other forms of helping relationship.

Ethics and Professional Affiliations

Participants were also asked to confirm whether they informed their clients about
ethical standards in coaching practice and, if so, how they provided such information. In
this regard, 89% of the coaches provided their clients with some form of ethical
instruction, whilst 11% did not. Of those that did, 40% gave a verbal explanation, 11%
provided a written hand-out and 49% provided both.
Many respondents reported multiple professional affiliations. Not surprisingly the
International Coach Federation (ICF) was the most strongly represented (57%). Coaches
also reported affiliations with Coachville (30%), the Australian Psychological Society
(12%), the Psychologists Registration Board (10%) and a number of other institutions
(13%) such as the Australian Institute of Management and the Australian Association of
Career Counselors. Only 23% of respondents reported no professional affiliations.

Discussion
Prior to this study there had been only one attempt to sketch the contours of the
Australian coaching industry, albeit a specific segment of the industry: business coaching
firms (Clegg et al., 2005). The current study was broader in scope and focused on

60

individual practitioners (rather than firms) without segmenting the industry according to
niche specialisations. Whilst it might appear that these studies are qualitatively different,
any differences are largely superficial.
For example, Clegg et al (2005) found that 48% of the business coaching firms
surveyed were small home-based operations, whilst over half the firms (51%) appeared to
be generalists, offering two or more types of coaching service. Similar findings were
reflected in this study. That is, 56% of the sample reported working predominantly from
home and 45% were generalists with no niche specialisation. Thus, these studies appear
to be entirely complementary. Both strongly suggest that coaching is a cottage industry,
dominated by small firms of generalist coaches, operating within an industry not yet
mature enough to allow meaningful segmentations of the market. This indicates the
existence of an immature industry. Of greater importance to the professionalisation of the
coaching industry are findings that reflect great diversity amongst its practitioners.

A Diverse Industry
This study both validates and extends upon the findings reported by Clegg et al
(2005). Most notably, the findings show that great diversity exists within the Australian
coaching industry. Despite the existence of a small core of highly experienced
practitioners, the vast majority of coaches appear to have little coaching experience and
report a great diversity of skills and experience. There are at least two reasons why the
industry might reflect such diversity. First, coaching is a feel good industry and
promoted as a dynamic, future-focused and strengths-based form of human helping. As
such, it has obvious and wide-ranging appeal. Increasingly, coaching appears to be

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attracting the attention of people in established occupations who seek either a more
meaningful career (e.g. a management consultant who wants to become an executive
coach) or an expanded practice (e.g. clinical psychologist and life coach).
Second, the diversity of the coaching industry most likely reflects the absence of
any barriers to entry. It is not difficult to become a coach. The Australian coaching
industry is free from any form of regulation and, as such, one has only to decide that they
will become a coach and secure their first client to begin coaching. Just as significantly,
getting started requires only a small investment of capital and has few overheads. Hence,
with no barriers to entry and little financial outlay, a career in coaching may appear very
accessible, financially viable and immediate.
The diversity of the industry can be viewed as one of its major strengths, as
consumers are given the freedom to choose from a greater range of practitioners and
approaches than would be available if the industry were regulated. However, this
presupposes that consumers know what they are looking for in coaching services and are
capable of making informed decisions. Yet, evidence suggests that general public may
not be well informed about the nature of coaching (e.g. how it differs from therapy or
counseling) or the current status of the industry (i.e. its lack of regulation). If so,
consumers are likely to find the industry difficult to navigate.

Coaching and Mental Health Issues

As noted, relatively few respondents (20%) reported any formal training in
psychology or the helping professions (e.g. social work, nursing). Given the nature of
coaching, and the fact that these professions dedicate themselves to the physical,

62

psychological and social needs of individuals, this result was surprising. Even more
surprising was the larger proportion of respondents (31%) claiming an experiential
background in psychology. Given the brief nature of this survey, it is not possible to
determine the precise nature of this psychological experience. However, it does seem that
for a significant proportion of respondents, experience in psychology is not linked with
formal training. This may reflect a very broad definition of psychology, such as used in
the personal development/self-help genre, or it may indicate a bias toward using personal
development efforts as a basis for credentialing.
This lack of clarity around psychological services in the minds of coaches is
somewhat worrying, especially in light of a recent finding reported by Green et al (2006).
In this study the efficacy of a peer life coaching program was examined. An important
feature of the study was the use of the Brief Symptoms Inventory (BSI) (Derogatis, 1993)
to screen for high levels of psychopathology in the initial pool of volunteers.
Interestingly, this screening procedure detected the presence of unexpectedly high levels
of psychological distress, with 52% of the initial sample recording scores more than two
standard deviations above the mean. Whilst these participants were excluded from further
participation and offered a clinical referral, the findings are important as they indicate
something about the likelihood that clinical concerns will emerge in coaching
engagements.

Life Coaching: Socially Acceptable Therapy?

Whilst it is tempting to suggest that the results reported by Green et al (2006)
reflect a publicly held perception of coaching as a socially acceptable form of therapy, it

63

should be acknowledged that this study offered free life coaching and may have attracted
participants for many different reasons. In addition, this study did not set out to directly
investigate the public perception of coaching and, as such, any claims can only be
advanced tentatively. Nonetheless, the initial participants must have perceived coaching
to be a plausible option for addressing issues connected to deeper psychological
concerns. Indeed, it seems entirely plausible that coaching may attract a subset of people
with clinical concerns (e.g. depression) who wish to avoid the stigma attached to therapy
or counseling.

Mental Health Issues and Professionalism in Coaching

While coaching seeks to assist people to enact change, it is often carried out under
the assumption that one is dealing with individuals who are not suffering from clinical
levels of distress (Cavanagh, 2005). This assumption in part justifies coaches taking a
direct and robust and challenging approach with clients. Hence, the presence of distress
and/or psychopathology is likely to impact both the wellbeing of the coachee and,
ultimately, the success of coaching.
For example, a person suffering from unrecognized depression may be persuaded
into setting stretching goals in the hope that their attainment may help make things better.
Unfortunately, the impact of depression on energy and motivation may mean that the
person is unable to rise to, or maintain the goal-directed behaviour required by such a
challenging coaching process (Cavanagh, 2005). What ensues may be a pattern of
regular non-completion of set coaching actions, followed by disengagement from the
coaching process. For such a person, coaching may be experienced as yet another in a

64

series of failures and yet more evidence that they are unable to measure up to what they
see as the legitimate demands of life. This negative ruminative cycle is likely to worsen a
depressive episode and may even give rise to potentially dangerous levels of hopelessness
and suicidal ideation.
Despite the considerable diversity that exists in the coaching industry, most
coaches appear to unite around at least one common understanding: coaching is not
therapy. Indeed, most coaching engagements are usually prefaced by an explanation that
coaching is not concerned with treating deep personal problems (the aim of therapy and
counseling) but rather, is concerned with assisting healthy people to unlock more of their
potential and become more effective (Cavanagh & Grant, 2004; Peltier, 2001).
Consequently, it might be expected that a large number of coaches have little or
no training or experience in dealing with mental health issues. The findings from this
study are consistent with this expectation. That is, less than 20% of the sample indicated
a background in the helping professions (such as psychology, or social work), professions
for which knowledge and training in mental health issues is de rigueur. As a result, it is
doubtful whether many coaches are well equipped to effectively recognise mental health
issues in their clients, or to assess their own capacity to assist clients whose psychological
status (e.g. mental health issues, personality styles) make them challenging individuals to
coach (Cavanagh, 2005).
This is concerning given the earlier reviewed evidence that suggests coaches are
almost certain to encounter significant mental health issues at some point in their
coaching practice. As was shown in Table 3.2, over 10% of coaches regularly confront
issues that are often associated with mental health problems. Not only do these findings

65

indicate an important need for further research, they also highlight an area that warrants
ongoing attention as the coaching industry strives for greater levels of professionalism.

Training in Mental Health Issues

What guidance do coaches receive in the appropriate handling of mental health
issues? Recent reviews of courses offered by coach training providers revealed that
mental health training is not currently represented in the vast majority of course
descriptions (Grant & Zackon, 2004). In the present study, the majority of coaches (62%)
reported being trained by a coach training school. As such, it must be concluded that a
majority of coaches are left to develop their own approach to dealing with mental health
issues and receive little of no guidance in doing so.
The ethical guidelines of industry bodies are one form of guidance freely
available to all practicing coaches. According to the data presented earlier, 89% of
respondents provided their clients with some form of ethical instruction, whilst 57% were
members of the ICF. Based on this data, would appear that a large number of Australian
coaches are likely to be bound by the ethical guidelines and standards of conduct
advanced by that organisation. A review of the ICF Code of Ethics (ICF, 2005a) reveals
no mention of mental health issues, however, and only vague references are made to
scenarios where mental health issues might be inferred. For example, whilst provisions
18, 19, 20 and 21 (see Table 3.3) are designed to ensure that coaches act in the best
interests of clients, there was little or no readily available information regarding referral
procedures at the time of writing (e.g. types of alternative assistance, how to approach a
referral conversation, or building a referral network).

66

Table 3.3.
ICF Standards for Professional Conduct with Clients
Standard

Description

# 18

I will respect the clients right to terminate coaching at any point during the
process. I will be alert to indications that the client is no longer benefiting from
our coaching relationship

# 19

If I believe the client would be better served by another coach, or by another

resource, I will encourage the client to make a change

# 20

I will suggest that my clients seek the services of other professionals when
deemed necessary

# 21

I will take all reasonable steps to notify the appropriate authorities in the event
a client discloses an intention to endanger self or others

Encouragingly, it is noted that the ICF has developed some mental health
guidelines for referring clients to mental health professional (ICF, 2005b). However,
while a welcome development, these guidelines may encourage an overly simplistic
approach to mental health issues as they only list of the common symptoms of major
depression. There is no mention of anxiety disorders, personality disorders, or any other
forms of mental disturbance likely to be seen in coaching.
In sum, it appears that the majority of coaches may have little knowledge,
experience or guidance for dealing with mental health issues that may arise during the
course of a coaching engagement. This is cause for some concern, as these gaps exist in
what should be a core knowledge base for coaching.

Duty of Care in an Unregulated Industry

What duty of care do coaches owe their clients in an unregulated industry? The
ICF is one of the few coaching organisations to have articulated a framework for ethical
67

practice. Anecdotal reports suggest that these principles have also been adopted by many
coaches not affiliated with the ICF. Whilst this is undoubtedly a good thing, one wonders
whether these guidelines are adequate for discharging the legal and moral obligations
coaches have towards their clients. From a legal standpoint, the absence of any Australian
case law means that legal determinations have not yet been passed down for the guidance
of coaching practitioners. Whilst such determinations may never be made, the
observation that Australia is becoming more litigious (Betts, 2004) suggests the activities
of the coaching industry may come under legal scrutiny at some point in the future. As
such it is worth briefly considering what conditions would contribute to a determination
of negligence in a coaching engagement.
According to Katter (1999), any claim of negligence must first prove the
existence of a duty of care between two persons. For this, it would be necessary to show
that: (i) a coach could reasonably foresee that the coachee would be harmed by action or
inaction on their part, (ii) a close, causal relationship existed (proximity), and (iii) it is
fair, just and reasonable for the law to impose that duty on a coach (Katter, 1999).
Given these conditions, it is quite conceivable that a legal duty of care could be
demonstrated to exist in a coaching relationship. The following hypothetical case study
outlines a set of circumstances in which such a determination might be made:

A client with a history of depression presents for career coaching. After

agreeing the desired coaching outcome (e.g. career transition), the client
and coach set some intermediate (sub) goals and plan a course of action.
Before long, however, the client begins to experience difficulties, fails to
meet agreed targets and starts to feel inadequate. Despite the coachs best

68

attempts to support the client with encouragement and revised goals, the
client continues to falter, begins missing sessions and finally discontinues
coaching amid feelings of worthlessness. Whilst the coach is puzzled by
the clients disengagement, they have no knowledge of the clients clinical
history and do not offer a clinical referral. Meanwhile, the client
experiences a depressive episode and attempts to commit suicide. Upon
recovering the client files a motion and sues for negligence, arguing that
the coach had a duty to investigate the clients history of mental health and
to refer them onto an appropriate mental health professional.

In this scenario (according to Katters criteria) it might be argued that a coach, as

a paid expert in human behaviour, is obligated to take action to determine what is
reasonably foreseeable (the first requirement) in a coaching engagement (including
asking about any history of mental illness), and that the personal nature of a coaching
setting amply provides for such enquiries. In addition, the argument might also be made
that because coaching relationships hold clients personally accountable for inaction, the
actions of the coach were the cause of the depressive episode that led to the self-harm
(the second requirement).
If (i) and (ii) are successfully argued then it may be considered fair, just and
reasonable (the third requirement) to impose a duty of care on a coach. Although
simplistic, this example plausibly demonstrates how a legal duty of care might be
determined, and that existing frameworks of ethical coaching practice do not adequately
guide practitioners in how to discharge such duties.

69

Limitations
There are a number of limitations that need to be considered when interpreting the
results of this study. First, whilst 148 out of 403 delegates (36.7%) completed the survey,
nothing is known about the characteristics of the non-respondents, including their reasons
for not responding. More importantly, in distributing the survey at an industry
conference, it is highly likely that sample was biased and non-representative of the
broader coaching community. As such, it is difficult to make generalisations about the
Australian coaching industry from the available data.
Second, some items in the survey questionnaire may have been too open to
interpretation and not permitted an accurate assessment of individual characteristics. For
example, whilst the item: What forms of coaching-related experience have you had?
was designed to tap into experiences that either developed or broadened core coaching
skills (e.g. counseling), it may be that respondents were biased towards reporting greater
levels of experience by incorporating experience only tangentially related to coaching
(e.g. interactions with children).
Finally, data has been presented in this chapter as evidence for a public
misperception of coaching as socially acceptable therapy (Green et al., 2006).
However, this cannot be claimed with certainty as it is based on a single study that did
not set out to directly investigate the issue. Nonetheless, the result suggests that
investigations into the publicly held perceptions about both the nature of coaching and
the status of the industry might be important avenues for future research.

70

Conclusion
This chapter drew together two strands of coaching research. One strand
considered survey data indicating a considerable degree of diversity of skills, experience
and training within the Australian coaching industry. The other strand reviewed empirical
data that suggests coaching is attracting clients who may wish to address their mental
health issues without the stigma often associated with therapy or counseling (Green et al.,
2006). As such, a platform has been set for future discussions related to (i) the emergence
of mental health issues in coaching, (ii) the legal duty of care owed by a coach to a client,
and (iii) whether or not coaches possess the requisite knowledge and skills to adequately
discharge these responsibilities. Such discussions seem vitally important to any industry
aspiring to professional rank and cachet. As events surrounding the decline of the HPM
have shown, any failure on the part of the coaching industry to safeguard the interests of
its consumers is likely to have major ramifications for the longevity of the industry.
An obvious way for the coaching industry to safeguard the interests of its
consumers is through the development of EBCP. That is, by developing a widespread
standard of practice that incorporates theoretically guided and empirically tested models
and techniques (Cavanagh & Grant, 2004, p. 13), consumers are less likely to come into
contact with the sort of anything goes eclecticism that typified the HPM and appeared
to contribute to its loss of public trust (Highhouse, 2002; Weigel, 2002). Rather, EBCP is
more likely to provide consumers with services that not only satisfactorily address their
coaching needs, but also safeguard their interests. However, it has not yet been
demonstrated that EBCP is more efficacious than less informed approaches; an issue
that is addressed in the next chapter.

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Chapter Four
Developing the Evidence-Base:
An Evaluation of Professional and Peer Life Coaching
Introduction
If evidence-based coaching practice (EBCP) is to proliferate, it is vital that the
coaching industry develop an empirical literature specific to the needs and interests of
practicing coaches. Thus far, however, few attempts have been made to investigate any
aspect of coaching and only a handful of empirical studies have been reported (Clegg et
al., 2005; Grant, 2003a; Grant & Zackon, 2004; Green et al., 2006; Ladyshewsky &
Varey, 2005; Sue-Chan & Latham, 2004). In considering possible avenues for coaching
research, at least five types of empirical investigation are possible.
First, the coaching industry itself could continue to be the focus of research. This
would include research similar to the study reviewed in the previous chapter and Clegg et
al (2005); studies that seek to assess the size of the industry and to continue profiling both
the individuals (e.g. demographics, occupational history) and the firms that make up the
industry (e.g. age, size, turnover, niche specialisation). Second, as highlighted in the
previous chapter, the professional practices of the industry could be continually assessed,
to ensure that the industry is performing in a way that at least approximates a profession.
Such research might include reviews of coach training syllabi, the management of mental
health issues in coaching, ongoing professional development, and competitive practices
within the industry.

72

The third and most obvious area for research involves outcome studies. Given that
EBCP requires the accumulation of practice-based evidence, it will be important to assess
the efficacy of a variety of coaching programs (e.g. individual, group, self-coaching, telecoaching), in order to determine which coaching formulations are most effective for
facilitating goal attainment and wellbeing. Fourth, process studies would help to better
understand the factors that contribute to positive outcomes in coaching and which of
those factors is most influential. In an early example of one such study, Sue-Chan and
Latham (2004) have reported on the influence that the perceived expertise of a coach has
on coaching satisfaction and performance outcomes.
Finally, research could also be conducted into the psychological mechanisms that
underpin successful behaviour change and goal-directed self-regulation. Fortunately,
considerable research has already been conducted into the relationship between personal
goals and an array of psychological constructs, such as emotional intelligence (Spence,
Oades, & Caputi, 2004), hope (Green et al., 2006), mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2004a),
and autonomy (Sheldon & Elliot, 1998). Fortunately, coaching provides positive
psychologists with a unique experimental platform from which to continue the study of
these constructs and observe their temporal effects on goal-directed self-regulation.

Combining Two Streams of Research

Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 have focused on issues related to the current status of the
coaching industry, including the importance of professionalisation, the development of an
industry profile, and an exploration of legal duty of care. Whilst it has been argued that
the development of EBCP will be important for the longevity of the coaching industry,
data presented in Study 1 indicates that the majority of Australian coaches lack the
73

experience and training required to maintain an evidence-based approach. Thus, for a

majority of practitioners coaching practice would appear to be grounded more in intuition
and commonsense, rather in relevant theory and research.
The study presented in this chapter combines two streams of coaching research;
industry research and outcome research. This research is important because it recognises
that the industry is replete with coaches providing professional fee-for-service offerings
whilst possessing little experience and evidence-based coach training. Thus, the study
explicitly acknowledges diversity in coaching practice (as indicated in Study 1) and
compares the outcomes of life coaching provided by a coach trained in theoreticallyinformed and empirically-supported coaching methods (i.e. professional coaching) and
coaching provided by untrained peers using a less informed, more commonsensical
coaching approach (peer coaching).
As coaching is primarily concerned with the attainment of personal goals, coaches
are fundamentally concerned with goal-directed self-regulation. This is the process by
which individuals attempt to achieve personally desirable outcomes by regulating their
actions. Given its considerable theoretical relevance, it is necessary to begin by reviewing
the concept of self-regulation and explaining how self-regulation models provide a basic
framework for understanding the coaching process. After introducing a generic model of
self-regulation, discussion turns to the role of personal goals in coaching and existing
evidence that supports the use of life coaching as a means of facilitating goal attainment
(Grant, 2003a; Green et al., 2006).

74

The Concept of Self-Regulation

Regulation refers to a process by which a variable (within a system) is maintained
at some reference value despite disturbances to that variable. This reference value is
often called the standard, goal or desired state (Vancouver, 2000). It therefore follows
that, if a system is to regulate some variable itself, the reference value must be internally
represented within the system. The concept of self-regulation emerged from general
systems theory (von Bertalanffy, 1950) and was based on the observation that living
systems tend to remain stable despite environmental disturbances (Vancouver, 2000).
Stated more formally, self-regulation describes the in-built ability of living systems to
maintain internal order and coherent functioning by coordinating the operations of
multiple interconnecting subsystems (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Kabat-Zinn, 1990).
General systems theory states that self-regulation is a universal feature of all
living systems, a phenomenon that occurs within systems ranging from simple organisms
(e.g. single cells) through to highly complex systems (e.g. biosphere). As such, selfregulation is of interest to several disciplines of science. For example, the Gaia
hypothesis (an ecological systems perspective) proposes that the earth has managed to
maintain a relatively stable air temperate despite a constant rise in the temperature of the
sun (Kump, Kasting, & Crane, 2004). General systems theory advances the idea that
everything is connected to everything else and argues that fundamental systemic
metaprinciples exist in nature and can be applied to systems at all levels (Commoner,
1990; Shapiro & Schwartz, 2000). The earth can be conceived of as one self-regulating
living organism, with all human beings interconnected and interdependent with all other

75

beings and the earth itself. Self-regulation is not, therefore, a uniquely human
phenomenon, rather it is a feature of all living systems regardless of form or species.

The Cybernetic Approach

The early study of self-regulation in psychology was dominated by cyberneticsystems (C-S) models (Miller, Galanter, & Pribram, 1960; Powers, 1973; Wiener, 1948).
Based upon ideas borrowed from the engineering sciences (Vancouver, 2000), C-S
models propose that self-regulation relies on a continuous flow of information that
circulates through the system via a series of feedback loops. As feedback loops are well
represented in contemporary theories of human self-regulation and have relevance to the
remainder of this discussion (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Vancouver, 2000; Zimmerman,
2000), a brief review of the concept is necessary.
According to Carver and Scheier (1998) there are two primary types of feedback
loop: positive feedback loops and negative feedback loops. Positive feedback loops
engender heterostasis by creating movement away from a reference value and lead to
change, growth and development. For example, adopting nil exercise as a reference
value establishes an avoidance goal that can lead a person away from physical inactivity
(and towards physical activity). In contrast, negative feedback loops engender
homeostasis by creating movement towards a reference value and operate to ensure that
fluctuations around that value are contained within certain limits. For example, adopting
three hours of exercise per week as a reference value establishes an approach goal that
can be helpful for regulating physical activity, such that a persons exercise levels do not
deviate excessively from their desired level (Carver & Scheier, 1998)

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According to Carver and Scheier (1998), negative (discrepancy reducing) loops

are believed to be more common in naturally occurring systems than positive
(discrepancy enlarging) loops (Carver & Scheier, 1998). However, as Shapiro and
Schwartz (2000) point out, it is important for a system to maintain a balance between the
two. This is because if a system has only negative feedback loops, it will remain
stagnant; however, if a system contains only positive feedback, then it will eventually
explode (p. 256).

Negative Feedback Loops

Feedback loops have been identified as a central component of the coaching
process (see Grant, 2006). This is because coaching tends to concentrate on movements
toward a goal, a movement characteristic of negative feedback loops. As shown in Figure
4.1, negative feedback loops consist of four basic elements: an input function, a reference
value, a comparator, and an output function. Typically, the relationship between these
elements is outlined using a metaphor, such as a thermostat or a marine navigation
system (Carver & Scheier, 1998). Given that a thermostat is relatively familiar to most
people, it is often the preferred option.
In a thermostatic system an input function injects information into the loop by
continuously sampling current air temperature. However, for the system to function
properly, it requires a second source of information, a reference value. In this case, that
value would be the temperature setting on the thermostat. With access to information
about the outside air temperature and the temperature setting, the systems comparator
can judge whether these values are discriminately different from one another or not.

77

Goal,
Standard or
Reference value

Comparator

Input function

Output function

Effect on
environment

Disturbance

Figure 4.1. Generic depiction of a feedback loop. A sensed value is

compared to a standard (or goal), and an output function is modified (if
necessary) to move the sensed value in the direction of the standard.
Source: Carver and Scheier (1998)

If, based on this comparison, a discrepancy exists between these values, the
output function will activate the system to supply heated air (if the room is too cold) or
cooled air (if the room is too hot). Activation of the system ceases whenever the
thermostat is unable to detect a difference between the room temperature and its setting.
However, the input and comparator functions are perpetual. They stand ready to activate
the thermostat at any point when the room temperature differs from the reference value.
An important theoretical development within the C-S paradigm has been the
acknowledgement that personal goals tend to be arranged hierarchically, with
superordinate goals (i.e., higher-order goals, such as Be the best person I can be)
influencing the reference values within subordinate goals (i.e. lower-order goals, such as
Be thoughtful and Make my wife breakfast every Sunday). According to Powers

78

(1973) perceptual control theory, personal goal systems involve a considerable amount of
parallel processing, with signals passing simultaneously through feedback loops at
multiple levels of the hierarchy. For effective goal-directed action to occur, inputs and
outputs must flow between goals and sub-goals in a fashion that is consistent with a
persons idealised sense of self (reflected in their superordinate goals) (Powers, 1973).
Theories of self-regulation have not, however, been restricted to variations within
the C-S paradigm. Whilst a C-S perspective will underpin the majority of work presented
hereafter, it is important to acknowledge that alternative models of self-regulation exist,
models which place particular emphasis on human decision-making processes.

Decision-Making Models: A Second Paradigm

According to Vancouver (2000), decision-making (D-M) models of selfregulation represent a second paradigm in self-regulatory theory. Briefly, D-M models
emphasise constructs such as expectancy, valency and self-efficacy. Specifically, these
models propose that ones beliefs about contingencies and the value of consequences are
key cognitive ingredients for making decisions about behaviour (Vancouver, 2000).
Behaviour is selected based on the prediction that a certain action will have a particular
desired effect.
Importantly, D-M models address some of the theoretical limitations of highly
complex C-S models, which rely on parallel processing within nested systems that
constantly interact (Powers, 1973; Vancouver, 2000). In contrast, D-M models have
attempted to articulate mathematical combinations of self-efficacy, outcome
expectancies, and other cognitions in ways reflective of their mental arrangement prior to

79

making decisions. For example, algebraic formulae have been proposed which suggest
that the force toward action is determined by the valence of particular outcomes and the
expectancy that action will lead to those values (Vroom, 1964). According to this view,
action is energised by the level of interest one has in a particular goal, and the extent to
which one believes the goal is achievable.
The D-M paradigm has also emerged in response to another concern. That is, the
parallel processing demands of C-S models seem to contradict findings indicating the
existence of an attentional bottleneck and limited attentional resources (Pashler, 1988;
Simon, 1994; Ward, 2004). As such, the D-M paradigm focuses on serial processing
models, based on evidence suggesting that decisions tend to be made one at a time.
In sum, whilst C-S models tend to dynamic (as they deal with multiple forms of
information in parallel), complexity issues have tended to result in watered-down
models that focus on relatively simple cybernetic systems, such as Test-Operate-TestExit (TOTE) (Miller et al., 1960). In contrast, although D-M models are less complex and
better reflect the limitations of cognitive processing, they are not dynamic. That is, the
assessment of behavioural options is based on serial processing of current beliefs and
expectancies and, as such, they cannot account for changing environments or internal
states (Vancouver, 2000). Vancouver (2000) proposes a merging of these paradigms as
humans appear to be able to engage in both serial and parallel processing.

Coaching and Cybernetics

Although these points of theoretical divergence are important for the development
of self-regulation theory, they are of interest to the present discussion insofar as they help

80

to support the continuing referral to C-S models throughout this thesis. C-S approaches
appear to be suited to coaching in a way that D-M models are not. This is because
coaching is a dynamic process, one in which clients work steadily towards their goals
over time, amid shifting environmental conditions and changing psychological states.
Regular coaching sessions are useful in this context because they give clients the
opportunity to maintain goal progression by completing negative feedback loops. That is,
coaching facilitates the monitoring and evaluation of performance and allows individuals
the chance to determine (where necessary) how discrepancies might be addressed via the
modification of action plans or revision of goals (as depicted in Figure 4.2).

The Relationship between Personal Goals and Well-Being

Personal goals are an important part of successful living because they give
direction and purpose to life. Defined as internal representations of desired states
(Austin & Vancouver, 1996, p. 338), goals are manifestations of individual needs and
help to energise behaviour, stimulate effective functioning and enhance well-being (Deci
& Ryan, 2001; Locke, 1996). According to Carver and Scheier (1998) life is a continual
process of establishing goals and adjusting patterns of behaviour to match those goals
more closely, using informational feedback as a guide (p. 63). Thus, when an individual
sets a goal they are establishing a personal standard (or psychological marker) that will be
helpful for making moment-by-moment decisions about what it would be good or not
good to do. In other words, goals help to guide action. They help people self-regulate
behaviour.

81

Goal

Action Plan

Act

Modify Goal,
Plan or Action

Monitor

(only if necessary)

Evaluate

Success

Figure 4.2. Generic model of self-regulation.

Adapted from Grant (2003b)
Goal constructs have a prominent place in the history of psychological research.
A great deal is known about the mechanics of goal setting and how various attributes of
goals (e.g. difficulty, specificity, commitment, level of abstraction, temporal range)
impact on human motivation and performance across multiple domains (for a
comprehensive review see Austin & Vancouver, 1996). More recently, research attention
has been directed towards questions related to why people pursue certain goals (Deci &
Ryan, 2001) and how motivational orientations impact on self-regulated behaviour and
psychological well-being (e.g. Ryan & Connell, 1989; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999).
Despite mounting evidence linking personal goals to personal growth and
psychological health, surprisingly few attempts have been made to use goal setting as a

82

means of attaining these outcomes (Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, & Share, 2002). More
typically, goal setting has been used as an organisational or therapeutic tool, such as
when line managers incorporate performance goals into employee reviews (Locke, 1996),
or when cognitive-behavioural therapists use goal setting to establish an exercise program
with a depressed client (Kirk, 1989).
Whilst goal setting can be effective when used in these ways, evidence suggests
that personal goals are also important because they vary in the degree to which they lead
a person towards adaptive functioning and psychological health. For example, Sheldon
and Elliot (1998) found that the reasons for pursuing particular strivings predicted goaldirected effort, goal attainment and subjective well-being. More specifically, they found
that self-regulation and well-being were greatest for those individuals who pursed goals
more for the inherent interest and enjoyment they afforded (i.e., autonomous reasons),
rather than for external rewards or because of internal compulsions (i.e., controlled
reasons). Thus, they concluded that not all personal goals are personal because goals
are not always freely chosen and do not always accurately represent important aspects of
the self (i.e. personal values and interests).
Such findings have lead Sheldon et al (2002) to suggest that it may be useful for
practitioners to place personal goals at the centre of their interventions, citing other
studies that have strongly suggested that it is not merely having a goal that assists
individuals to do well and feel good (Lee, Sheldon, & Turban, 2003; Sheldon & Elliot,
1999), rather that one must feel some ownership over the goal, strongly identify with it
and adopt it with a full sense of choice (Ryan, Sheldon, Kasser, & Deci, 1996).

83

Life Coaching: Accelerated Personal Growth?

Life coaching is an intervention that focuses explicitly on the goals and
aspirations of individuals. Although definitions of life coaching vary (e.g. Whitworth,
Kimsey-House, & Sandahl, 1998; Williams & Thomas, 2004), it can be understood as a
collaborative solution-focused, results-oriented process in which the coach facilitates the
enhancement of life experience and goal attainment in the personal and or professional
life of normal, nonclinical clients (Grant, 2003a, p.253). Some key points of this
definition require elaboration.
First, coaching describes a collaborative relationship formed between a coach and
a client (the coachee) for the purpose of attaining personal development outcomes
valued by the coachee. The articulation and clarification of personal goals is, therefore,
central to the coaching process and these goals are generally set to stretch an individuals
current capacities (Grant & Greene, 2001). Second, coaching is dialogue-based but
action-oriented. That is, it involves both talking and doing. Coaches seek to accelerate
goal attainment by helping individuals develop and implement solutions to the ongoing
challenges faced during goal striving. Most importantly, emphasis is placed upon the role
of the coach as a facilitator (rather than a provider) of these solutions, with solutionfocused techniques widely used as a means of assisting clients tap personal strengths and
resources (Berg & Szabo, 2005).
Finally, although clinical psychology has helped to shape the development of
various coaching practice models (e.g. Berg & Szabo, 2005; Grant, 2003b), coaching is
less concerned with unraveling problems and exploring past emotional pain, than it is
with building solutions and promoting optimal functioning. As such, it has a non-clinical

84

orientation and works best with clients who are capable of engaging in (what are often)
robust examinations of personal and professional functioning (Cavanagh, 2005). This
orientation is reflected in the catch-cry of the life coaching industry: coaching is not
therapy and does not deal with clinical issues (Cavanagh & Grant, 2004).
However, the boundaries between life coaching with non-clinical populations, and
therapeutic interventions which attempt to deal with mental health issues are not clear
cut. There is concern that some people presenting for life coaching may have mental
health problems and may be looking to life coaching as a means of alleviating depression
or anxiety (Green et al., 2006). Thus it is important that life coaching clients are screened
for mental health problems, and if necessary referred to appropriate specialised help.

Life Coaching and Applied Positive Psychology

To date, few attempts have been made to elevate life coaching above its common
perception of new age self-indulgence, or as simple goal setting around the
mundaneaspects of private life (Cavanagh & Grant, 2004, p.8). As such, conceptual
links between life coaching and psychological theory have yet to be developed and, for
many, this disconnection seriously undermines the credibility of the life coaching
industry. Simply put, life coaching practice has run well ahead of related theory and
research. Anecdotal reports suggest that this, along with a high degree of
commercialisation and hyperbole that surrounds coaching (Grant, 2003a), have combined
to create considerable ambivalence towards the life coaching industry.
This ambivalence is unfortunate. Evidenced-based life coaching seems uniquely
placed to make significant contributions to the positive psychology agenda (see Seligman

85

& Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). That is, life coaching seeks to optimise personal functioning
across multiple domains of life via a personalised, professional relationship focused on
the personal goals of individuals. As such, coaches have a unique platform from which to
deliver user-friendly psychology in the service of becoming, say, a better parent, a more
effective leader, or a more successful artist.
In guiding these important pursuits, life coaches help others get the most out of
themselves and their lives, by drawing out and building upon individual strengths and
virtues. Viewed in this light, life coaching practitioners can claim to represent positive
psychology in action. However, as suggested earlier, questions related to the efficacy
and beneficial effects of life coaching have yet to receive much attention and only a few
studies have yet been reported in the literature.

Existing Coaching Research

Whilst it has been widely claimed that life coaching leads to greater personal goal
attainment and enhanced well-being (e.g. Fortgang, 1998), little empirical evidence exists
to support such claims (Grant, 2003a; Green et al., 2006). Nonetheless, an extensive body
of research indicates that wellbeing is positively impacted when individuals attain goals
that accurately reflect core values and developing interests (Deci & Ryan, 2001).
Extending upon this body of research, Grant (2003a) conducted the first formal
study of life coaching with 20 postgraduate students who participated in a group lifecoaching program over a 10-week period. After attending a one-day workshop and
setting themselves three personal goals, participants attended a series of peer-group
coaching sessions facilitated by a coach who provided support, encouragement and basic

86

training in a variety of cognitive-behavioural solution-focused (CB-SF) coaching

techniques, such as cognitive restructuring and self-monitoring.
Results indicated that participation in the program was associated with
significantly higher levels of goal attainment, along with improvements in metacognitive
processing (self-reflection and insight) and mental health (lower depression, stress and
anxiety). One notable finding from this study was that life coaching appeared to induce a
movement away from ruminative patterns of self-reflection (that might impede goal
attainment) and toward reflective processes more supportive of goal attainment.
In a partial replication of this study, Green et al (2006) tested the same CB-SF
coaching program, with the addition of a community sample (N = 56), a wait-list control
group, and a 12-month longitudinal design. After setting one specific personal goal at an
initial one-day workshop, participants attended 8 weekly peer coaching sessions, guided
by a trained instructor and a variety of coaching aides. Results indicated that coachees
reported significantly higher goal attainment, positive affect, hope and psychological
well-being (including autonomy and environmental mastery) and significantly lower
negative affect.
Peer coaching has also been studied for its utility in more specific domains,
yielding somewhat mixed results. For example, fortnightly peer coaching has been found
to be a useful framework for supporting the learning and development of managers
(Ladyshewsky & Varey, 2005). Using qualitative methods, peer coaching was found to
not only strengthen knowledge frameworks and broaden individual perspectives, the
experience of coaching and being coached also seemed to enhance self-reflection and
help managers identify areas in need of skills development (e.g. listening skills).

87

In contrast, Sue-Chan and Latham (2004) reported that the effectiveness of

managerial coaching appears to depend heavily on the expertise of the coach. Over two
studies it was found that peer coaches were perceived to possess less expertise and be less
credible than an external coach, with coaching satisfaction and performance outcomes
lower for the peer coachees. This latter finding suggests there may be some key
characteristics of coaches (e.g. training, familiarity) that are highly influential in
determining the success of life coaching.

Study 2: Life Coaching Evaluation

Life coaching typically involves a series of regular goal-focused conversations,
which are conducted between a trained coach and a coachee (face-to-face). However,
despite being the conventional approach, no research has yet been reported on the impact
of individualised life coaching. Rather, coaching researchers have tended to focus on
alternative life coaching formulations, such as peer coaching and group coaching (e.g.
Grant, 2003a; Green et al., 2006). As such, this study will be a valuable addition to the
literature insofar as it will be the first investigation of individual life coaching and its
impact on goal striving and wellbeing.
However, the research is not concerned with merely examining the outcomes of
life coaching per se. Rather, the study also sought to examine the efficacy of EBCP and
the extent to which it makes a difference to the coaching process. Thus, the study was
designed to compare the outcomes of life coaching provided by a coach trained in
theoretically-informed and empirically-supported coaching methods (i.e. professional
coaching) and coaching provided by untrained peers using a less informed, more

88

commonsensical approach (peer coaching). Given this unique feature of the research, the
study was exploratory in nature and interested in examining two basic questions:

1. Is professional coaching more effective than peer coaching for enhancing goal
striving (as measured by goal attainment and goal commitment)?
2. Does life coaching (in general) enhance the subjective and psychological wellbeing of individuals?

This study has several potential implications for the coaching industry. First, it
will provide answers to questions about the efficacy of life coaching and help to guide
future research efforts. Second, it will provide evidence that either confirms, or
disconfirms, the efficacy of EBCP as an approach to life coaching. Third, it will provide
some evidence that will be helpful for deciding between different coaching formulations.
For example, although peer coaching might be a cost effective alternative to one-on-one
professional coaching (and therefore more desirable), it may not be as beneficial. If so, an
important cost-impact trade-off may need to be considered when designing and
implementing coaching programs.

Method
Participants and Procedure
After responding to local media advertisements and registering their interest in the
study, 84 respondents completed a packet of pre-program questionnaires. To reduce the
likelihood that clinical issues might arise during coaching, mental health screening was
conducted using the Brief Symptoms Inventory (BSI) (Derogatis, 1993). The criterion for

89

exclusion was set at 2 standard deviations above the mean on the Global Severity Index,
or on any two subscales (i.e. a score of >70). At this level, 21 people (25%) were deemed
to be ineligible and offered a clinical referral. Characteristics of the final sample (N = 63)
are shown in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1.
Sex and Age of Participants in Study 2

Female/Male
Mean Age
(SD)

Professional

Peer

Control

Total

(n=21)

(n=22)

(n=20)

(N=63)

15/6

17/5

15/5

47/16

37.9
(10.3)

35.8
(9.8)

42.2
(10.6)

38.6
(10.4)

Upon completion of pre-program screening, participants attended an information

night at which the program was outlined in detail. Once informed consent had been
provided, participants were directed to a computer and asked to complete a set of precoaching (Time 1) questionnaires that had been posted on a dedicated university internet
site. Due to a lack of familiarity with computers, two participants requested pencil and
paper copies of the questionnaires. Immediately following the information night,
participants where randomly assigned to either the professional coaching, peer coaching
or control conditions and notified of their group allocation by email or telephone. This
included (for the coaching participants only) a timetable of coaching session dates, times
and venues.
At the end of the coaching period (Time 2), participants were asked to complete
another set of questionnaires (repeated Time 1 measures) via the same departmental

90

internet site. This allowed participants to complete the questions remotely, via their
personal computers. Only one participant requested a pencil and paper copy.

Cognitive-Behavioural Solution-Focused Coaching

The programs reported here are underpinned by a CB-SF coaching framework
(Grant, 2003b). According to this approach, goal attainment is best facilitated by
understanding the reciprocal relationships that exist between thoughts, feelings,
behaviour and the environment, and structuring these in ways that best support goal
attainment. The inclusion of solution-focused techniques into this cognitive-behavioural
framework helps orientate coaching towards personal strengths and solution construction,
rather than problem analysis (Grant, 2003b).
Using the CB-SF life coaching program developed by Grant and Greene (2001),
goal striving is enhanced by assisting individuals to: (i) develop a future vision, (ii)
identify desired outcomes, (iii) establish specific personal goals, (iv) enhance motivation
by identifying strengths and building self-efficacy, (v) identify resources and formulate
action plans, (vi) regularly monitor and evaluate progress, and (vii) modify action plans
(based on the evaluation of progress). As shown earlier in Figure 4.2, the monitorevaluate-modification steps of this process constitute a cycle of self-regulated
behaviours known to be important for successful behaviour change and which form the
basis of the coaching process (Grant, 2003a).
On completion of goal setting, the role of the coach is to help clients move
through this self-regulatory cycle, by monitoring and evaluating their goal progression
each week, and developing action plans for each coming week. In this study, the Goal-

91

Reality-Options-Wrap-Up (GROW) model (Landsburg, 2003) was used to provide both

the professional and peer life coaching sessions with an underlying structure and process.
An outline of the GROW model is presented in Table 4.2. Guided by GROW, coaching
sessions began with the establishment of a session goal, before moving on to the
exploration of current realities, the development of options for action, and concluded with
a wrap-up of steps and actions to be undertaken by the coachee.

Professional Coaching
Participants in this condition received ten consecutive weeks of life coaching (45minutes per session) with a coach trained in CB-SF coaching principles. The coaching
provided in this condition was delivered by seven tertiary qualified coaches, all of whom
had a Masters degree in Coaching Psychology. As this training was based on an
evidence-based coaching framework (including coverage of relevant theory and research,
mental health issues, ethical practices and a coaching practicum) and is reflective of
training received in established professions, this condition was considered to be a good
approximation of professional coaching. To ensure fidelity to the CB-SF approach,
coaches attended fortnightly supervision meetings facilitated by an experienced coach
who was familiar with the approach but not otherwise involved in the study. In addition,
coaches were provided with coaching workbooks that included session note taking sheets
and de-brief forms to assist reflection and self-assessment of their coaching effectiveness
(see Appendix C).

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Table 4.2.
The GROW Model
Acronym

Description

Example Questions

G Goal

Coachee is asked to clarify what they

want to achieve from each session.
Determines the focus of coaching.

What do you want to achieve this session?

How would you like to feel afterwards?
What would be the best use of this time?

R Reality

Raise awareness of present realities.

Examine how current situation is
impacting coachees goals.

How have things gone in the past week?

How have you handled any problems?
What worked? What didnt work?

O Options

Identify and assess available options.

Encourage solution-focused thinking
and brainstorming.

What possible options do you have?

What has worked for you in the past?
What havent you tried yet that might work?

W - Wrap-Up

Assist the coachee determine next

steps. Develop an action plan and
build motivation.

What is the most important thing to do next?

What might get in the way?
Who might be able to support you?
How will you feel when this is done?

SOURCE: Landsburg (2003), Grant & Greene (2001)

Peer Coaching
Participants commenced this program by attending a one-day workshop based on
the manualised CB-SF coaching program used by Grant (2003a) and Green et al (2006).
This workshop was designed to help participants clarify their coaching goals and
establish action plans for the attainment of those goals (in line with the coaching process
described above). Having completed the workshop, participants then attended a series of
group meetings conducted over 10 consecutive weeks. Each meeting ran for a total of 75minutes, commencing with a brief group discussion (15-minutes) about issues related to
successful goal striving (facilitated by the author), followed by 2 x 25-minute peer
coaching sessions. It should be noted that these coaching sessions (which were conducted
in dyads) were the main purpose of the group meetings, as they allowed each participant

93

the opportunity to engage in regular goal-focused conversations with a peer. To assist, all
participants were provided with ReGROW note taking sheets (which included an array of
suggested coaching questions) and coaching session note taking sheets (see Appendix C).

Wait-List Control Group

Participants in this condition were informed their program would not commence
for 3-months and that no action was required during this period.

Measures
Goal Striving
Participants were asked to generate three personal strivings, defined as an
objective that you are typically trying to accomplish or attain (Emmons, 1986, p. 1060).
Goal attainment and goal commitment were then rated for each striving using a 5-point
scale (1 = not at all, 5 = extremely) in response to the following questions: "In the last 3
months, how successful have you been in attaining this goal?" and How committed do
you feel towards this striving?" At Time 2 these items were reworded to In the past 10
weeks in order to reflect the period of the coaching programs.

Subjective Wellbeing
As subjective wellbeing (SWB) is widely agreed to contain an affective and
cognitive component (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999), two measures were included
to assess SWB. First, short-term affective states were measured using scales containing
both positive adjectives (happy, joyful, enjoyment/fun, pleased, enthusiastic) and

94

negative adjectives (angry, depressed/blue, anxious, frustrated, unhappy) with

participants rating their experience from 1 = Not at all to 6 = Extremely so (Bradburn,
1969). Sample alphas were 0.87 (Positive Affect) and 0.85 (Negative Affect).
Second, the cognitive component of SWB was assessed with the 5-item
Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS) (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Items
include: The conditions of my life are excellent and So far I have gotten the important
things I want in life, with participants rating their agreement on a 1 (strongly disagree)
to 7 (strongly agree) scale. One of the most widely used well-being measures, the SWLS
has good psychometric properties (Diener et al., 1999). The sample alpha was 0.80.

Psychological Wellbeing
A eudaimonic measure of well-being was obtained by having participants
complete the 54-item Scales of Psychological Well-Being (SPWB) (Ryff, 1989). Scored
on a six-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree), the SPWB measures
well-being on six sub-scales: autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose in life, personal
growth, self-acceptance and positive relations with others. Internal consistency (alpha)
coefficients for the six scales range from 0.82 to 0.90 (Schmutte & Ryff, 1997). In this
study, subscale alphas ranged from 0.72 to 0.89.
See Appendix B for a copy of these measures.

Results
To obtain an objective measure of program engagement, coaching attendance was
recorded for both coaching conditions. From a maximum possible attendance of 10

95

sessions, mean attendance for the professional coachees was 9.5 sessions and 7.3 sessions
for peer coachees. An independent samples t-test found these means to be significantly
different (t(38) = -5.75, p <.001).
Table 4.3 presents the means and standard deviations for all dependent variables.
It should be noted that four participants (one professional, two peer, one control)
withdrew within the first half of the coaching period and two control participants were
non-contactable at Time 2. As such, statistical analysis was conducted on data from 57
participants. Data was analysed using a 3 x 2 mixed design analysis of variance
(MANOVA) consisting of one between-subjects factor (group) and one within-subjects
factor (time). Also, in order to explore differential change by condition, a priori
comparisons were conducted on (i) professional versus peer, (ii) professional versus
control and (iii) peer versus control, with an additional contrast comparing (iv) coaching
(i.e. professional and peer) versus control. A significance level of .05 was set for all tests.
Analysis of goal attainment data revealed a significant main effect of time (F(1,
54) = 6.73, p <.01) but not group or the group x time (pre-post) interaction, although this
did approach significance (p = .07). The more specific contrast analyses did, however,
reveal a significant group x time (pre-post) interaction for professional versus control
(F(1,54) = 5.41) p <.05), indicating that professional group made substantial progress
towards their goals during the coaching period relative to the control group (as shown in
Figure 4.3). No such effect was observed for the peer coaching group.

96

97

3.2
(1.0)
4.2
(0.9)
25.9
(5.4)
24.1
(4.1)
20.6
(5.3)
41.9
(6.0)
41.3
(7.1)
43.9
(7.6)
44.4
(5.7)
48.2
(4.4)
41.6
(6.8)

2.3
(1.0)
4.1
(0.8)
23.7
(5.3)
23.9
(4.2)
20.2
(4.6)
41.1
(6.0)
36.9
(7.1)
44.1
(7.3)
43.7
(5.8)
47.3
(3.4)
41.1
(7.1)

Goal Attainment

Goal Commitment

Satisfaction with Life

Positive Affect

Negative Affect

Autonomy

Environmental Mastery

Positive Relations

Purpose in Life

Personal Growth

Self-Acceptance

.65

.41

.42

.83

<.001

.43

.78

.84

<.05

.60

<.005

0.07

0.23

0.12

0.03

0.62

0.13

0.08

0.05

0.41

0.12

0.90

Post
2.7
(1.0)
3.2
(1.1)
25.8
(5.2)
24.6
(3.2)
22.5
(4.5)
40.1
(5.5)
39.9
(6.2)
44.4
(4.4)
44.9
(4.7)
47.6
(4.2)
41.6
(4.7)

Pre
2.3
(1.2)
4.3
(0.5)
24.3
(5.7)
25.0
(3.2)
21.4
(4.5)
40.0
(7.2)
39.5
(6.7)
43.8
(5.0)
43.3
(6.1)
47.3
(4.1)
40.0
(5.8)

.18

.70

.21

.56

.64

.91

.27

.54

.05

<.001

.20

0.30

0.07

0.29

0.13

0.06

0.02

0.24

0.13

0.27

1.29

0.36

Note: All pre-post tests of significance were conducted using paired t-tests. All p-values are 2-tailed.

Post

Pre

(n = 20)

(n = 20)

Measure

Peer Coaching

Professional Coaching

Means and Standard Deviations for all Dependent Variables

Table 4.3

Post
2.3
(0.8)
3.6
(0.7)
21.5
(6.3)
23.3
(3.4)
19.9
(5.2)
36.8
(5.7)
38.1
(6.7)
42.8
(8.2)
40.4
(4.7)
44.9
(4.3)
37.7
(6.5)

Pre
2.2
(0.6)
4.2
(0.5)
21.2
(6.0)
22.6
(4.2)
19.0
(5.1)
36.1
(5.4)
37.3
(7.0)
43.1
(8.3)
39.8
(5.7)
46.4
(5.2)
36.9
(6.3)

.44

.21

.61

.69

.58

.51

.48

.35

.83

<.005

.98

(n = 17)

Control

0.12

0.31

0.11

0.04

0.12

0.13

0.17

0.05

0.05

0.99

0.14

Ratings

4
3

Pre

Post

1
0
Professional

Peer

Control

Condition

Figure 4.3. Pre-post change in goal attainment

When this analysis was repeated for goal commitment, a significant group x time
interaction was found (F(2, 54) = 7.03, p <.01), along with a main effect for time (F(1,
54) = 15.21, p <.001) but not group. Contrast analyses revealed a significant group x time
(pre-post) interactions were found for both professional versus peer (F(1, 54) = 13.93, p
<.001) and professional versus control (F(1, 54) = 4.45, p <.05). This indicates that
professional coaching was more effective in helping coachees maintain their level of goal
commitment over time, relative to peer and control participants whose commitment
decreased across the coaching period (as shown in Figure 4.4).

Ratings

4
3
Pre

Post

1
0
Professional

Peer

Control

Condition

Figure 4.4. Pre-post change in goal commitment

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In order to control for the influence of coaching session attendance on goal

striving, these analyses were repeated using the number of sessions attended as a
covariate. After controlling for this difference, the goal commitment interaction effect
disappeared (at the .05 level) and was only marginally significant (p =.06). This indicates
that the goal commitment of peer coachees was positively impacted by regular attendance
at coaching sessions. However, the analysis of covariance did not show any change from
the initial goal attainment findings.
Finally, coaching appeared to have minimal impact on the mental health of
participants. Although both coaching groups reported post-coaching increases for most of
the well-being variables, the only variable to show differential change by condition was
environmental mastery. For this variable, significant group x time (pre-post) interactions
were found for professional versus peer (F(1, 52) = 7.04, p <.01) and professional versus
control (F(1, 52) = 4.89, p <.05). The peer versus control interaction was not significant.

Discussion
This study set out to investigate two general questions:

1) Is professional life coaching more effective than peer life coaching in enhancing the
goal attainment and goal commitment of coachees?
The results of this study suggest that professional coaching was superior to peer
coaching. Not only did the professionally coached participants attend significantly more
coaching sessions than peer coached participants (suggesting they were more engaged),
this group also reported significantly greater post-coaching goal attainment when
compared to the control group, and greater goal commitment than both the peer and
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control conditions. In contrast, peer coachees did not significantly differ from the control
group on post-coaching goal attainment. In addition, their level of goal commitment
significantly decreased.
These results imply that merely engaging in regular goal-focused conservations
with a peer is insufficient for successful goal striving. This is somewhat reflective of
earlier findings highlighting the importance of perceived expertise to coach credibility
(Sue-Chan & Latham, 2004), suggesting that the coaching process is greatly enhanced
when it is directed by a practitioner trained in the principles of behaviour change and
possessing the skills required to build an effective coaching relationship.
In contrast, peer coaching relationships may not be adequate for successfully
handling the many obstacles and challenges that are encountered by individuals when
striving towards a goal (e.g. ambivalence, negative self-talk, perceived lack of resources).
If so, peer coachees may find it more difficult to maintain their motivation and become
less engaged in the coaching process over time. Such an interpretation is supported by the
data collected in this study, as the goal commitment of peer coachees significantly
decreased and attendance at coaching sessions was significantly lower than that of the
professionally coached participants.

2) Does life coaching enhance the well-being of individuals?

In contrast to the results reported by Grant (2003a) and Green et al (2006), life
coaching had a minimal impact on the wellbeing of participants in this study. Although
both coaching conditions reported Time 2 increases for several subjective and
psychological well-being variables, the only significant result was observed for

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environmental mastery, with the professional coachees reporting significant increases

compared to both the peer coaching and control groups. This result makes sense as
environmental mastery is a dimension of psychological well-being that reflects the
perception that one is resourceful and able to effectively manage ones surrounding world
(Ryff, 1989). As such, increases in this variable should correspond with increases in goal
attainment (as reported earlier), as feeling more competent is known to translate into
more effective action (Maddux, 2002a).
Whilst the minimal impact of life coaching on wellbeing was surprising, it may be
partly be explained by the design of the study. Firstly, the current intervention was goalfocused rather than targeted at enhancing wellbeing, and other coaching interventions
specifically targeted at increasing wellbeing may have an effect where this intervention
did not. Secondly, by screening for mental health problems and excluding individuals
with elevated levels of psychopathology from participation, this sample is likely to have
been a relatively happy group. If so, participants may have been unable to reflect
increases in wellbeing, as their already elevated scores are likely to have created a ceiling
effect.

Mental Health Screening

Despite the possibility that mental health screening may reduce the chances of
detecting statistically significant effects, there is good reason to recommend the
continued use of mental health screening in life coaching research. Life coaching seeks to
assist individuals move towards optimal levels of personal functioning, yet evidence from
both this study and Green et al (2006) suggests that life coaching may be attracting

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individuals with serious mental health concerns. In the present study, 25% of the initial
pool of volunteers reported elevated levels of psychopathology (as measured by the BSI),
whereas Green and colleagues reported that over half of their volunteers (52%) fell into
this category. Such findings are important because they suggest that life coaching is being
perceived as a socially acceptable form of therapy, one less tainted by the stigma of
therapy or counselling.
As discussed in Chapter 3, this possibility is alarming because the robustness of a
life coaching approach might only serve to exacerbate pre-existing clinical
symptomatology in individuals seeking relief from such conditions (e.g. depression).
Given that most commercial coach training schools devote little attention to the
identification and referral of mental health issues in coaching (Grant & Zackon, 2004), it
is doubtful whether coaches are adequately prepared for discharging their duty of care
obligations towards clients (Spence et al., 2006).
For researchers of life coaching programs, these findings advocate the use of a
cautious approach. The following recommendations can be made:

i. The use a valid and reliable clinical instrument (such as the BSI) to screen
participants prior to the commencement of coaching;
ii. The development of a referral procedure for individuals requiring clinical
assistance;
iii. The use of coaches who understand the potential for mental health issues to
emerge in coaching and have training in the identification of such issues.

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New Directions in the Psychology of Coaching

Coaching is fundamentally concerned with helping individuals to regulate and
direct their interpersonal and intrapersonal resources to better attain their goals (Grant,
2006, p. 153). As self-regulatory processes are of prime importance to coaching
practitioners and their clients, the development of coaching psychology (and coaching
practice) will be well served by efforts designed to enhance goal-directed self-regulation.
A voluminous goal literature exists in psychology and a great deal is known about
goal setting and goal-directed self-regulation (Austin & Vancouver, 1996). For example,
a considerable amount of evidence indicates that goal attainment is greatest when goals
are specific, difficult (yet realistic), and time-framed (Locke, 1996). In addition, goaldirected effort and attainment are known to be influenced by the reasons people adopt
certain goals. That is, effort and attainment tend to be greatest when goals are adopted for
autonomous reasons (i.e. for their interest and enjoyment), rather than for controlled
reasons (i.e. for external rewards or because of internal compulsions) (Sheldon & Elliot,
1999). These attributes are not, however, mutually exclusive. Rather, effective goal
setting seems to require that they coexist. That is, it is important for individuals to feel a
sense of subjective ownership over their goals, whilst ensuring they are specific enough
to be measured, and realistic enough to encourage sustained effort.
Yet, goal setting represents only one part of a dynamic goal attainment and
coaching process that can last days, weeks or months. Although specific, meaningful
goals are important for stimulating planning and directing action, their presence does not
guarantee attainment. Rather, successful goal striving requires individuals to remain
focused on their goals overtime, whilst managing a steady stream of disturbances that can

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impact efforts to self-regulate behaviour (Carver & Scheier, 1998). Disturbances

represent an array of intrapersonal (e.g. self-doubt, enthusiasm) and interpersonal (e.g.
social support) factors that can either help or hinder goal attainment. For example, the
goal of finding employment will, ordinarily, be helped by the support of an employment
agency, and hindered by feelings of discouragement. However, factors such as social
support and feelings of discouragement are not static; they constantly fluctuate. Whilst
these fluctuations represent a source of challenge to job seekers, flexibly responding to
such disturbances (e.g. by seeking out support when needed, or better managing negative
emotions) should translate into more effective job seeking behaviour.
Clearly, not all individuals will be equally adept at dealing with the dynamic
nature of goal striving. It is not surprising, therefore, that goal researchers have attempted
to identify which personality traits are of greatest importance to successful goal striving.
Constructs of interest have included hope (Snyder et al., 1991), self-efficacy (Maddux,
2002a), and locus of control (Ryan & Connell, 1989). More recently, the construct of
mindfulness has begun to capture the interest of goal researchers (Brown & Ryan, 2004a)
and the relevance of this construct to goal-directed self-regulation will be explored in
detail in the next chapter.

Limitations
There are a number of limitations that need to be considered when interpreting the
results of this study. First, although professional coaching appears to have been the more
effective coaching intervention, it is only possible to speculate on why this might have
been the case. For instance, the differences between the coaching groups may have

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occurred because the professional coaching sessions were better suited to dealing with
unhelpful cognitions or facilitating better planning, or because some peer coachees were
dissatisfied with their peer coaching arrangements. As such, future research would be
enhanced by capturing data on the experience of coachees during coaching, along with
identifying factors that impact upon important variables (such as coaching attendance).
Indeed, it is likely that questions related to how coaching has its positive effects and the
factors that effect it (i.e. process research) will be of greater long term interest than
studies merely demonstrating that coaching does have positive effects (i.e. outcome
research) (Hersen, Michelson, & Bellack, 1984).
Second, as the goal attainment data used in this study was obtained using a simple
self-report measure, it is possible that demand characteristics may have biased the results.
That is, if inclusion in this study created an expectation amongst coachees that they ought
to have made progress towards their goals, then this expectation might have resulted in
over estimated post-coaching attainment ratings. In addition, the simplicity of the method
makes it somewhat insensitive to the subtleties of change. For example, by asking
individuals to rate their personal goals on only one dimension (i.e. attainment), the
measure does not take into account other factors that bear directly upon self-regulatory
processes, such as perceive goal difficulty (Locke, 1996). In not assessing dimensions
like difficulty, coaching researchers are in danger of masking the real effects of their
interventions; such as when a simple attainment scale is used to measure a
disproportionate number of relatively easy goals (unbeknownst to the researcher), leading
to overly impressive effects. As such, the measurement of goal attainment could be

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improved by utilising methods and measures that capture data on more than one
dimension of goals.
Finally, the CB-SF coaching methodology used in this study is relatively complex
and lengthy compared to the standards of conventional social psychological research. For
example, coachees were encouraged to set the agenda and their own goals for each
coaching session. Whilst this approach allowed coaches to spontaneously respond to the
needs of each coachee, this feature of the design may make the study difficult to replicate
because the intervention was not standardised and subtle variations are likely to have
existed in the way coaches worked with their coachees. More importantly, any claims
made about the efficacy of CB-SF coaching from this study must be tempered as it is not
known how faithfully coaches adhered to that particular framework. For this reason,
future researchers may wish to concentrate on developing more structured coaching
programs that can be manualised and delivered in either an individual or group-based
format. Such a program might be focused around a manual that outlines the CB-SF
approach, be introduced in a workshop format (similar to the one used in this study),
followed by a series of weekly sessions that are themed (e.g. Week 2 Dealing with
Negative Thoughts) to ensure that coaching conversations remain connected to the
essential elements of CB-SF coaching.
The design of this study can equally be considered its strength. It was chosen to
accurately reflect a typical coaching engagement and, as such, was delivered across an
extended timeframe (10-weeks) using an adult community sample. Whilst it is
acknowledged that some standardisation and simplification of these programs may be
advantageous, there is a danger of taking coaching too far into the laboratory. That is, in

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the quest for greater scientific rigour, there is a risk that coaching research may become
overly sanitised and, if so, yield little of practical value to the field. As such, future
researchers will need to carefully consider the often competing demands of coaching
research and practice.

Conclusion
Interest in the development of EBCP is increasing and has recently been identified
as important for the long term sustainability of professional coaching practice (Cavanagh
et al., 2005). Not surprisingly this has been accompanied by calls for research. The
exploratory study presented in this chapter represents an attempt to answer this call.
Consistent with previous findings (Grant, 2003a; Green et al., 2006) the results
presented in this chapter suggest that engaging with others in regular goal-directed
conversations is a useful thing to do. However, the present study has extended upon
previous findings by demonstrating that coaching outcomes appear to be optimised when
coaching is delivered by experienced coaches who ground their practice in theoreticallygrounded, empirically-validated coaching methods. That is, individuals who were
exposed to EBCP attended more coaching sessions than peer coachees, reported greater
goal attainment and environmental mastery, and maintained commitment to their goals
across the coaching period (compared to peer coachees and a control group). As such, the
presence of a supportive person appears to be a necessary but insufficient condition for
facilitating goal attainment. Rather, the coaching process seems to benefit considerably
when it is guided by someone with expertise in EBCP.

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Importantly, this study brings a measure of realism to a field that has frequently
made over-enthusiastic claims of efficacy. That is, whilst the results have shown that life
coaching can be effective in improving some aspects of goal striving and well-being, it is
clearly no panacea. What the results have done, however, is commence the validation of
EBCP as an orientation for life coaching. Yet, it is still only early days. As shown in the
events surrounding the decline of the human potential movement, it is imperative that the
coaching industry support the theoretical and empirical advancement of coaching
practice. Only by doing so can coaching hope to emerge from the sensationalistic shadow
of the pop psychology movement and establish itself as a serious and credible form of
applied positive psychology.

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Chapter Five
Mindfulness and Goal-Directed Behaviour:
New Interest in an Old Concept
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the self-regulation of behaviour and, in particular,
reviews an array of factors thought to support (or thwart) goal-directed effort. In line with
recent developments in self-regulation theory (e.g. Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996;
Brown & Ryan, 2004a; Shapiro & Schwartz, 2000), the construct of mindfulness will be
introduced and its relevance to goal-directed behaviour, mental health and wellbeing
discussed in detail. Mindfulness reflects the unique human capacity for directing
conscious awareness via the controlled deployment of attention. It will be argued that
mindfulness has much to offer the coaching enterprise for three primary reasons:
accessibility, efficacy, and adaptability.
First, the mindfulness literature is a rich body of work that offers both Eastern
religious and Western scientific conceptualisations of the construct (e.g. Gunaratana,
2002; Langer, 1989; McIntosh, 1997), along with detailed descriptions of the benefits
conferred by mindfulness (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1990). One advantage of
these diverse perspectives is that mindfulness has the potential to appeal to a broad
audience. Second, mindfulness highlights the important role that awareness and attention
play in the initiation and maintenance of goal-directed effort. As Brown and Ryan
(2004a) have suggested, mindfulness may help to improve behavioural regulation

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because enhanced awareness and attention seem to interfere with the development and
unfoldment [sic] of automatic, habitual responses (p. 115).
Finally, the concept has great practical adaptability as awareness and attention can
be enhanced using an array of simple techniques, many of which can be practiced during
ordinary everyday activities. For example, eating, walking, painting, brushing teeth,
tending houseplants and washing dishes have all been presented as opportunities for
practicing mindfulness (Hahn, 1976; Kornfield, 2004; Langer, 1989). As a result, the use
of mindfulness techniques has proliferated in recent times (Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson,
2003; Kabat-Zinn, 2003; Langer, 1997; Linehan, Cochran, & Kehrer, 2001).
This chapter begins by briefly reviewing the concept of self-regulation, acting as a
prelude to a more detailed discussion on the role that awareness and attention play in
goal-directed self-regulation. The concept of mindfulness is then introduced, defined and
outlined from three different theoretical perspectives: the Eastern Religious perspective,
which acknowledges the centrality of mindfulness to several contemplative traditions
(particularly Buddhism and Hinduism), and two models drawn from Western psychology
(labelled the Socio-Cognitive perspective and the Cognitive-Attentional perspective).
Having outlined and discussed the relevance of these perspectives to goal-directed
self-regulation, Chapter 6 continues the discussion by reviewing the empirical literature
associated with each. This is followed by the findings from a study that tested the
efficacy of mindfulness training programs (based on the three perspectives outlined).

Goal-Directed Self-Regulation
Definitions of self-regulation in psychology are typically concerned with human
behaviour and goal-directed effort. Cybernetic-systems models of self-regulation often
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act as the starting point for discussions of goal-directed behaviour (Baumeister &
Heatherton, 1996), with many contemporary models reflecting the key ingredient of the
cybernetic-systems perspective: the feedback loop (e.g. Carver & Scheier, 1998; Karoly,
1993; Matthews, Schwean, Campbell, Saklofske, & Mohamed, 2000).
Most definitions of self-regulation are organised around the concept of a reference
value, standard or goal. For example, Shapiro and Schwartz (2000) define it as the
process by which a system regulates itself to achieve specific goals (p. 254). Matthews
et al (2000) define self-regulation as the set of processes and behaviours that support the
pursuit of personal goals within a changing external environment (p. 172). Other
definitions make reference to the nature of the self-regulatory processes themselves. For
Zimmerman (2000) these processes include self-generated thoughts, feelings, and
actions that are planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals (p.
14). Similarly, Karoly (1993) proposes that effective self-regulation requires modulations
of thought, affect, behaviour, and attention. The suggestion that cognition and affect can
be modified to help support goal attainment (Vancouver, 2000) indicates that
consciousness plays a primary role in self-regulation. However, before discussing how
consciousness impacts upon self-regulated behaviour, some preliminary remarks are
required on the nature of human consciousness.

The Attributes of Consciousness

Consciousness has been the subject of intense debate within psychology; a matter
of great significance for some (e.g. structuralists) and great insignificance for others (e.g.
behaviourists) (Lundin, 1996). Nonetheless, consciousness continues to attract the

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attention of psychologists, primarily because it represents a fundamental defining feature

of the human species. That is, consciousness allows people to maintain self-awareness,
and provides the capacity to mentally scan and review the contents of awareness (Reber,
1995). Although it has proven to be notoriously difficult to define, consciousness is often
described in terms such as a domain of mind that contains the sensations, perceptions,
and memories of which one is momentarily aware (Reber, 1995, p.154). Human
conscious experience emerges from the interaction of its primary capacities: awareness
and attention. In general, awareness refers to all ones current perceptions, thoughts,
motives and feelings that will be more or less prominent for a person (i.e. they will be
conscious or pre-conscious) depending on whether attention has selected them for more
extensive information processing (Westen, 1996). As Westen notes, the contents of
consciousnessare a subset of the contents of awareness, namely, the subset to which
the person is attending (p. 333).
Consciousness is thought to have two primary functions that operate in tandem
(Westen, 1996). The first, the monitoring of self and environment, is akin to a form of
video surveillance that continuously surveys perceptions, thoughts, emotions, goals, etc
for their potential significance. The second, the control of thought and behaviour, allows
individuals to respond adaptively when striving to attain particular goals (Kihlstrom,
1987). For example, when a parent becomes consciously aware of concern for their child
(via the monitoring function), this becomes a source of information that can inform the
selection of responses that best support basic parenting goals (the controlling function).
Thus, consciousness serves adaptation by directing the allocation of cognitive resources
to information that may be meaningful or significant (Westen, 1996).

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The Trouble with Consciousness

French philosopher Blaise Pascal once remarked that most of the evils of life
arise from mans being unable to sit still in a room. In making this observation Pascal
was pointing out that consciousness is accompanied by a particular difficulty: the mind
can be extremely restless. This aspect of consciousness has long been acknowledged by
Buddhist teachers who often use the label monkey mind to connote its flighty, erratic
nature (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).
Many people find it difficult to engage in the apparently simple act of slowing
down and suspending action. This is because stillness often gives rise to thoughts that
may either induce anxiety (e.g. worry about a work deadline) or dampen mood (e.g.
rumination on a past relationship failure). Naturally, some people will seek to avoid the
discomfort associated with these private moments by exposing themselves to experiences
that can either replace or overpower unpleasant streams of consciousness (e.g. television,
music, substance abuse, work, close relationships). This tendency has been labelled
experiential avoidance (Hayes & Wilson, 2003)
The notion of experiential avoidance suggests that individuals vary in the degree
to which they understand and/or feel a sense of mastery over their inner experience. It
will be argued later that the development of mindfulness skills is one way in which
individuals can enhance these capacities, and that several techniques are available that
may help with the training of these capacities before and/or during coaching. Before this
argument can be advanced, however, it must be shown how attention and awareness
(central components of mindfulness) impact on goal-directed self-regulation.

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The Role of Attention and Awareness in Self-Regulation

Baumeister and Heatherton (1996) suggest that self-regulatory activity occurs
when one internal process overrides another. As they conceive it, latent motivations and
activating stimuli have the power to initiate an undesired response and, when this
happens, the presence of a superordinate goal triggers a response that prevents it from
running its typical course. For example, an invitation to dinner (an activating stimulus)
may bring to the fore ones enthusiasm for French cuisine (a latent motivation) and create
an impulse to accept the invitation. However, a person with the goal of lowering their
cholesterol levels will seek to override a response sequence that might otherwise lead to
the consumption of an unhealthy meal. According to this view, self-regulation is a
controlled process. It overrides the usual consequences of an impulse, rather than
preventing the impulse from occurring. As Baumeister and Heatherton (1996) point out,
the problem is not that people have impulses; rather it is that they act on them (p. 2).
How does one override an impulse? According to Baumeister, Heatherton and
others (Brown & Ryan, 2004a; Watson & Tharp, 1997; Wells & Matthews, 1996),
attention and awareness play key roles in weakening the potency of impulses and other
psychological processes that initiate unwanted responses. Specifically, these authors
suggest that when consciousness is brought to bear on present realities (a present-moment
focus) an element of self-direction is introduced into behaviours that would otherwise be
non-consciously regulated. Given that attention is generally considered to be the first
stage of cognitive processing, self-regulation becomes difficult if problematic thoughts,
feelings, sensations and behaviours go unnoticed (Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996).
Therefore, the effective training and management of attention and awareness would seem

114

to come highly recommended, with coaches able to provide a supportive role in helping
their clients to manage their attentional focus productively.

The Impact of Attention on Self-Regulation

Feedback loops have been widely used to explain a variety of human regulatory
responses, including the regulation of physiological processes (e.g. body temperature,
blood glucose levels, blood chemistry) and physical behaviours (e.g. motor control). As
this type of self-regulatory activity does not depend on conscious awareness, it is
generally considered to be automatic (Shapiro & Schwartz, 2000). Nonetheless, research
has shown that it is possible to alter behaviours that are normally non-consciously
regulated merely by directing attention towards them.
For example, it has been demonstrated that when focused attention is directed
towards organ systems, it can alter physiological responses. Schwartz (1984) found that
directing attention towards the breath (with no intention to alter respiration) results in
slower, deeper and more regular breathing; whilst directing attention towards the
heartbeat helps to regular heart rate. It was concluded that these effects occur because the
attention amplifies feedback from the bodily system, establishing a better connection with
the body and, subsequently, better self-regulation (Schwartz, 1984).
Attention also appears to play a key role in the modification of automatic
behaviours. According to Watson and Tharp (1997), all behaviours pass through a typical
developmental sequence. First, for a new behaviour to be acquired (e.g. driving a car)
some degree of instruction or modelling is needed from a teacher or instructor. Thus,
individuals rely on others to help regulate, or control, the performance of new behaviours

115

(control by others). Second, as the procedural aspects of behaviour become more

familiar, individuals develop the capacity to direct the action sequence on their own
(control by self). Finally, action sequences often become so familiar that their
performance requires minimal thought (automatisation). When this happens, regulation
of the behaviour passes outside of conscious control (i.e. it is not self-regulated) and falls
under the control of environmental cues, such as when a red traffic light triggers a
braking response in an experienced motorist.
Automatisation is useful because it allows quick and efficient action. However,
automatic, habitual behaviours do not always produce desirable outcomes (e.g. eating
chocolate when one is stressed). When this happens, the behaviour(s) can be brought
back under conscious self-regulation simply by directing attention towards it (Watson &
Tharp, 1997). Attention destroys its automaticity and allows the behaviour to either be
suspended or modified. If the behaviour is modified, automatisation may once again take
place, provided the behaviour is producing desirable outcomes.

Attentional Control on the Run

An example will help to clarify the role that attentional control can play in
effective self-regulation. In long-distance running the term hitting the wall refers to an
advanced state of physical exertion, one in which dramatic fatigue occurs as the body
exhausts its supply of glycogen and energy has to be converted by burning stored fat.
This can be an extremely unpleasant experience as it is typically accompanied by acute
muscular soreness, cramping, reduced coordination, nausea and mental fatigue (Stevinson
& Biddle, 1998).

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Whenever an athlete hits the wall a good chance exists that an acute attention and
awareness will develop towards these painful physical sensations and the feelings of
distress. If so, awareness of those sensations and feelings will rapidly begin to amplify
and intensify, making it extremely difficult for the runner to maintain concentration and
sustain effort. However, it is not uncommon for runners in this situation to continue on,
finish the run, and do so without any adverse long-term effects. When this happens, the
athlete tends to have applied an attentional control strategy to help maintain performance.
Stevinson and Biddle (1998) identify two types of strategy. The first, an associative
strategy, involves attending to early signs of trouble and using these cues to take
preventative action (e.g. drinking more fluid). The second, a dissociative strategy,
involves diverting attention from the physical sensations and attempting to mask the pain.
The completion of a marathon can be considered to be an example of successful
self-regulation, insofar as represents the attainment of a desired goal. However, it should
be noted that goal attainment is not always an appropriate criteria for success. As it was
defined earlier (see page 77), self-regulation represents the ability to maintain internal
order and coherent functioning by coordinating the operations of multiple
interconnecting subsystems. Thus, difficulties arise whenever the completion of a
marathon is accompanied by the death or hospitalisation of the runner (as has happened at
Olympic Games and other major athletic events).
Such scenarios seem more indicative of poor self-regulation. That is, runners
seriously compromise their overall functioning by ignoring signals from feedback loops
related to hydration, respiration, ambulation, etc. A more adaptive self-regulatory
response would be to disengage from effort and stop running. Although the idea of

117

disengaging from goal-directed effort is not popular in Western society, its adaptive value
is beginning to be recognised (Wrosch, Scheier, Carver, & Schulz, 2003) and it has
recently been proposed as a human strength (Carver & Scheier, 2004). Accordingly, the
identification of successful human self-regulation must balance the attainment of
desired states against assessments of overall human functioning, or a values based
critique of goals.

The Concept of Mindfulness

Mindfulness has been defined by Kabat-Zinn (2003) as the awareness that
emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment (p. 145). As such,
mindfulness represents a particular quality of consciousness experience. Mindfulness is a
potentially fruitful area of enquiry for coaching psychology because it is conceptually
related to several important self-regulatory processes. For example, Shapiro, Carlson,
Astin and Freedman (2006) propose that being able to non-judgmentally attend to current
experience establishes better connections to feedback loops and the information
contained within them. Importantly, this may include data previously considered too
uncomfortable to examine. Brown and Ryan (2004a) argue this stance of non-judgment
builds behavioural flexibility by providing a window of opportunity to choose the form,
direction, and other specifics of action (p. 116).
In addition, mindfulness may help people to better recognise what is meaningful
for them and what they truly value (Brown & Ryan, 2004a). As values are often acquired
through socio-cultural conditioning (when individuals internalise the values of their

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family, society and culture), individuals frequently base their decisions and actions on the
values of others, and fail to reflect on whether those values are truly important in the
context of their own life (Deci, 1995). Mindfulness may help to counteract such
conditioning by allowing individuals the opportunity to observe and reflect upon their
values with greater objectivity and possibly lead to the adoption of more congruent
values (Shapiro et al, 2006). Research has shown that goal striving and well-being appear
to be optimised whenever goals accurately reflect a persons core values and developing
interests (Deci & Ryan, 2001; Sheldon & Elliot, 1998, 1999). As such, mindfulness
would appear to have importance for goal setting.

New Interest in an Old Concept

Mindfulness has been closely associated with healthy human functioning and
psychological well-being for over 2500 years (McIntosh, 1997). For Buddhists the
concept is associated with an escape from suffering, insofar as individuals are able to
develop the skills of paying attention to momentary experiences (i.e. thoughts, feelings,
bodily sensations) without judgement or evaluation (Gunaratana, 2002). According to this
view, happiness emerges from the development of a disciplined mind (through
meditation) that allows a person to be openly receptive to ongoing experience, and to
focus on what is, rather than what might be.
As behavioural scientists and clinicians have learnt more about the relationship
between mindfulness, well-being and positive human functioning, they have become
progressively more interested in the philosophy and practices of many Eastern
contemplative traditions (Baer, 2003). Scholarly discourse has steadily increased over the

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past decade, with substantial commentaries on mindfulness and mindfulness meditation

appearing in Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice between 2002 and 2004 (see
Volume 9 (1); Volume 10 (2); and Volume 11 (3)). These discussions have not, however,
been limited to clinical applications involving meditation. In 2000 the Journal of Social
Issues (Volume 56, Issue 1) dedicated an entire issue to Langers (1989) socio-cognitive
conceptualisation of mindfulness. Authors in this edition related the construct to matters
as diverse as education, gender roles, communicative practices, clinical diagnosis and the
interactions between people and computers.
Several self-report assessment tools have also been developed and are now
available to researchers who wish to study the construct directly (Baer, Smith, Hopkins,
Krietemeyer, & Toney, 2006). Mindfulness research is now expanding across multiple
domains (such as health, education, commerce) and the concept seems destined for a
broad audience. Indeed, publications like The Power of Now (Tolle, 1999), The Mindful
Coach (Silsbee, 2004) and On Becoming an Artist: Reinventing Yourself Through
Mindful Creativity (Langer, 2005) suggest that mindfulness is already well represented in
the popular press and in coaching.

The Structure of Mindfulness

At first blush mindfulness appears to be a relatively simple concept, merely
reflecting the state of being attentive to, and aware of, what is occurring in the present.
However, as Brown and Ryan (2004a) observe, the concept is difficult to characterise
because it resides in the largely uncharted shadowy realm of consciousness.
Nonetheless, mindfulness has been the focus of theoretical and empirical investigation for

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sometime (e.g. Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Langer, 1989) and burgeoning interest in the concept
has seen several recent attempts to more precisely define the concept and specify its
characteristics (e.g. Bishop et al., 2004; Shapiro et al., 2006).
Bishop et al (2004) propose that mindfulness has two essential components: (i)
the self-regulation of attention, and (ii) a particular orientation towards current
experience. The first component, the regulation of attentional focus, involves particular
skills that allow awareness to be brought to whatever is occurring in the present moment.
These skills include selective attention, sustained attention and attention switching. Being
able to selectively attend to stimuli and then sustain attention in the face of competing
stimuli is important for maintaining awareness of current experience. In mindfulness
meditation, the breath is often used to help develop this ability. That is, individuals learn
to use the breath to anchor attention in current experience, such that thoughts, feelings
and sensations can be detected as they arise in the stream of consciousness. Equally
important is attention switching. Given the apparent flighty, erratic nature of the mind,
attention switching skills help individuals to gently return attention back into the moment
(after once particular thoughts, feelings or sensations have been acknowledged and
allowed to pass). According to this model, developing mindfulness is analogous to
developing these attentional skills (Bishop et al., 2004).
The second major component of mindfulness according to Bishop et al (2004) is a
particular orientation towards current experience. This is an orientation that involves an
attitude of curiosity towards the workings of the mind and openness to the contents of
conscious experience. This reflects the meditative approach to mindfulness. In
meditation, individuals practice maintaining openness and receptivity to all thoughts,

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feelings and sensations as they arise. From this perspective, the primary aim of
mindfulness practice is not to the modification of experience (by controlling cognitions,
inducing relaxation, etc), rather it seeks to develop greater acceptance of current
experience (Hayes et al., 2003; Kabat-Zinn, 1990).

Intention: An Additional Component

In an elaboration of the model proposed by Bishop and colleagues, Shapiro et al
(2006) propose that an additional aspect of mindfulness, intention, is an essential
inclusion in a theoretical model of the construct (see Figure 5.1).

Intention

Attention

Attitude

Figure 5.1. Three components of mindfulness.

Whilst agreeing with Bishop et al (2004) that mindfulness involves the skilful use
of attention, and the adoption of a particular attitude towards experience, Shapiro and
colleagues argue that the conceptualisation is incomplete without acknowledging the role
of intention. This acknowledgement reflects earlier writings by Kabat-Zinn (1990) who
noted that some kind of personal vision was a vital part of successful and sustained
mindfulness practice:

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it could be a vision of what or who you might be if you were to let go of

the fetters of your own mind and the limitations of your own body. This
image will help carry you through the inevitable periods of low motivation
and give continuity to your practice (p. 46).

Shapiro et al (2006) point out that, whilst a personal vision might vary from the
specific (e.g. Be better in my dealings with customer complaints) to the more holistic
(e.g. To become a better person), these intentions can be dynamic and evolving. For
example, a corporate executive might take up mindfulness practice specifically to manage
stress, but then develop the more holistic intention of using the practice to become a more
supportive, encouraging person both at work and at home (irrespective of stress levels).
Simply put, being aware of the intention behind the pursuit of mindfulness helps to
remind one why mindfulness is being practiced in the first place. According to this model,
intention, attention and attitude are interwoven into a single cyclic process, with
mindfulness arising when the three are simultaneously cultivated (Shapiro et al., 2006).

East Meets West: The Confluence of Two Literatures

Mindfulness is a quality of consciousness that all normally developed human
beings have the capacity to acquire. Even though individuals have been shown to reliably
differ in their propensity or willingness to be mindful, all individuals possess a basic
capacity to attend and be aware (Brown & Ryan, 2003). It is not surprising then that
scholars outside the Eastern contemplative traditions have also shown great interest in the
construct of mindfulness and other closely related subjective phenomena. One group to
have shown an increasing amount of scholarly interest are Western psychologists.

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Over the past four decades, psychologists have studied several constructs that are
conceptually similar to mindfulness. For example, the observing self (Deikman, 1982)
and decentering (Safran & Segal, 1990) reflect processes related to stepping outside the
usual automated mode of perceptual processing and attending to aspects of mental
activity that might not otherwise enter awareness (Bishop et al., 2004; Martin, 1997).
Other constructs that involve self-observation include psychological mindedness
(Appelbaum, 1973; Grant, 2001b) and emotional intelligence (Mayer & Salovey, 1997).
These constructs are more complex than mindfulness, however, as they deal with the
capacity to see relationships between thoughts, feelings and behaviours, and to extract
underlying meanings and causes from experience.
In regard to the importance that mindfulness qualities have for healthy human
functioning, McIntosh (1997) notes that Buddhist scholars and Western psychologists
have espoused similar views. For example, both agree on the deleterious effects that
strong attachments have on psychological functioning (McIntosh, 1997). For example,
psychological studies have shown that individuals experience poorer mental health when
happiness is linked, or attached, to the acquisition of material possessions or attainment
of other outcomes (Easterbrook, 2003; Kasser & Ryan, 1993, 1996; McIntosh & Martin,
1992; Street, 2002). These findings clearly reflect the Buddhist teaching that human
suffering and dis-ease are caused by the human tendency to become overly attached to
objects, people and ideas. A primary aim of meditation is the dissolution of attachments
(Gunaratana, 2002).
In addition, tacit agreement exists on the major role played by the self in
psychological and behavioural dysfunction. For Buddhists the self is problematic because

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of its potential to create strong attachments. For example, in a constantly changing world
people find comfort in the illusion of a solid core (the self) and, once objectified, the
desire to maintain and protect it only serves to create a platform for suffering (McIntosh,
1997). In a similar vein, clinical psychologists have identified self-focused attention as a
major factor in clinical conditions like generalised anxiety disorder and hypochondriasis,
prompting the development of treatments that seek to increase attentional control and
reduce self-focus (Wells & Matthews, 1994).
Given that there is nothing uniquely Buddhist about mindfulness (Kabat-Zinn,
2003), it should not be surprising that alternative conceptualisations of mindfulness exist
(Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Langer, 1989; Wells & Matthews, 1994), and that each perspective
has advanced its own techniques for cultivating receptive attention and awareness to
ongoing experience.

Alternative Conceptualisations
In the following sections, three conceptualisations of mindfulness will be
considered. For convenience they will be labelled the Eastern Religious, Socio-Cognitive
and Cognitive-Attentional perspectives. It will be shown that, although all emphasise an
orientation in the present, these perspectives differ in the importance they place on
internal and external stimuli and that these differences have influenced the development
of mindfulness training procedures.
An appreciation of these differences is important when considering the use of
mindfulness training within coaching contexts. That is because mindfulness training
practices differ in respect of the cognitive demands they place on individuals and, as

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such, may not be suitable for use with all individuals, in all situations. This issue will be
explored later.

Eastern Religious Perspective

Mindfulness is most readily identified with meditation and is closely associated
with several different schools of Buddhism (e.g. the Theravada, Mahayana and Vajrayana
schools). According to the fourth noble truth of the Buddha (Magga), liberation from
suffering (dukkha) is attained by the practice of eight disciplines, of which right
mindfulness and right meditation are the seventh and eight noble paths (Levine, 2000). In
particular, mindfulness is recommended for the treatment of dis-ease, a mental state
created by greed, hatred or ignorance (Eckel, 1998).
Buddhism has not, however, been unique in emphasising the importance of
mindfulness. For example, mindfulness qualities are reflected in the ancient Vedic notion
of pure consciousness, a purely content-free silent state of awareness equivalent to the
Hindu state of transcendental consciousness (Maharishi, 1969). Similarly, the yoga
practices of the Jana, Bhakti, Krma and Rja schools of Hinduism all strive for a calm
state of consciousness, one in which the Atman (or universal spirit) can be more easily
seen (Levine, 2000). Indeed, it has been argued that all the worlds major religions
(including Islam, Judaism, and Christianity) in some way attempt to cultivate
mindfulness within the faithful (Knight, 2005; Lowenstein, 2002).
Mindfulness has been described as the heart of Buddhist meditation (Thera,
1962). Hahn (1976) defines it simply as keeping ones consciousness alive to the present
reality (p. 11), whilst Thera (1962) describes it as the clear and single-minded

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awareness of what actually happens to us and in us at the successive moments of

perception (p. 5). Throughout its long history, Buddhist scholars and teachers have
sought to develop simple ways of cultivating mindfulness, practices that could provide
individuals with a repeatable sequence of steps for effectively inducing the desired
physiological and psychological state of mindfulness. One of the most appealing aspects
of meditation appears to be its accessibility. As Lowenstein (2002) observes, our bodymind machine comes with all the hardware and software needed to meditate, we just need
to install it, learn how to use it, and customize it for ourselves (p. 160).
Meditative techniques can be grouped into two general categories: concentrationbased approaches and mindfulness-based approaches (Baer, 2003). Concentration-based
forms of meditation draw upon techniques designed to still the mind. In Yogic
meditation, for example, concentration is directed towards a single stimulus (e.g. an
object, sound or mantra), whilst simultaneously maintaining focused attention on a
specific internal (e.g. top of the head) or external point of fixation. Meditation begins
when these activities occur in a synchronised fashion with good posture and breathing.
As such, these techniques tend to a have a strong mind-body emphasis (Lowenstein,
2002). In contrast, mindfulness-based approaches are more cognitively focused, insofar
as they involve continuous non-judgmental observation of constantly changing internal
and external stimuli (e.g. thoughts, feelings, sounds). The practice of intentionally
attending to momentary experience (with openness and acceptance) is considered
important preparation for changing how individuals behave when they are off the
cushion (Kabat-Zinn, 1990) and engaged in everyday activities.

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From this latter viewpoint, the basic state of mindfulness is not concerned with
the focus of cognitive operations but rather a particular state of consciousness, one that is
open and alert to moment-to-moment experience (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Irrespective of
the approach taken, Kabat-Zinn (2003) notes that the Buddhist notion of mindfulness
invokes a process of life-long learning about how:

Unexamined behaviors andan untrained mind can significantly contribute

directly to human suffering, ones own and others. It also includes the potential
transmutation of that suffering through meditative practices that calm and
clarify the mind, open the heart, and refine attention and action (p.146).

As this suggests, within Buddhism mindfulness forms an integral part of a

detailed phenomenological description of the nature of mind, human emotion and the
potential release from suffering. In short, the development of mindfulness skills is vital to
the progression of healthy, happy and productive human lives. Although it has yet to be
demonstrated, coaching may have an important role to play in assisting the application of
mindfulness skills to everyday activities.

Socio-Cognitive Perspective
Over the past three decades theoretical and empirical investigations of
mindfulness have been conducted in line with Langers (1989) socio-cognitive theory. An
interesting feature of Langers work is that it has occurred independently of Eastern
religious traditions. Yet, despite a considerable degree of conceptual overlap, most
discussions of mindfulness tend to see Langers work as incompatible with the work

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inspired by Eastern contemplative traditions (e.g. Bishop et al., 2004). After outlining the
central features of Langers theory, this claim of incompatibility will be examined.
According to Langer there are two modes of waking consciousness, mindlessness
and mindfulness. The theory proposes that mindfulness is related to a particular type of
cognitive processing, one that involves the drawing of novel distinctions (Langer &
Moldoveanu, 2000). It is based on the observation that, whilst attention in humans and
animals is reflexively drawn towards novel environmental stimuli (the orienting
response), this orientation dissipates rapidly when incoming information ceases to be
perceived as novel or different (Mazur, 1998). The process of habituation reflects the
organisation of experience through the categorisation of information in scripts, schemata,
strategies, etc. These cognitive structures permit fast thought-action sequences and
liberate attentional resources by switching off active processing of subsequent
experience. This leads to a state of mindlessness.
Mind-LESS-ness. According to Langer (1989), mindlessness reflects the human
tendency to tune out in environments that are perceived to be lacking in novelty and is
associated with a relatively stable and rigid categorisation of information. When in a
mindless mode of operation, individuals accept stimuli as they are presented and do not
attempt to gather, absorb, or integrate new or novel information about people, objects or
events (Carson, Shih, & Langer, 2001). As such, a lot of mindless behaviour tends to be
automatic, performed without conscious awareness and, therefore, resistant to change.
From this perspective mindless individuals resemble cognitive misers and are
characterised by a state of reduced cognitive activity arising from either accumulated
experience (i.e. repetition) or premature cognitive commitments (i.e. unquestioned first

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impressions). The essence of mindlessness is well captured by John-Paul Sartre in the

philosophical novel Nausea:

Are we to understand that Life has undertaken to think for them? They explain
the new by the oldbehind their self-importance you can distinguish a
morose laziness: they see a procession of semblances pass by, they yawn, they
think that theres nothing new under the sun (Sartre, 1965, p.102).

Whilst acknowledging that it is not always possible (or practical) to be in a state

of mindfulness, Langer (1989) suggests that there are several costs associated with being
mindless. For example, studies have indicated that when people learn about things in
absolute terms, information tends to be stored in rigid categories that stifle flexible and
creativity thinking (e.g. Langer & Piper, 1987). That is, when people learn in absolute
terms that A is B, they are less likely to process other features of stimuli that might
suggest A could be B, C or D.
This type of learning is often reflected in the way we think about and describe
other people. That is, upon meeting a person for the first time, we form an impression of
them by processing all sorts of available information. However, as we tend to be biased
towards negative information (Fredrickson, 2002), if we detect something about the
person we do not like, we are likely to categorise them negatively and in absolute terms
(e.g. A is arrogant). Having done so, we may then become mindless with respect to that
person, noticing only information that confirms our negative belief, and failing to attend
to information that may disconfirm the belief (e.g. an act of humility).

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Mindlessness has also been linked to an over-emphasis on outcomes, whereby

individuals tend to separate achievement from all the steps that led to it (i.e. the process).
As a consequence, good outcomes are often perceived as following from flawless
processes and the value of trial and error is diminished (Langer, 1989). When this
happens individuals may feel considerable pressure to get it right and may develop an
acute fear of failure, along with high levels of anxiety, stress, procrastination, avoidance
and self-handicapping. In addition, mindlessness can lead to the development of a narrow
self-image, as seen in relationships when partners define themselves according to
particular gender stereotypes (e.g. housewife, income earner), without ever perceiving
themselves in any other way. Such individuals become especially vulnerable to change
and heightened distress should the relationship come to an end (Langer, 1989).
Mind-FUL-ness. In contrast, mindfulness is akin to operating with a mind-full of
comparisons and contrasts. It is typified by active distinction making and a continuous
attempt to detect novelty and difference in ones unfolding experience. Mindful
individuals consciously manipulate information and actively construct their experience of
reality from environmental cues. As Langer (1994) describes it, mindfulness emanates
from a lively state of mind and is typified by openness to experience, sensitivity to
different contexts, and awareness of multiple perspectives.
A central component of Langers conceptualisation of mindfulness (in keeping
with Eastern religious perspectives) is an orientation in the present. This is important
because novelty and difference are often subtle (particularly in human behaviour) and
individuals must remain awake and alert to whatever information is presently available.
For example, partners in a close relationship are often considered to be in sync when

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attentive to each others non-verbal behaviour. This may lead one to notice something
different or unusual in the behaviour of the other (e.g. a stifled yawn) and result in some
form of support or assistance being rendered. Thus, mindfulness requires that attention be
grounded in the present moment, such that novelty and difference can be detected.
Sensitivity to different contexts is another important aspect of mindfulness.
According to the theory, much mindless behaviour results because people process
contextual information through rigid schemas. This can lead individuals to feel a
diminished sense of control (and possibly helplessness) if they perceive the situations
they encounter to be fixed and permanent (Langer, 1989). Thus, for Langer, any effort to
change the context surrounding a situation is a mindful act.
For example, the waiting room of a dental surgery is a context that can elicit great
fear and anxiety. However, when viewed objectively, a dental waiting room is a fairly
benign place (consisting of a few chairs, some pot plants, and a pile of magazines sitting
on a low table). It is the individual that perceives and appraises the context as fearful. If
the person is able to suspend mindless processing of context based on fearful schemas,
then they can transform their experience. In other words, dental anxiety is related to an
anticipation of pain and discomfort that may have been acquired by direct experience or
vicarious observation. However, the maintenance of the dental surgery schema tends to
overlook the fact that actual dental pain and discomfort are usually quite fleeting (i.e. the
jab of a needle followed by numbness). If an individual is to counteract the debilitating
effects of such a schema, he or she must be mindful of alternative forms of information
that might help its reconfiguration. This might include memories of past visits where little
or no pain was experienced, the positive recollections of others, or other sources of

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information not previously considered (e.g. information about dental procedures available
in the waiting room). Mindfulness is, therefore, the process of actively searching for, and
integrating, new information.
In sum, Langer conceives mindfulness as the processes by which existing
cognitive structures (e.g. schemas) are refreshed to more accurately reflect reality. It is a
mindful mode of processing because current experience is perceived as it is, rather than
through a lens of pre-existing categories that may have been acquired mindlessly (i.e.
with little conscious thought or reflection).

Cognitive-Attentional Perspective
Although not explicitly a theory of mindfulness, the cognitive-attentional
perspective provides a detailed theoretical model of the mechanisms that may be involved
in the creation of mindful states. Drawing on research and clinical experience, Wells and
Matthews (1996) have argued that metacognitive processes such as self-focused attention
form part of the aetiology of affective disorders and emotional dysregulation. The SelfRegulatory Executive Function (S-REF) model was developed to provide a theoretical
account of how self-focused attention negatively affects cognitive, affective and
behavioural experience.

The Self-Regulatory Executive Function Model. The S-REF model holds that
information processing is governed by a self-regulatory executive process that functions
to alert the person to the presence of self-relevant information (internal or external) and to
implement processing routines aimed at assessing that information and averting,

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neutralising or dealing with any perceived threat indicated by that information. To do

this, the S-REF continuously monitors inputs from a variety of perceptual and cognitive
sources (e.g. discrete thoughts, body state information) that register the occurrence of a
host of internal and external events. When self-relevant information of sufficient
magnitude or importance is detected the S-REF moves to conscious processing of this
information. To do this it draws on a range of higher level cognitive structures (e.g. selfbeliefs, schemas, generic action plans) that contain procedural plans for directing
behaviour and metacognitive responses. According to the model, problematic emotional
dysregulation is caused by the accessing of poor quality response plans particularly
responses which focus limited attentional resources in maladaptive ways.
For example, a feeling of light-headedness is likely to trigger S-REF processing in
most individuals because it is usually perceived as a significant self-relevant internal
event. Whether the person experiences problematic emotional dysregulation (e.g. high
anxiety, severe worry, panic), will depend on the way in which attention is deployed.
Person A may drink a glass of water and sit down, and wait for the feeling to subside,
while focusing their attention either away from concerns over their physical state, or
toward beliefs and schemas that actively assist them to remain calm. Person B, however,
may similarly drink a glass of water and sit down, but simultaneously engage their
attention in a cycle of rumination about the potential dire consequences of their
symptoms and their helplessness to deal adequately with them.
While both people may be aware of an ongoing stream of physical state
information, person As attentional resources are free to notice disconfirming or
anxiolytic information, or to engage in more thoughtful and effective action planning. In

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contrast, person Bs attentional resources are engaged in unhelpful anxiogenic rumination

which may lead to a vicious cycle of anxiety maintenance. Thus, the S-REF maintains a
dual role, not only directing attention towards the event itself but also towards self-beliefs
that will influence how the event is appraised (e.g. positively or negatively) and to
determine what action is taken.
According to Wells and Matthews (1994) S-REF processing is normally shortlived in healthy individuals. However, for individuals prone to distress, when attention
becomes biased towards negative self-relevant information, it is common for seemingly
innocuous events to become amplified and distorted beyond their real level of threat,
setting up a preservative style of self-focused processing [that] generates a feedback
loop in which negative emotion contributes to maintaining S-REF activity (Matthews &
Wells, 2000, p. 83-84). Thus, when an individuals attention becomes captured in this
way, they become (by definition) more mindless than mindful because their ability to
non-judgementally observe momentary experience is compromised.

Mindfulness and Coaching

Each of the perspectives discussed above will now be considered for their
relevance to coaching. This discussion will include an outline of: (i) three alternative
approaches to developing mindfulness; and (ii) some mechanisms that help to explain
why training in mindfulness skills is potentially beneficial. By better understanding how
mindfulness works, it becomes easier to develop a rationale for using mindfulness
techniques within coaching contexts.

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Developing Mindfulness
Despite conceptual and terminological differences, all three perspectives
presented here conform to Kabat-Zinns (1990) definition of mindfulness. That is, all
contend that mindful states are the result of paying attention on purpose, in the present
moment, and non-judgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment (p.
145). However, Brown and Ryan (2004b) note that there has been a general tendency
among authors to bind mindfulness to meditation. They caution that this overemphasises
consciousness of internal phenomena, ignores important aspects of the social and
physical world, and does not acknowledge the possibility that mindfulness can be
cultivated through practices other than meditation (Brown & Ryan, 2004b).
As it will now be shown, the three perspectives under review offer quite different
approaches to the development of mindfulness, with each varying according to the
emphasis that it places on the use of internal or external stimuli.

Mindfulness Meditation
The capacity for mindfulness is enhanced in meditation by the development of a
particular quality of self-focused attention. It teaches individuals how to direct, and hold,
the focus of their attention internally, whilst maintaining an awareness of their unfolding
internal experience (i.e. thoughts, feelings and sensations) without allowing attention to
be captured by any one experience. Thus, it is a quality of self-focused attention
typified by openness and acceptance of experience (Bishop et al., 2004). Simply put, in
developing the skill of dispassionate self-observation, individuals create for themselves
an interval of time within which habits of meaning, thought, behavior, or emotion are

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suspended, reconsidered (Martin, 1997, p. 292). Whilst many different forms of

mindfulness meditation practice exist, all seek to generate these qualities of openness and
acceptance. Practices range from simple breathing meditations, to meditations involving
particular behaviours (e.g. walking, eating), cognitions (e.g. negative thoughts,
hindrances) or physical sensations. Although meditation practice is structured around a
sequence of simple steps (beginning with the adoption of a comfortable posture), it is not
rigidly structured. This allows mediation and mindfulness skills to be practiced in a
variety of everyday situations, such as making tea or washing dishes (Hahn, 1976).

Socio-Cognitive
In contrast to the meditative approach, the socio-cognitive perspective sees
mindfulness as a creative cognitive process, whereby individuals continuously refresh
their perception of reality by directing attention and awareness towards the stimulus
properties of primarily external stimuli (Langer, 1989). This is a mindful process because
the active construction of new categories and meanings requires an individual to be open
to whatever is presently occurring in ones environment (akin to non-judgemental
observation). By being open to experience and constantly assessing the world through
fresh eyes, existing schemata become modifiable, along with habitual patterns of
thought and behaviour. Thus, in the socio-cognitive tradition, the chief requirement of
mindfulness training procedures is that they stimulate novel, creative thought. A variety
of techniques have been developed and tested, including creative mental activity tasks
(e.g. thinking of unusual uses for common objects) and novel word-production tasks (see
Alexander, Langer, Newman, Chandler, & Davies, 1989). However, Alexander and

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colleagues note that these procedures generally do not require conscious engagement
with the environment and, as such, may not produce optimal levels of mindfulness due to
their artificiality.

Cognitive-Attentional
According to the S-REF approach, it is possible to achieve a state of detached
mindfulness by systematically attempting to reduce self-focused attention through the
practice of external attentional focus and attention switching in an auditory mode (Wells,
2000; Wells & Matthews, 1994). This is in sharp contrast to the meditative approach,
which seeks to increase self-focused attention, by directing attention primarily towards
internal stimuli. Individuals develop a greater capacity for mindfulness through the use of
attentional retraining procedures that encourage the processing of non self-referent forms
of information. For example, in the attention training technique (Wells & Matthews,
1994), the metacognitive control of attention is bolstered by getting individuals to remain
focused on presently occurring external stimuli (i.e. sounds) in the face of competing
stimuli that might spontaneously occur (i.e. intrusions of body state information, thoughts
or feelings). In so doing, individuals develop greater attentional muscle, as represented
by enhanced attentional control and flexibility.

Mechanisms of Mindfulness
A number of mechanisms can be proposed to explain why the development of
mindfulness skills might enhance self-regulation. To make the discussion relevant to
coaching, these mechanisms will be related to the following hypothetical case study:

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James is a senior project manager responsible for a complex multi-million

joint venture project. He presents for coaching, at the behest of the human
resources director, to address developmental issues that have emerged from
a recent performance appraisal (which included multi-rater feedback). An
inability to tolerate frustration is cited as the issue of greatest concern, as
James is prone to outbursts of anger and has verbally assaulted his staff on
many occasions. As a result, a climate of fear now surrounds the project
and is negatively impacting team morale, interpersonal communication and
the overall progress of the project. When asked about his behaviour, James
explains he has told his team that mistakes are not an option on this
project and so, when things have gone wrong in the past, James has felt no
compunction about expressing his anger and frustration. However, James is
beginning to realise that he may have to change his behaviour, as the
resignations of some key personnel have compromised the teams
performance and the joint venture partners are becoming uneasy.

For the purposes of illustration, it will be assumed that Jamess current behaviour
is powerfully motivated by a significant past experience. That is, two years earlier, James
was fired from a previous position because he and his team failed to deliver on a
significant project. One of the reasons cited for Jamess dismissal was his inability to
build a team that could effectively manage the projects many challenges. His present
behaviour can, therefore, be understood as an acute anxiety reaction to events and

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information (e.g. work mistakes) that indicate the possible recurrence of a past event (i.e.
loss of employment).

Possible Mechanisms
On the basis of several recent reviews of the mindfulness construct (Baer, 2003;
Brown & Ryan, 2004a; Martin, 1997; Shapiro et al., 2006), the following mechanisms
can be advanced to explain how the development of mindfulness skills might be useful
for improving Jamess managerial performance:

1. Liberation of attentional resources;

2. Disruption of habitual thought-action sequences;
3. Exposure and response prevention;
4. Metacognitive change;
5. Self-efficacy;
6. Values clarification.

Mechanism 1: Liberation of Attentional Resources

It is generally agreed that the human attentional system has limited capacity
(Ward, 2004). Whilst a multitude of stimuli bombard the senses in any moment, people
can only direct attention towards a tiny portion of the available stimuli. Thus, if stimuli
are to be made available for higher cognitive processing, they must first be selected by
the attentional system. However, numerous clinical studies have shown that some
affective states exert a powerful influence on the attentional system (Wells & Matthews,
1994). For example, anxiety is attentionally demanding. Not only does it draw upon a

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sizeable portion of limited attentional resources, it also biases the selection and recall of
information, and impairs judgement and evaluation (Wells & Matthews, 1994). In other
words, anxiety can cause the attentional system to become blinkered and skewed towards
information that has particular significance for people (e.g. information indicating the
likelihood of a feared event occurring).
To better understand how mindfulness skills might help James curb his aggressive
workplace behaviour, it is useful to consider how various perceptual inputs shape anxiety.
In the equation below (adapted from Cavanagh, 2003), anxiety is proposed as a function
of perceptions related to the likelihood and awfulness of a feared event (numerator
information), divided by perceptions of the internal and external resources that are
available for dealing with the feared event (denominator information). In the case of
James, the feared event is the loss of his job. Thus:
Perceived likelihood of job loss
occurring

Perceived awfulness or cost

of job loss

Perceived internal resources for

dealing with job loss

Perceived external resources that

could help deal with job loss

Anxiety =

This equation helps to understand the acute anxiety and intolerance that James
experiences in the face of workplace errors. That is, errors appear to trigger processing
plans that selectively attend to numerator information (i.e. likelihood and awfulness) and
neglect denominator information (i.e. available resources). Given his recent employment
history, this pattern of selective processing is likely to leave James feeling as though: (i)
he will lose his job, (ii) it will be bad, and (iii) there is little he can do about it. Given his
inattention to potential internal and external resources, it is possible that Jamess negative
appraisal is inaccurate and, indeed, may become a self-fulfilling prophecy.
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James has little chance of suspending or modifying his reactions whilst a

disproportionate amount of his (limited) attentional resources are directed towards
numerator information. Mindfulness skills would be helpful in this case because the
ability to pay attention on purpose would allow James to break perseverative processing
of numerator information and lead to the liberation of attentional resources that can be
used to identify and develop denominator information. By focusing more on his strengths
and/or other sources of support, anxiety should diminish and James is less likely to feel
the need to lash out at others.

Mechanism 2. Disruption of Habitual Thought-Action Sequences

According to Martin (1997), mindfulness is helpful for preventing the enactment
of automatic, habitual patterns of behaviour because it allows individuals to step back and
observe momentary experience (cognitive, affective, behavioural and environmental)
and, by doing so, respond consciously rather than reactively. This corresponds to Watson
and Tharps (1997) observation that attention breaks up automatic behaviors (p. 115)
and provides conditions under which unsatisfactory, mindless sequences can be
brought under self-regulation. This aspect of mindfulness would appear to carry an
immediate benefit for James. That is, by purposefully directing attention towards his
behaviour he would disrupt habitual thought-action sequences that normally arise for him
in the presence of workplace stressors. Importantly, this mode of on-line processing
can be easily cued (through the use of visual cues and other awareness raising stimuli)
and lead to the disruption of these sequences as they happen.

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Mechanism 3. Exposure and Response Prevention

In the longer term, mindfulness appears to work through an exposure and
response prevention mechanism (Baer, 2003). That is, if one responds to negative stimuli
with non-judgemental observation, stimuli are effectively decoupled from habitual
response patterns. This is important because it can lead to more realistic interpretations of
problematic stimuli (i.e. issues are more likely to be seen as they are). In short,
mindfulness skills can help individuals to become better at sitting with private
experiences without feeling a need to respond or react in any way (Shapiro et al., 2006).
This aspect of mindfulness has the potential to improve Jamess managerial performance
by allowing him to experience workplace anxiety without surrendering to habitual
responses. This should increase Jamess tolerance of a broad range of challenging
thoughts, emotions, sensations and events should increase and help him to sit a little
more comfortably with discomfort.

Mechanism 4. Metacognitive Change

Metacognition refers to the ability to think and reason about the operation of the
cognitive system, and its repertoire of plans, strategies and routines for regulating
cognition (Moses & Baird, 1999; Wells & Matthews, 1994). Mindfulness impacts
metacognitive functioning in at least two important ways. First, the development of
mindfulness skills helps individuals to establish a metacognitive mode of processing
(Wells, 2000) that increases the frequency with which individuals engage in dispassionate
observation of their cognitive processes. Second, more time spent in this self-reflective
mode is likely to be helpful for modifying beliefs held about the consequences of

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experiencing particular cognitive-affective states (e.g. Anxiety is intolerable), as well

as beliefs about the plans, strategies and routines used to regulate these states (e.g. For
me to function well, I cannot allow myself to get anxious) (Wells & Matthews, 1994).
For James, increased levels of metacognitive processing would be helpful for disputing
the validity of beliefs at both levels and support subsequent modifications (e.g. Anxiety
can be tolerated or Anxiety is an important source of information that can help me
become a better manager).

Mechanism 5. Self-Efficacy
Alexander et al (1989) notes that one advantage of practising self-directed mental
techniques is that individuals gain a sense of empowerment from within. This observation
suggests that mindfulness training may have an important indirect effect on behaviour via
improvements in self-efficacy. That is, the experience of self-direction through the
practice of attentional skills may begin to establish a perception of mastery in individuals
that anxiety can be controlled in the face of challenging circumstances. For James, this
elevated sense of self-efficacy is even likely to generalise beyond his performance at
work to other domains of life. For example, he may begin to feel more confident about
coping with a broad range of situations where anxiety and frustration are encountered
(e.g. interactions with his children, his conduct during competitive sport).

Mechanism 6: Values Clarification

It has been argued that mindfulness may clear a path to more authentic
functioning (Brown & Ryan, 2004a) and values-based living (Hayes et al., 2003). Shapiro

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and colleagues (2006) argue that the process of open, intentional awareness may help
individuals to notice particular behaviours and events, and to objectively assess their
relationship to those events. For example, by developing his capacity to be mindful,
James should become better at noticing whether his behaviour (i.e. aggression) and
values (i.e. affiliation) are aligned and, if not, he may be impelled to select more
congruent behaviours. Alternatively, James may decide that his current values do not
represent who he truly wants to be, prompting him to modify his values and select
behaviours congruent with those modified values.
The use of mindfulness techniques in coaching may, therefore, be useful for
helping clients to direct attention towards the valence of events and behaviour in a
mindful way, and assist in the selection of more congruent, self-integrated goals. This is
of importance because an increasing body of evidence suggests that when goals
accurately reflect a persons core values and developing interests, they tend to be
associated with greater goal attainment, more sustained effort and greater well-being
(Sheldon & Elliot, 1998, 1999).

Discussion
A schism currently exists within the mindfulness literature in psychology. To date
theoretical and empirical investigations of the construct have been roughly divisible
along secular lines, with the work of Kabat-Zinn and others representative of nonsecular
approaches, and the work of Langer and colleagues representing the more secular
approach. Although both construe mindfulness as a state of being awake to current
experience, the approaches have tended to be seen as incompatible. For example:

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Mindfulness for constructionists [like Langer] is an ongoing process of

evaluation, naming and cognitive framing or re-framing in context to obtain
a better purchase on reality for the present and the future. In Buddhist terms,
if one is continually revising and extending the object content of the
conceptual mind, one is creating the conditions for further problems because
the underlying nature of reality is not being recognized. (Hirst, 2003, p. 362)

However, the Eastern religious, socio-cognitive and cognitive-attentional

perspectives reviewed in this chapter appear to address different facets of the same
construct. Whilst all construe mindfulness as an orientation in the present moment,
achieved through the purposeful and controlled use of attention, each attempts to
cultivate this state of consciousness by impacting a different aspect of attentional
processes. If coaching is to benefit from the use of mindfulness training techniques, it
will be important that these differences be well understood, so that the techniques can be
appropriately matched to the circumstances presented by clients. Based on the
descriptions outlined in this chapter, some tentative guidelines can be proposed for the
use of mindfulness training in coaching.
As shown in Table 5.1, meditative approaches are likely to be of greatest use in
situations where individuals are unable or unwilling to direct awareness and attention
towards internal events and experience. Meditative techniques are likely to counteract
such experiential avoidance (Hayes et al., 2003) by inhibiting elaborative processing (i.e.
judgement and evaluation) of the stream of thoughts, feelings and sensations that enter
consciousness. On the other hand, the socio-cognitive approach is likely to be more

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effective in situations where individuals rely too heavily on schematic information and do
not seek to adopt alternative viewpoints (e.g. black and white thinkers). This approach
would be helpful because it encourages elaborative processing by promoting the active
construction of new categories and meanings when attending to primarily external
stimuli. That is, individuals are required to think more (not less) about the world,
continuously refreshing and updating their perceptions of external realities (Langer &
Moldoveanu, 2000).

Table 5.1.
Guidelines for the Use of Mindfulness Training in Coaching
Approach

Recommendations for Use

Meditative

Whenever there is a general failure or reluctance to attend to ones inner

experience and/or an excessive focus on external events. Useful for
breaking down conceptual boundaries in relation to internal events.

Socio-Cognitive

Whenever there is a general failure or reluctance to attend to situationalcontextual information and/or an excessive reliance on habitual
(mindless) thought-action sequences. Useful for breaking down
conceptual boundaries in relation to external events.

Cognitive-Attentional

Whenever there is evidence that individuals are engaged in poor

attentional processing, characterised by high-levels of self-focused
attention and ruminative patterns of thinking. Useful for strengthening
attentional control and flexibility.

Although the meditative and socio-cognitive perspectives differ in their focus on

internal and external stimuli, both seek to improve human functioning by dissolving the
conceptual boundaries that surround such stimuli. When individuals can do this, stimuli
are decoupled from habitual (mindless) responses and individuals gain the opportunity to
select their responses from a broader range of alternatives (Alexander et al., 1989).

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These perspectives are in stark contrast to the cognitive-attentional approach,

which construes mindfulness as the consequence of a particular mode of attentional
processing. It proposes that the regulation of cognition and behaviour is optimal when
individuals are able to deploy attentional resources away from a rigid, thoughts-asreality style of processing (an object mode associated with high self-focused attention),
towards a more flexible, thoughts-as-events style of processing (a metacognitive mode
associated with low self-focused attention). According to Wells (2000) the metacognitive
mode of processing can be established by developing and strengthening attentional
control skills through procedures such as attention training.

Conclusion
The mindfulness training procedures that accompany the meditative, sociocognitive and cognitive-attentional approaches cannot be considered one and the same.
Whilst the techniques share a common objective (i.e. the cultivation of mindful states),
each seeks to bolster a specific aspect of attentional capacity and, in so doing, they place
different cognitive demands on individuals. Therefore, they should not be considered all
purpose interventions. Rather, the use of these techniques in applied settings should be
guided by the particular needs of clients. However, to better understand how these
mindfulness techniques might be used within coaching contexts, it will need to be
demonstrated that these techniques are: (i) effective at increasing levels of mindfulness;
(ii) related in some way to improvements in goal-directed self-regulation, and (iii)
practical for use within coaching contexts. These questions are specifically addressed in
Chapter 6.

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Chapter Six
The Impact of Mindfulness Training on
Mindfulness, Goal Attainment and Wellbeing
Introduction
Feedback-loop models of self-regulation suggest that the success or failure of
self-regulatory efforts are influenced by at least three pathways: (i) access to clear and
consistent standards; (ii) consistent monitoring of ones actions and states; and (iii) an
ability to effect change (operate) whenever the current state falls short of the standard
(Baumeister & Heatherton, 1996). Mindfulness is believed to enhance each of these
pathways. That is, receptive awareness and attention to presently occurring psychological
and/or behavioural events is thought to help: (i) establish clearer standards (or goals) via
the clarification of values ; (ii) enhance monitoring by providing individuals with access
to important feedback information (including information that might otherwise be too
uncomfortable to examine); and (iii) assist individuals to interrupt and prevent habitual
responses that might otherwise lead to undesirable outcomes (Baumeister & Heatherton,
1996; Brown & Ryan, 2004a; Shapiro et al., 2006).
Given that mindfulness has the potential to enhance these important selfregulatory processes, it is of particular interest to coaching. Yet, it is currently unclear
how mindfulness skills might be used to enhance the coaching process, as there are at
least three perspectives that might be used as a basis for developing the attentional
control required for elevated levels of mindfulness. This chapter presents an empirical
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examination of these perspectives. Based on the conceptualisations outlined in Chapter 5,

three mindfulness training (MT) programs were designed and delivered to an adult
community sample (over a 6-week period). The research was designed to investigate
three questions of interest. First, does MT increase levels of mindfulness? Second, does
training in mindfulness skills improve mental health and wellbeing? Third, can MT
enhance goal-directed self-regulation?

Mindfulness and Behaviour Change

Many forms of psychotherapy are underpinned by the premise that behaviour
change can be achieved through modifications of awareness and attention (Prochaska &
Norcross, 2003). For example, in cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) clients are
assisted to restructure thinking patterns by first raising awareness of their negative
cognitions (e.g. Im no good at my job), before disputing these cognitions by directing
attention towards any irrational content and/or examples of positive functioning that
disconfirm such cognitions (e.g. personal achievements). Other forms of psychotherapy
(such as rational-emotive, Gestalt and narrative therapies) also seek to raise awareness of
current thinking and perceptions, before using attention to drive the modification of
behaviours, cognitions, emotions and/or other personal characteristics in directions that
[clients] deem desirable (Prochaska & Norcross, 2003, p.5).
Martin (1997) has proposed that these modifications of attention and awareness
reflect two aspects of the mindfulness construct, which together constitute a common
factor that underpins all forms of psychotherapy. It is argued that these two subtypes or
forms of mindfulness play distinctive roles within varying therapeutic orientations. The

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first, an open attentional form, reflects the capacity to suspend attachment to particular
perspectives and viewpoints (akin to the non-judgemental observation of thoughts,
beliefs, schemas, etc). According to Martin, this attentional form facilitates insight and is
prominent within psychodynamic orientations (where calm, quiet attentiveness is often
promoted through techniques such as free association). The second, a focused attentional
form, is more action oriented insofar as it involves the redirection of attention away from
more dominant schema, in order to focus freshly on neglected percepts that may assist
cognitive restructuring and support behaviour change. This attentional form is thought to
play a central role in cognitive-behavioural orientations (Martin, 1997).

The Cultivation of Mindfulness

Brown and Ryan (2003) note that whilst most people have the capacity to attend
and be aware, individuals differ in their propensity or willingness to be aware and to
sustain attention to what is occurring in the present (p. 822). Like many human traits,
mindfulness is likely to vary between individuals because genetic factors predispose
some people to maintain higher levels of mindfulness than others. Thus, whilst it might
be assumed that therapists are at least capable of approximating the conditions necessary
for such mindful enquiry, it cannot be assumed that the capacity for open and focused
attention is equally well developed in clients.
For example, some individuals become intensely oriented towards self-relevant
information (e.g. negative self-beliefs) the focus of attention narrows and they lose the
ability to be flexibly deploy attentional resources (Wells & Matthews, 1994). According
to Wells (2000), the use of standard CBT techniques is often ineffective in such situations

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because the maintenance of problems is not tied to the content of cognitions (which CBT
explicitly targets) but rather to repetitive self-attentional processing routines that need to
be interrupted. Fortunately early research is suggesting that mindfulness is malleable and
can be cultivated through the regular practice of exercises designed to strengthen
attentional control.

Mindfulness Interventions: Empirical Findings

Before reviewing the empirical findings reported in the mindfulness literature, it
is pertinent to make two observations about the current state of mindfulness research.
First, the formal measurement of mindfulness is a relatively recent development (Baer et
al., 2006) and the construct has not be measured in the vast majority of studies reported in
the literature. Thus, any positive effects reported in these studies cannot be directly linked
to mindfulness (as the construct was not directly measured). Rather, these findings
represent effects observed whilst studying interventions that purport to increase
mindfulness.
Second, the empirical literature is relatively immature. Despite a recent surge in
empirical work, many of these studies appear to be methodologically flawed (e.g. no
control groups, inadequate sample sizes) and there have been increasing calls for more
rigourous research in the area (see Allen, Blashki, & Gullone, 2006; Baer, 2003;
Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004). Aside from these methodological
issues, Baer (2003) also notes it is difficult to interpret many of the reported findings, due
to the fact that mindfulness-based interventions have been used to treat a wide range of
complaints. Nonetheless, enough evidence has accumulated to at least suggest that they

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are effective in achieving improvement in various aspects of physical and psychological

functioning.

Interventions Based on Meditation and Non-Judgmental Observation

Given the emphasis that Buddhism places on the alleviation of suffering, it is not
surprising that mindfulness practices have captured the interest of clinical psychologists.
Over the past decade several mindfulness-based treatment programs have emerged.
Clinical formulations range from those that focus exclusively on mindfulness meditation,
such as mindfulness-based stress reduction (Kabat-Zinn, 1990), to psychotherapies that
pair meditation with established clinical techniques, such as mindfulness-based cognitive
therapy (Teasdale, 2004), or make MT a core component of therapy (without relying
solely on meditation), such as acceptance and commitment therapy (Hayes et al., 2003)
and dialectical behavior therapy (Linehan et al., 2001).

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) is an intensive mindfulness
meditation training program. It is typically conducted over 8-weeks and includes weekly
sessions lasting 2.5 to 3 hours, an all-day session during the sixth week and extensive
homework practice (Baer, 2006). As the term stress reduction implies, MBSR is designed
to alleviate suffering and improve general health and wellbeing. Typically used to
complement existing medical treatments, MBSR can be applied to a variety of stressrelated disorders and has proliferated in clinical settings. Several alternative non-clinical
programs have also been developed to assist individuals deal with the stresses

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encountered in contexts as diverse as schools, prisons, tertiary institutions and

organisational settings (Baer, 2006; Grossman et al., 2004).
MBSR Clinical Findings. The empirical validation of MBSR began over two
decades ago, with the first studies reporting on its efficacy as a treatment for chronic pain
(Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, Burney, & Sellers, 1987). Since that time the
use of MBSR has expanded and its effects have been assessed as a treatment for coronary
heart disease (Tacon, McComb, Caldera, & Randolph, 2003), prostate cancer (Carlson,
Speca, Patel, & Goodey, 2003), breast cancer (Carlson et al., 2003; Shapiro, Bootzin,
Figueredo, Lopez, & Schwartz, 2003; Tacon, Caldera, & Ronaghan, 2004), organ
transplant recovery (Gross et al., 2004), chronic fatigue syndrome (Surawy, Roberts, &
Silver, 2005), as a quality of life intervention for patients recovering from traumatic brain
injury (Bedard et al., 2003) and for stress related medical disorders such as fibromyalgia
(Weissbecker et al., 2002) and psoriasis (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1998).
The results of these studies have shown MBSR to be associated with a wide range
of positive effects, including improvements in depression, anxiety, sleep quality, mood
disturbance, subjective fatigue, physical functioning, health locus of control and quality
of life. A recent meta-analysis conducted by Grossman et al (2004) reviewed the findings
from 15 controlled studies, of which 10 assessed mental health variables (N = 771) and
five assessed physical health variables (N = 203). Analyses revealed significant mean
effect sizes (using Cohens d statistic) of between 0.53 and 0.56 across all studies,
equivalent to medium strength effects (Cohen, 1992). Whilst this meta-analysis was
complied from only a modest number of studies (further complicated by the use of three
unpublished studies), some validation of MBSR interventions can at least be said to exist.

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MBSR Non-Clinical Findings. Other applications of MBSR have been reported

with stressed non-clinical samples, including university students (Astin, 1997; Chang et
al., 2004; Rosenzweig, Reibel, Greeson, Brainard, & Hojat, 2003; Shapiro, Schwartz, &
Bonner, 1998), health care professionals (Shapiro, Astin, Bishop, & Cordova, 2005),
secondary school students (Wall, 2005) and community volunteers (Williams, Kolar,
Reger, & Pearson, 2001). As MBSR was used in this research to address an array of nonclinical issues, this small cluster of studies has potential relevance to coaching.
Shapiro, Astin, Bishop and Cordova (2005) conducted an 8-week MBSR program
with health care professionals (N = 38). Given the high levels of stress encountered by
this professional group, participants were assessed on measures of psychological distress
and susceptibility to burnout. Compared to a wait-list control group, participation in the
program resulted in significantly greater self-compassion and lower perceived stress (and
trend improvements in satisfaction in life, psychological distress and job burnout).
Results were complimented by qualitative reports that indicated the intervention had a
considerable positive impact on the participants ability to manage the demands of their
careers and, more generally, their lives.
In another controlled study, Williams et al (2001) used MBSR as a part of a
wellness program within a university setting (N = 103). Data gathered from pre-post
program measures of daily hassles, psychological distress and a medical symptoms
checklist revealed that (relative to control subjects) participants reported significant
decreases across all measures, improvements that were maintained at the 3-month followup. Similar findings have also been reported by Chang et al (2004) who found significant
pre-post decreases in the perceived stress of university students, along with significant

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increases in positive states of mind (which includes focused attention, restful repose,
productivity, sharing, sensual pleasure and caretaking) and meditation self-efficacy. The
latter result indicated MBSR participants perceived themselves to have become better at
maintaining non-judgmental awareness across a range of everyday situations. Other
studies with student samples have reported significant effects in relation to empathy,
psychological distress, and spiritual experiences (Astin, 1997; Shapiro et al., 1998).

Other Mindfulness-Based Formulations

As mentioned, several mindfulness-based clinical programs have emerged in
recent years. The most fully developed of these alternatives are:

Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) (Teasdale, 2004). MBCT seeks

to prevent depressive relapse by developing sufficient attentional control to
prevent clients from becoming enmeshed with their depressogenic thoughts and
feelings. MBCT is a treatment package that amalgamates mindfulness
meditation and cognitive therapy;

Dialectical Behavior Therapy (DBT) (Linehan et al., 2001). DBT uses

mindfulness skills to help synthesize a proposed dialectic between acceptance
(of self, personal history and circumstances) and change (the desire to create a
better life). Originally designed to treat borderline personality disorder, DBT
uses a range of simple mindfulness techniques (not just meditation) to cater for
the severe impairments of some clients;

Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) (Hayes et al., 2003). More of an

all-purpose therapy, ACT eschews attempts to control difficult thoughts and

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feelings. Rather, clients are taught an array of mindfulness techniques

(including meditation) to help them become more accepting of these
experiences, while simultaneously making commitments to live life in greater
alignment with their values.

Whilst the conceptual frameworks of these therapies vary, all share a common
belief that the non-judgmental observation of thoughts, emotions, sensations, and
environmental stimuli plays a key role in the amelioration of psychological and
behavioural dysfunction. In keeping with MBSR, each approach tries to develop an
understanding (in clients) that there is an observing self capable of watching the workings
of the mind dispassionately, without becoming enmeshed in its contents. Mindfulness
skills are taught to help clients maintain a decentred (metacognitive) view of their mental
processes, such that they realise I am not my thoughts.
The clinical effectiveness of MBCT, ACT and DBT has only recently begun to be
investigated. As such, the literature relating to these approaches is currently dominated by
book chapters and review articles, with few empirical studies yet reported. Whilst some
research has been reported (e.g. Teasdale et al., 2002; Williams, Teasdale, Segal, &
Soulsby, 2000), a potential difficulty exists in researching these blended approaches.
That is, because formulations like DBT and ACT are informed by (rather than based on)
MT procedures, the relative contribution of MT is difficult to detect because it cannot be
separated from other treatment ingredients (Baer, 2003). This is less problematic for
MBCT, however, as mindfulness meditation is its main treatment ingredient.

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Socio-Cognitive Interventions
Not all mindfulness research has focused on the alleviation of psychopathology
and clinical dysfunction. A wide variety of psychosocial phenomena (including learning,
aging, creativity, martial relations, discrimination and prejudice) have been studied using
mindfulness-mindlessness constructs (Langer, 1994). However, unlike MBSR and other
meditative approaches, the socio-cognitive approach has not yet been developed into a
structured intervention package. Rather, empirical support for Langers model has been
derived from multiple experimental manipulations used in a diverse range of studies.
Langers emphasis on active distinction making and the detection of novelty is
reflected through much of her work. For example, Carson, Shih, and Langer (1985) found
that primary school students who learnt about a map mindfully (by moving about and
viewing the map from novel perspectives) displayed better recall of spatial locations and
spatial relations, than those who learnt about the map non-mindfully (by sitting at a desk
and viewing it from a single perspective). It was concluded that the multiple-perspective
approach might enhance memory and learning by directing attention towards novel
features of a stimulus. Similar findings have been reported with adult samples (Bodner &
Langer, 1995).
Mindfully attending to novelty has also been shown to enhance learning and recall
in elderly adults. For example, Levy, Jennings, and Langer (2001) induced mindfulness
in elderly subjects by asking them to make a series of distinctions when presented with a
set of pictures (whilst controls were merely asked to pay attention or were not given
instructions). Compared to the comparison group, it was found that mindfulness resulted
in greater recall accuracy and a greater liking for the target stimuli. This suggested

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enhancing attention and recall in older adults might be best achieved by finding ways of
varying their attention, rather than trying to hold it still (Levy et al, 2001).
The relationship between perceived control and mindfulness has also been
investigated within aged care settings, where active thought is often stifled by rigid
routines (Langer & Rodin, 1976; Rodin & Langer, 1977). In these studies, nursing home
residents were encouraged to make a small number of decisions everyday by tending a
house plant (the mindfulness condition). Results showed that these residents were
happier, healthier and more alert that the comparison groups, with the follow-up study
revealing that they also lived longer. In a similar vein, a simple behavioural monitoring
technique has been found to induce mindfulness and enhance perceptions of control
among community dwelling retirees (Perlmuter & Langer, 1982).
Links between mindfulness and the attenuation of prejudice have also been
explored. For example, Langer, Bashner, and Chanowitz (1985) assessed the effects of
MT on the perception of, and reaction to, people with disabilities. After viewing slides of
handicapped or non-handicapped children, children answered either one or four questions
about the people they saw (e.g. What abilities might this child have?). It was found that
highly mindful subjects (who answered four questions) were more likely to include a
disabled child in activities and less likely to discriminate inappropriately for or against
them. It was concluded that teaching children to draw mindful distinctions can help them
to be discriminating without succumbing to prejudice, because stereotypes are monolithic
and difficult to sustain in the face of distinctions. The authors concluded that as more
aspects of a person or object are defined (through mindful attention) it becomes more

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likely that commonalities will be seen between oneself and the person or object,
increasing familiarity and liking (Langer, Bashner, & Chanowitz, 1985).

Cognitive-Attentional Interventions
The Self-Regulatory Executive Function (S-REF) model (Wells & Matthews,
1994) has resulted in the development of two attentional training procedures. The first,
the Attention Training technique (ATT), consists of the regular practice of auditory
attention exercises (a series of selective attention, attention switching and divided
attention tasks) aimed at reducing self-focus and increasing metacognitive control of
attention. ATT is not designed to be a distraction strategy for use during states of anxiety.
Rather, it is practiced during periods when anxiety is not present, and is designed to
modify stable cognitive factors that are involved in the regulation of cognition (Wells,
White, & Carter, 1997). The second, Situational Attentional Refocusing (SAR), teaches
individuals how to refocus their attention onto specific forms of social information, in
order to discover that their fears are not true (Wells, 2000).
Whilst early research into ATT and SAR has been encouraging, the empirical
validation of these techniques is limited to only a handful of studies. For example, early
research into ATT has shown it to be an effective treatment for panic disorder and social
phobia (Wells, 1990; Wells et al., 1997), depression (Papageorgiou & Wells, 2000), and
hypochondriasis (Cavanagh, 2003; Papageorgiou & Wells, 1998). In the only SAR study
to be reported, significant reductions in within-situation anxiety and belief in feared
catastrophes were reported by eight socially phobic patients, when an external attention
focus task was added to exposure alone (Wells & Papageorgiou, 1998). Whilst

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considerably more research is required before ATT and SAR can be claimed to be
effective treatments for affective disorders, Wells (2000) suggests that the observed
effects may result from their ability to promote a detached mindfulnessin which
individuals can view particular cognitions and other internal events in a non-self-relevant
and non-threatening way (p.141).

Study 3: Developing Mindfulness

The preceding review strongly suggests that cognitive functioning, affective
experience and behavioural regulation can be greatly enhanced through a variety of
practices that seek to train attentional capacities. As such, experimental psychology
now appears to be endorsing what William James recommended over 100 years
ago:

the man who has daily inured himself to habits of concentrated attention,
energetic volition, and self-denial in unnecessary thingswill stand like a
tower when everything rocks around him, and when his softer fellowmortals are winnowed like chaff in the blast. (James, 1891/1952, p. 83)

The present study was designed to investigate the impact of MT on mindfulness,

mental health, wellbeing and goal-directed self-regulation. As mindfulness can be
cultivated in a number of different ways, this study sought to test the effectiveness of
three different MT programs and to assess their suitability for use with non-clinical
(coaching) populations. Three main hypotheses were tested. First, it was hypothesised
that participation in MT would lead to greater mindfulness compared to a control group.

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As this is the first time a comparative study of mindfulness interventions has been
conducted, no prediction was made about the superiority of one program over another.
Second, in line with previous findings, it was hypothesised that MT would be
associated with improved mental health (as indicated by decreases in levels of
depression, anxiety and stress) and corresponding improvements in subjective and
psychological wellbeing (particularly for dimensions related to self-acceptance and
environmental mastery).
Finally, whilst early research has identified that MT can improve various aspects
of mental health and wellbeing (see Brown & Ryan, 2003), its relationship to selfregulated behaviour remains largely theoretical. However, given the important role that
attention and awareness are believed to play in human self-regulation (Carver & Scheier,
1998) and recent findings indicating that mental focus is important to successful selfregulation (Lee et al., 2003), it was hypothesised that MT would be associated with
greater levels of personal goal attainment.

The measurement of mindfulness

As mentioned earlier, the formal measurement of mindfulness is a relatively
recent development. Indeed, a recent review by Baer et al (2006) indicates that as many
as five self-report measures have been published between 2001 and 2005. Whilst debate
is continuing over the most appropriate factor structure of these measures (Baer et al.,
2006; Bishop et al., 2004; Brown & Ryan, 2004b), mindfulness will be measured in this
study through the use of the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MASS) (Brown &
Ryan, 2003). There are two main reasons for choosing the MAAS. First, the MAAS

162

includes items that tap mindfulness of both internal (e.g. I find myself preoccupied with
the future or the past) and external (e.g. I drive places on automatic pilot and then
wonder why I went there) stimuli. As this study will assess the impact of a MT program
based on the socio-cognitive perspective (which promotes awareness and attention of
primarily external stimuli), it is important that the measure incorporate a blend of both
internal and external items.
Second, the MAAS has been used to show that individuals from the general
population reliably differ in the propensity to be mindful (Brown & Ryan, 2004b). In
contrast, other measures, such as the Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills (Baer,
Smith, & Allen, 2004), have been developed to measure clinical change following the use
of treatment packages that rely heavily on meditation (e.g. DBT). As such, the MAAS
appears to represent a more all purpose measure of mindfulness; one appropriate for use
with non-clinical samples and with techniques that seek to cultivate mindfulness in a
variety of ways

Method
Participants and Procedure
The study was promoted via announcements placed in four local newspapers and
an advertisement posted on a dedicated university internet site. The training programs
were advertised as Life Skills Courses that would provide participants with basic
training in some simple techniques designed to improve self-management. Participants
registered their interest via the internet or in writing. From the initial pool of registrants,
80 participants attended an information night at which the program was outlined, with

163

attendees given the opportunity to ask questions about the study. Once informed consent
had been provided, participants were directed to a computer and asked to complete a
packet of pre-training (Time 1) questionnaires that had been posted on a dedicated
university internet site. Due to a lack of familiarity with computers, four participants
completed pencil and paper copies of the questionnaires.
After consenting to participate, participants were randomly assigned to one of
four conditions: Attention Training, Mindfulness Meditation, Mindful Creativity, or a
control group. As three participants withdrew from the study prior to commencement of
the programs and five participants decided not to continue beyond the first week, a total
of eight participants were excluded from the analysis (N = 72). The characteristics of the
final sample are presented in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1.
Sex and Age of Participants in Study 3

Female/Male
Mean Age
(SD)

AT

MM

MC

Control

Total

(n=18)

(n=18)

(n=19)

(n=17)

(N=72)

14 / 4

15 / 3

14 / 5

11 / 6

54 /18

45.17
(12.35)

43.78
(13.18)

41.95
(12.18)

38.82
(11.80)

42.47
(12.35)

AT = Attention Training, MM = Mindfulness Meditation, MC = Mindful Creativity

At the end of the training period (Time 2), all participants were asked to complete
another set of questionnaires (repeated Time 1 measures) via the same university internet
site. This allowed participants to complete the questions remotely. Three participants
requested pencil and paper copies. Follow-up data was collected 12 weeks after the
completion of the training programs (Time 3).

164

Mindfulness Training Programs

To ensure comparability of the programs, a standardised structure was used across
the groups; that is, all the training groups met on the same night each week (for between
60-90 minutes), were set an equivalent amount of homework practice (20 minutes per
day) and received a program manual containing the program rationale, weekly journal
sheets and homework completion logs. Homework completion was rated on a 5-point
scale (0 = no completion, 4 = full completion). Excerpts from each training manual are
provided in Appendix D.

Attention Training
The attention training program was based on a clinical technique developed by
Wells and Matthews (1994), and a subsequent refinement by Cavanagh (2003). In brief,
the exercises are designed to improve attentional control (i.e. selective attention, attention
switching and divided attention) via three auditory attention tasks performed to a
soundscape of increasing complexity. In keeping with Cavanaghs (2003) methodology,
participants completed a combination of instructor led training sessions and homework
exercises over the training period. The instructor led sessions were conducted once a
week using auditory stimuli contained on an audio recording of seven common sounds.
The audio recording was professionally produced in stereo with sounds mixed to appear
as if coming from different distances and physical locations within the soundscape. The
taped sounds were (in order of presentation) a ticking clock, ringing telephone, muffled
voices, birds singing, lawn mower, traffic noise and a dog barking in the distance. The
instructors voice provided an additional eighth sound. As each exercise lasts

165

approximately five minutes, a full set of attention training exercises takes approximately
15 minutes to complete. An audio copy of the AT exercises is provided in Appendix E.
Group meetings were 60 minutes in duration and commenced with a review of the
daily practice exercises, followed by a full set of exercises and an accompanying
discussion. In keeping with its previous usage, participants were not provided with an
audio tape for completing their practice exercises. Rather, the program manuals provided
instructions on constructing sound scapes using six live sounds. Facilitation of the
program was shared between two instructors, both experienced clinical psychologists.

Mindfulness Meditation
In the mindfulness meditation condition, participants attended a series of
meditation classes at a local Buddhist education centre. Weekly meetings were conducted
by a highly experienced Buddhist monk (Venerable Tedjadhammo) who taught
participants an array of basic meditative techniques (including breathing, walking and
sitting meditations). Classes commenced with an open discussion about meditation
practice (10-15 minutes), followed by 30-45 minutes of guided mediation and concluded
with 15-20 minutes of facilitated discussion (including guidance on how to complete
homework exercises).

Mindful Creativity
The mindful creativity program required participants to work on a creative project
for 6-weeks. This activity was selected because it was expected to be a more robust
training in mindfulness than somewhat artificial procedures (e.g. word-production tasks)

166

used in previous studies (e.g. Alexander et al., 1989). At the first meeting participants
were asked to nominate their project (e.g. painting, clay sculpture), with the only
stipulation being that they choose something they had never done before, or had not done
in the previous five years. The course was facilitated by a psychologist familiar with
Langers socio-cognitive theory of mindfulness.
Table 6.2.
Outline of Mindful Creativity Program
Weekly Themes

Description

Week 1:
Living As a Process

Introduction to the program. Distinction drawn between outcomefocused and process-focused thinking patterns. Participants were
encouraged to use the creative project as a way of strengthening their
present-moment (i.e. process) focus.

Week 2:
Taking a Fresh Look

Categorisation processes and cognitive commitments discussed.

Participants asked to imagine that their usual tools (e.g. paintbrushes)
were unavailable for use and that they were to find (and work with)
novel alternatives during the following week.

Week 3:
Openness to Experience

Discussed how habituation processes lead to mindlessness by reducing

the amount of attention that individuals pay to experiences perceived as
familiar. Mindfulness presented as involving an active search for novelty
and difference; an attitude the participants are encouraged to adopt.

Week 4:
Using Context

Described the effect of context on perception and appraisal processes.

Identified that individuals can alter contexts by choosing what meaning
will be attached to circumstances. Manipulated context by announcing
an Art Exhibition to be held in the last week of the program.

Week 5:
Developing Perspectives

Discussed the actor-observer effect and tendency to view events from a

single perspective. Participants are shown that mindfulness can be
induced by varying perspective and attending to sources of information
that are new or previously overlooked.

Week 6:
Staying Mindful

Review and discussion of program content. Participants take part in an

informal exhibition of artworks and give a brief description of their
creative experience. A second creative project is recommended as a way
of maintaining a mindful approach to living.

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The chief requirement of MT procedures (from the socio-cognitive perspective) is

that they stimulate novel, creative thought. To stimulate mindful engagement in the tasks,
participants creative efforts were accompanied by a detailed outline of Langers (1989)
theoretical model. The group meetings were used for this purpose, with a different
component of the model presented each week (as outlined in Table 6.2). At each group
meeting participants were given the opportunity to review progress and discuss how
elements of the theory might translate into more mindful creative practice. The program
concluded with an informal Art Exhibition of creative works, allowing participants to
display their projects and discuss their experience. A sample project is shown in
Appendix F.

Measures
Mindfulness
Mindfulness was measured using the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale
(MAAS) (Brown & Ryan, 2003), a 15-item self-report measure scored rated on a 6-point
scale (1 = almost always, 6 = almost never). Items include I rush through activities
without being really attentive to them and I find myself doing things without paying
attention. The instrument has good test-retest reliability and internal consistency ranging
from 0.80 to 0.87 (Brown & Ryan, 2003). The sample alpha was 0.81.

Mental Health
Psychopathology was measured using the 21-item Depression Anxiety and Stress
Scale (DASS-21) (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). Measured on a 4-point scale (0 = not at
all, 4 = very much), the scale has good test-retest reliability and internal consistency

168

(Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), with alpha coefficients ranging from 0.87 to 0.94 reported
in both clinical and community samples (Antony, Bieling, Cox, Enns, & Swinson, 1998).
In this study the subscale alphas ranged from 0.72 to 0.89.

Wellbeing
The wellbeing measures used in this study were the same as used in Study 2.
Sample alphas for the subjective wellbeing variables (Bradburn, 1969; Diener et al.,
1985) were positive affect = 0.90, negative affect = 0.83, and satisfaction with life = 0.86.
The sample alphas for the six psychological wellbeing subscales (Ryff, 1989) were
autonomy = 0.82, environmental mastery = 0.77, personal growth = 0.72, purpose in life
= 0.86, positive relations with others = 0.74 and self-acceptance = 0.89.
See Appendix B for a copy of these measures.

Personal Goals
To investigate the impact of MT on goal attainment, it was necessary to (i) elicit a
set of personal goals from each participant, and (ii) ensure the training did not incorporate
elements that might facilitate (or coach) participants towards the attainment of goals. This
would allow any changes in goal attainment to be more directly attributable to the effect
of MT, rather than to the acquisition of specific goal attainment strategies and/or
techniques. Course instructors were asked to avoid extended discussions of how MT
exercises might relate to the attainment of personal goals.
In order to obtain a more sensitive measure of goal attainment in this study (and
address a limitation of Study 2), participants were asked to articulate three personal goals
and rate each of them for perceived difficulty and past attainment. To assist participants

169

articulate their goals in this way, a goal setting booklet was provided with a full set of
instructions (see Appendix E). In line with the procedure employed by Grant (2003a),
each personal goal (e.g. Complete a financial needs statement) was rated for its
perceived difficulty (1 = very easy, 2 = easy, 3 = difficult, 4 = very difficult) and for past
attainment (0% = no attainment to 100% = total attainment). Mean goal attainment
scores were then calculated by multiplying the difficulty ratings for each goal by the
success ratings for each goal, before summing these scores and finally dividing them by
the total number of goals (as follows):

Goal
=
Attainment

( Goal 1 Difficulty x Attainment) + (Goal 2 Difficulty x Attainment) + ()

Total Number of Goals

The advantage of this method is that, by weighting each goal for its perceived
difficulty, the measure becomes more sensitive to change because goals with higher
degree of difficulty can exert more influence over the overall attainment scores than goals
with lower difficulty ratings. Post-training attainment scores were obtained by presenting
participants with their Time 1 goals and asking them to re-rate those goals for difficulty
and attainment. Given the potential for Time 2 attainment scores to be biased by the
recall of Time 1 ratings, these ratings were removed from the goal questionnaires prior to
obtaining the post-MT attainment ratings.

Results
Program Engagement
Before assessing the relative effects of the training programs, a manipulation
check was conducted to determine whether the groups were equivalent with regard to

170

their understanding of the training rationale and expectancy of benefit. After the first
meeting with their instructors (at which the programs were outlined in detail),
participants used a 100-point scale (0 = Not at all, 100 = Very much) to rate how much
they: (i) understood the rationale for their program, and (ii) expected it would benefit
them. Results are displayed in Table 6.3.
Participants reported both a satisfactory understanding of the rationale for MT,
along with a reasonable expectation that the programs would be beneficial (mean ratings
all >70). Although the mindful creativity (MC) group did report significantly greater
understanding of their rationale than the mindfulness meditation (MM) group, data
collected during registration indicated that >75% of the MM group had no experience in
meditation. As such, this difference may merely reflect familiarity with core activities of
these groups (i.e. meditation is less familiar than creative activities such as painting or
sculpture). No differences existed between the groups for expected benefit.
Table 6.3.
Means, Standard Deviations and ANOVA for Program Engagement Factors
AT

MM

MC

One Way ANOVA

Variable

SD

SD

SD

MS

F(2,52)

Rationale

79.4

17.1

70.8

21.1

85.3

12.5

971.05

3.29 *

Expected Benefit

70.3

21.0

80.0

15.7

79.7

20.5

556.81

1.50

Meeting Attendance

4.50

1.25

4.78

1.26

5.05

1.07

1.41

0.98

Homework Completion

1.76

0.65

2.64

0.74

2.00

0.79

3.52

6.54 **

Note: Maximum values for Rationale = 100, Expected Benefit = 100, Meeting Attendance = 6, and Homework
Completion = 4.
* p < .05, ** p <.01 (2-tails).

In general, the MT sessions were well attended and no difference was found
between the groups for attendance. The groups did differ, however, on homework

171

completion, with the attention training (AT) group completing significantly less daily
practice than both the MM (p <.001) and MC (p <.05) groups. Given the more
demanding nature of the AT practice tasks (which required the creation of a soundscape)
this result was not unexpected.

Quantitative Analysis
To determine the impact of the MT programs on the dependent variables, data
was analysed using a mixed design repeated measures ANOVA with one betweensubjects factor (group) and one within-subjects factor (time). Planned comparisons were
conducted to determine how the experimental groups performed relative to the control
group. In addition, post hoc results (without Bonferroni corrections) were examined to
determine any possible differences across training groups and to examine the interaction
of time and group.
Missing Values. It should be noted that approximately 30% of the participants
were either non-contactable or did not respond to requests for follow-up data, with the
missing data distributed evenly across the groups. Whilst the reduced Time 3 response
rate was not unexpected given the difficulty associated with collecting follow-up data
from adult community samples, this was exacerbated by the need to ensure that
participants were not unduly harassed for data. For this reason, follow-up attempts were
limited to two telephone calls and two emails. In order for repeated measures analyses to
be run across three time points, however, it was necessary to estimate the missing Time 3
values by computing the average ratio of Time 2 and Time 3 scores (per group) that were

172

obtained from all other participants. Caution is therefore recommended when interpreting
the results of analyses involving Time 3 data.

Hypothesis #1
Pre-post training means and standard deviations for MAAS scores are shown in
Tables 6.4 and are graphically displayed in Figure 6.1. Consistent with the first
hypothesis, MT was found to be associated with statistically significant increases in
mindfulness across all the training groups (see Table 6.4 for significance values and
effect sizes). Whilst the control group also reported a pre-post increase, this difference
was non-significant. As participation in research has a tendency to heighten selfawareness in individuals (Langer, 1994), such an increase is understandable in this study.
Table 6.4.
Means and Standard Deviations for MAAS Scores
AT
(n = 18)
Measure
MAAS

Pre

Post

MM
(n = 18)
Pre

Post

MC
(n = 19)
Pre

C
(n = 17)

Post

Pre

Post

48.2

59.3

50.3

60.3

48.4

58.6

49.3

51.9

SD

8.1

11.1

8.7

10.4

10.3

6.9

9.6

11.2

<.001

<.01

<.001

.08

1.00

0.96

1.48

0.23

Note. Paired t-tests were used for tests of significance. All p-values are 2-tailed.

It should be noted that no follow-up (Time 3) data was obtained from the control
group. In order to allow a repeated measures ANOVA to be performed on all the MAAS
data, it was necessary to estimate Time 3 scores for this group. To ensure a conservative
estimate of these values, it was decided to use the corresponding Time 2 values. This

173

decision was conservative because it assumed these participants would have maintained
their elevated levels of mindfulness over 3-month follow-up period. However, these
participants did not receive any mindfulness skills training and, as such, it is more
probable that MAAS scores for this group would have decreased by Time 3.
A significant group x time interaction was found (F(6, 136) = 3.18, p <.05). As
shown in Table 6.5, post hoc analysis revealed MAAS scores for all the MT groups
significantly increased between Time 1 and Time 2. In contrast, MAAS scores decreased
for all groups during the post-training period (Time 2 v 3), with the AT and MM groups
reporting significant decreases in mindfulness during this period (ps <.001 and <.05
respectively). This suggests that the skills learnt in the MC group may have been more
easily applied to everyday situations than those learnt in the AT and MM groups. Overall,
however, the training programs appear to have been effective in achieving sustained
increases in mindfulness, with the MM and MC groups reporting significantly increased
MAAS scores between Time 1 and Time 3 (both p <.001). The increase in AT group
approached significance (p <.06).
70

Rating

60
Pre
Post

50

Follow -up
40

30
AT

MM

MT

Group

Figure 6.1. Mean MAAS scores at pre, post and follow-up

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Finally, comparisons between the groups at Time 2 (post-training) and Time 3

(follow-up) are shown in Table 6.5. Whilst all the training groups were found to have
significantly greater mean MAAS scores than the control group at Time 2, no differences
were found between the experimental groups themselves. At Time 3 levels of
mindfulness had decreased across all the groups to the extent that they no longer differed
to controls. Finally, the training groups did not significantly differ on MAAS scores at
Time 3.
Table 6.5.
Post Hoc Comparisons by Group and Time for Mean MAAS Scores
Group

Time

Difference

SE

Time

Group

AT

1v2

-11.06

2.31

<.001

AT v C

AT

2v3

6.92

1.26

<.001

AT

1v3

-4.14

2.18

.06

MM

1v2

-9.94

2.31

MM

2v3

2.63

MM

1v3

MC

Difference

SE

7.34

3.38

<.05

MM v C

8.34

3.38

<.05

MC v C

6.64

3.33

<.05

<.001

AT v MM

-1.00

3.32

.76

1.26

<.05

AT v MC

0.70

3.28

.83

-7.32

2.18

<.001

MM v MC

1.70

3.28

.61

1v2

-10.21

2.25

<.001

AT v C

0.42

3.25

.89

MC

2v3

1.09

1.23

.38

MM v C

5.71

3.25

.08

MC

1v3

-9.12

2.11

<.001

MC v C

5.55

3.21

.09

1v2

-2.59

2.38

.28

AT v MM

-5.29

3.20

.10

2v3

0.00

1.30

1.0

AT v MC

-5.13

3.16

.11

1v3

-2.59

2.24

.25

MM v MC

0.16

3.16

.96

Hypothesis #2
Pre-post training means and standard deviations for the mental health and
wellbeing variables are shown in Table 6.6. The second hypothesis predicted that MT
would be associated with significant pre-post reductions in depression, anxiety and stress.

175

The pre-post mean scores for depression, anxiety and stress are displayed graphically in
Figures 6.2, 6.3 and 6.4.
Depression. The analysis of pre-post mean scores revealed a significant main
effect for time (F(1, 68) = 7.74, p <.01) but not for group. No interaction effect was
found. Although the AT group did report a statistically significant pre-post decrease in
depression, this did not significantly differ from controls. Furthermore, post hoc
comparisons using Time 3 data indicated that this improvement was not sustained, with
participants reporting a significant increase between Time 2 v 3 (p <.05). Whilst levels of
depression did drop in the AT condition between Time 1 and Time 3, this difference was
not significant (p =.09). In contrast, although the MM and MC groups reported nonsignificant decreases between Time 1 v 2, and Time 2 v 3, the overall decrease between
Time 1 v 3 was statistically significant for both (p <.05).
7.00
6.00

Rating

5.00
Pre

4.00

Post
3.00

3mths

2.00
1.00
0.00
AT

MM

MC

Group

Figure 6.2. Mean depression scores at pre, post and follow-up

Anxiety. A significant main effect for time (F(1, 68) = 13.67, p <.0005) was found
from the analysis of pre-post anxiety scores, along with a significant group x time
interaction effect (F(3, 68) = 2.71, p <.05).There was no significant main effect for group
(p =.09). Planned comparisons found that when anxiety scores were averaged across

176

time, both the AT and MM groups reported significantly less anxiety compared to
controls (p <.05). The MC group did not significantly differ from the control group, nor
did the training groups differ from each other.
5

Rating

4
Pre

Post
2

3mths

1
0
AT

MM

MC

Group

Figure 6.3. Mean anxiety scores at pre, post and follow-up

Although anxiety levels increased in both the AT and MM groups during the posttraining period, post hoc comparisons found that these increases were non-significant. As
such, both AT and MM appear to have been helpful for sustaining lower levels of anxiety
over time. Overall, the decrease in anxiety between Time 1 v 3 was significant for the AT
group (p <.05) and approached significance for the MM group (p <.09).

177

178

3.8
(4.3)
1.5
(1.8)
6.6
(4.1)
19.5
(7.4)
21.2
(5.6)
14.9
(6.1)
38.7
(7.3)
37.5
(7.8)
45.1
(4.9)
39.3
(7.2)
38.9
(9.2)
36.1
(9.6)

6.5
(4.3)
3.6
(2.7)
8.2
(4.2)
17.2
(6.7)
19.7
(4.6)
18.8
(5.3)
35.4
(7.3)
34.0
(6.9)
41.2
(5.9)
36.1
(5.8)
35.9
(10.1)
31.3
(8.4)

Depression

Anxiety

Stress

SWB Satisfaction With Life

SWB Positive Affect

SWB Negative Affect

PWB Autonomy

PWB Environmental Mastery

PWB Personal Growth

PWB Purpose in Life

PWB Positive Relations

PWB Self-Acceptance
<.05

.11

.09

<.01

.09

.08

<.01

.11

<.05

.17

<.01

<.01

0.50

0.33

0.44

0.80

0.45

0.45

0.64

0.27

0.31

0.39

1.17

0.63

37.2
(9.9)

38.6
(8.9)

41.6
(5.6)

45.3
(5.8)

34.9
(8.6)

38.7
(7.5)

17.1
(5.4)

19.6
(5.7)

21.8
(7.7)

9.2
(4.9)

3.3
(2.4)

3.9
(3.2)

Pre

41.6
(7.5)

41.9
(8.7)

43.0
(6.9)

46.6
(5.8)

38.9
(8.5)

40.4
(5.2)

14.7
(6.3)

21.3
(5.8)

24.1
(8.1)

5.3
(3.5)

1.4
(1.7)

2.8
(3.2)

Post

<.05

.12

.52

.49

.09

.37

.12

.20

.08

<.01

<.01

.32

0.59

0.38

0.20

0.22

0.47

0.33

0.38

0.29

0.28

1.11

1.12

0.34

Mindfulness Meditation
(n = 18)

37.3
(8.1)

39.4
(8.4)

38.7
(6.1)

44.8
(4.8)

35.6
(7.5)

38.6
(6.9)

16.7
(5.6)

21.4
(5.8)

19.7
(5.8)

7.4
(3.9)

3.5
(2.5)

5.0
(3.9)

Pre

38.8
(8.9)

41.7
(8.1)

39.8
(5.1)

46.3
(4.3)

39.8
(6.6)

40.1
(6.8)

14.6
(6.3)

22.6
(5.6)

22.9
(7.2)

6.4
(4.5)

2.8
(2.5)

4.4
(4.9)

Post

.36

<.05

.15

.09

<.01

.31

.14

.23

<.05

.36

.19

.41

Mindful Creativity
(n = 19)

0.17

0.28

0.22

0.35

0.64

0.22

0.33

0.21

0.44

0.22

0.28

0.12

38.4
(7.9)

38.4
(8.9)

40.7
(6.7)

44.1
(5.2)

37.2
(6.1)

37.6
(8.3)

17.0
(5.5)

23.0
(4.7)

20.3
(6.7)

9.4
(4.3)

4.2
(3.3)

4.1
(4.0)

Pre

Note. Paired t-tests were used for tests of significance. All p-values are 2-tailed. SWB = Subjective Well-Being, PWB = Psychological Well-Being

Post

Pre

Measure

Attention Training
(n = 18)

Means and Standard Deviations for Mental Health and Wellbeing Variables

Table 6.6

38.6
(6.0)

39.9
(8.1)

41.3
(7.0)

43.7
(5.7)

37.4
(7.0)

38.5
(9.2)

15.2
(5.4)

22.1
(4.8)

21.5
(7.1)

8.9
(4.1)

4.3
(3.7)

4.1
(3.5)

Post

.38

.23

.37

.88

.98

.86

.11

.48

.61

.79

.34

<.05

Control
(n = 17)

0.03

0.19

0.09

0.07

0.03

0.10

0.33

0.19

0.17

0.12

0.03

0.00

Stress. The analysis of pre-post stress scores revealed a significant main effect for
time (F(1, 68) = 7.74, p <.01) but not for group or the group x time interaction. As shown
in Figure 6.4, all groups were less stressed at the conclusion of the training period. Only
the MM group reported a significant pre-post difference, however, and was significantly
different from the control group at Time 2 (p <.05). However, this improvement was not
sustained, with follow-up data indicating that MM participants reported a significant
increase in stress between Time 2 v 3 (p <.01), an increase that rendered the overall
decrease in stress (i.e. Time 1 v 3) non-significant (p =.185).

10
9

Rating

8
Pre
Post

3mths
6
5
4
AT

MM

MC

Group

Figure 6.4. Mean stress scores at pre, post and follow-up

Wellbeing. Contrary to hypothesis that MT would significantly increase subjective
and psychological wellbeing, the intervention appears to have had minimal impact on the
wellbeing of participants. Although the training groups reported improvements on all
wellbeing variables, few of these improvements were significant when compared to
controls. Nonetheless, it is worth noting that significant pre-post increases in selfacceptance were reported by participants in the MM and AT groups (both p <.05),
increases that were maintained at Time 3. This is intriguing because both of these training

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programs are underpinned by techniques designed to promote a loosening of

attachments to the self. In MM this is sought through the practice of non-judgmental
observance of the self (Shapiro et al., 2006), whilst in AT self-focused attention is
reduced through the practice of auditory exercises designed to improve attentional control
(Wells & Matthews, 1994).
MT also appeared to enhance environmental mastery across all the experimental
groups, although a significant pre-post difference was only observed for the MC group (p
<.01), a gain that was maintained at Time 3. This suggests that MT may have bolstered
self-efficacy and the perception that one is resourceful and able to effectively manage the
surrounding world (Ryff, 1989). If MT does enhance a perception of mastery, then it
might also be expected to enhance goal-directed action. This is the proposal addressed by
the final hypothesis.

Hypothesis #3
The final hypothesis predicted that participation in MT would significantly
increase pre-post ratings of goal attainment. Pre-post means and standard deviations for
goal attainment ratings are displayed in Table 6.7. It should be noted that three
participants (one in the MM group, two in the MC group) were excluded from the
analysis because they did not provide post-training (Time 2) goal attainment ratings.
As explained in the methods section (see page 170), goal attainment in this study
was calculated using ratings of both goal difficulty and past attainment. As such, it is
possible that any pre-post increases in goal attainment may occur not as a result of
increases in actual attainment but rather because participants perceived their goals to be

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more difficult (thus increasing the overall attainment score). Preliminary analysis of the
data indicated that this was not the case, however, with a paired samples t-test revealing
that difficulty ratings actually decreased slightly across the groups; a difference that was
found to be non-significant (p = 0.35)
Table 6.7.
Means and Standard Deviations for Goal Attainment
AT
(n = 18)
Measure
Goal
Attainment

Pre

MM
(n = 17)

MC
(n = 17)

C
(n = 17)

Post

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

Pre

Post

67.2

109.6

73.6

112.4

63.9

129.8

55.5

51.3

SD

48.4

74.7

55.4

73.8

68.5

102.2

56.7

59.1

<.05

<.05

<.01

.55

0.67

0.59

0.76

0.07

Note. Paired t-tests were used for tests of significance. All p-values are 2-tailed.

Upon the completion of MT, statistically significant increases in goal attainment

were reported by all the training groups (see Table 6.7 for significance values and effect
sizes) but not the control group. In order to examine differential change by group, oneway ANCOVAs were performed on post-training (Time 2) attainment ratings, with pretraining (Time 1) ratings used as the covariate. This analysis revealed a significant
between group difference for goal attainment (F(3, 64) = 3.57, p <.05). A closer
inspection of these results using planned comparisons revealed that all groups
significantly differed from the control group (AT p <.05, MM p <.005 and MC p <.05).
Post hoc analysis found no differences between the experimental groups themselves.
These results support the hypothesis that MT would enhance goal-directed selfregulation.

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Qualitative Analysis
In order to understand more about how MT was experienced by the participants,
participants were asked to complete a program evaluation. To ensure anonymity,
participants returned the completed evaluations to an independent third party and only
identified the training program they had completed. As the control group received no
training, these participants were excluded from the evaluation, leaving a total of 55
possible respondents.
The program evaluation included the following questions:

1) What was the most helpful aspect of the program?

2) What was the least helpful aspect of the program?
3) To what degree do you think your program has resulted in positive changes to
the way you think, feel and behave?
4) What factors positively or negatively impacted your levels of motivation?
A total of 33 completed evaluations were received (representing a response rate of
60%). To permit comparisons to be made across the three experimental programs, the
data was systematically categorised according to its thematic content, before calculating
the frequency of particular responses within each of those categories (see Table 6.8).

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Table 6.8.
Program Evaluation Data Grouped by Response Category (N = 33)
AT
(n=10)

MM
(n=13)

MC
(n=10)

Rationale and Related Research

Nature of Exercises

Structure and Organisation

Nothing Helpful

11

14

15

Meeting Venue

Nature of Exercises

Structure and Organisation

Nothing Unhelpful

12

Emotional Stability and Coping

Awareness, Focus and Clarity

Improved Mood

None

11

16

13

Instructor and/or Group Meetings (+)

Practice Exercises (-)

Work/Domestic factors (-)

Practice Effects (+)

17

26

18

Categories
Most Helpful Aspect

Total Responses
Least Helpful Aspect

Total Responses
Positive Changes

Total Responses
Motivation

Total Responses

Note: As some respondents provided more than one response per category, some
category totals exceed the total number of respondents in that group.
(+) = positive impact on motivation, (-) = negative impact on motivation.

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Attention Training
Based on the evaluation data, the AT program appears to have been the most
demanding and challenging. Indeed, for half the respondents in this group, the Most
Helpful aspect of the program was developing an understanding of the theory and
research that underpins attention training. Relatively fewer found the exercises or the
structured nature of the program appealing:

After the Week 1 meeting my motivation dropped [as the] attention

training exercise seemed quite boring and repetitive... My motivation
increased a bit after the Week 2 meeting as I learnt easier ways to fulfil the
exercise criteria and learnt more about the broader application [of AT] and
how it works. There was also an increase in motivation around Week 3
when I heard about some of the positive changes others within the group had
experienced. However, by Week 4 there was a definite decrease in
motivation due to boredom of the daily exercises.

More importantly, ongoing engagement in the program appears to have been

heavily influenced by the difficulty respondents experienced in replicating the attention
training soundscape at home. Indeed, for over half the respondents the challenge
presented by this aspect of the AT program was Least Helpful:
I started reasonably well by doing the practice as often as requested but it
quickly became too onerous. The main contributor to my non-compliance
was having to organize enough sounds to listen to.

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[It was] frustrating trying to comply with the homework requirements.

The least helpful part of the course was the organisation required before
beginning each attention training session.

Whilst these difficulties appear to have had an adverse effect on program

engagement (as shown previously in Table 6.1), homework completion appears to have
been less problematic for those able to identify its benefits:
I could see a real benefit quite early on so I was motivated to do the practice
and to go to meetings. The more I did, the more I think the training helped.

Discussing class thoughts on various issues provided a positive stimulant

and as I was able to do my homework better I was able to identify the
benefits.

For half of the respondents AT did not yield any noticeable Positive
Changes in how they were thinking, feeling or behaving. For others participation
in the group had the following results:
I have become much better at balancing competing demands. I have had to
face a major family crisis which started in Week 5 of the course. I think
my attention training (which I had been doing religiously) helped me to
deal with it in a way that surprised me.

185

More open and accepting of life taking on board the ups and downs as
learning experiences.

[The course] reminded me that Im responsible for my own actions,

decisions and choices [and] that I could divert my self-talk from
negative things towards more positive outcomes.

Mindfulness Meditation
In contrast, MM trainees were predominantly positive. For example, several
respondents indicated that the Most Helpful aspect of the program was having access to a
regular class and an experienced teacher. For others valuable personal insights emerged
from merely engaging in regular meditation practice:

Remembering to take time out in the day to deal with the external factors of
life and to learn how to deal with them effectively.

Learning that taking time for myself was not a selfish act.
Interestingly, the most salient Least Helpful aspect of the program was the venue
where the classes were held. Three respondents stated that there was nothing about the
program that was unhelpful. Of the remaining responses, one participant felt that the
course was not relevant enough to personal circumstances (e.g. a weight loss goal);
another found the re-emergence of some unresolved thoughts and feelings difficult and
unhelpful, whilst another disliked:

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The arrogant assumption that everyone will see eternal truths and deep
insights in the writings of Buddhist philosophers.
Participants cited numerous Positive Changes that appeared to result from
daily meditation practice:

I dont get angry easily as before, I tend to stay focus even under pressure. I
feel happier.

More focused, greater clarity in thinking, more calm, able to put things into
perspective more, more accepting with my strengths and weaknesses, more
peaceful, able to deal with things more effectively.

I feel more calm, more of the time. I also feel more cheerful and less
judgmental of others. I notice fewer negative feelings and am less inclined
to be come angry.

For another participant, MM appeared to yield an unexpected benefit that

complemented other recreational activities:

Since the course, I havent done as much sitting meditationpartly because

of time constraints but also I havent felt I needed to. I do a lot of long
distance running and I find that some of the meditation techniques help
when Im running (like placing awareness in different parts of the body,
concentrating on senses and not on interpretations of senses, etc).

187

In contrast to the AT group, the meditation group seemed to struggle less

with Motivation, as the teacher appeared to quite effective in helping the
participants relate the practice exercises to their everyday experience:
Motivation levels remained stable because Bhante [the teacher] offered
something very useful.

Motivation improved as the course went on because I could see progress

(able to meditate for longer, more easily, felt great).

It was not difficult to be motivated. Practice was well structured, not too
rigourous and easy to incorporate into daily life.

Whilst program engagement was highest in this group, several respondents

highlighted time pressure, family commitments, personal illness, lack of access to
an appropriate meditation space, and work commitments as factors that hindered
participation:
I became very busy at work and was finding it hard to make it to the
sessions on time and also found myself too tired to focus on meditating
properly for the practice sessions, although I do recognise that appropriate
meditation would probably have helped this issue.

Mindful Creativity
Similar to the meditation group, the experiences of the MC trainees appear
to have been largely positive, with the Least Helpful aspects of the course

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restricted to comments related to venue, the size of the group and some frustration
with particular group members. Several comments referred to Positive Changes
that related to expanded levels of awareness (of self and others) and better
emotional control. For example:

I think I am considering where people are coming from more than I used to.
I am not judging them immediately based on their behaviour, but am more
likely to consider other reasons for [their] behaviour. I am also far less likely
to take this behaviour personally.

Taking a broader view of issues [and] thinking more about ramifications

and impact before acting. Using idle time more efficiently.

Less focus on the past. Awareness that focus on present rather than the
future can be constructive and help alleviate stress. Discovery that a creative
project can be an unexpectedly positive and enjoyable activity.

I am more in control of how I let my feelings affect me. I can accept

uncomfortable feelings more readily and dont feel compelled to get rid of
them immediately.
Although Motivation in this group was also generally good, work and
family commitments proved to be problematic for some trainees. One participant
reported low motivation from Week 1, after realising the program would not

189

directly target the specific career and lifestyle issues they had hoped to address.
For another, the project appeared to uncover a psychological barrier:

I understood the concept of setting up a creative project and the need for
regular (daily) attention to it, but the task oriented part of my brain was set
in stone. Despite failing in maintaining motivation to participate let alone
complete the creative project, I still found the six weeks very worthwhile. I
am even more convinced the concept of mindfulness is a very important life
tool and would like to pursue learning more.

The evaluative data collected in this study has helped to illuminate several
important issues. First, participants generally found it difficult to dedicate 20 minutes a
day to the completion of their MT practice exercises, with numerous participants
reporting that their participation was negatively impacted by a variety of external (i.e.
work or family) factors. Whilst some found that work and travel commitments were not
conducive to attendance at group meetings and/or regular completion of the MT practice
exercises, others found it difficult to find an appropriate space at home to either: (i)
construct an adequate AT soundscape; (ii) complete MM exercises without interruption;
or (iii) fully engage in their MC project activities.
Second, several participants in the MM and MC groups stated that the most useful
aspect of their program was related to the facilitator and/or the discussions that took place
in the group meetings (particularly the shared experience of others who were observing
positive effects of MT). In contrast, participants in the AT group did not identify their
instructors as being a strongly positive influence. However, this perception was most

190

likely impacted by the forced absence of the more experienced instructor from four out of
six training sessions, leaving the less experienced instructor to lead the majority of AT
sessions. This may help to explain the lower homework completion rates observed for
this group (see Table 6.2), as the less experienced instructor seems to have struggled to
satisfactorily address some of the difficulties that participants reported during the
program (e.g. preparing for practice exercises, disliking the repetitive nature of AT).
Finally, participants in the AT group reported fewer positive changes than the
other groups, which is somewhat surprising given quantitative data indicating significant
decreases in depression and anxiety for this group. However, in retrospectively
evaluating the program, it may be that information related to the challenging nature of the
AT exercises was more salient than information related to its positive effects. Given that
AT attempts to change information processing routines (by helping individuals to direct
excessive attention away from self-referent information), it may be that the positive
effects of MT were more subtle and, therefore, less obvious to participants in this group.

Discussion
This study provides empirical evidence that mindfulness can be cultivated in a
variety of ways, using procedures that seek to develop attentional capacities through the
use of both internal and external stimuli. The results indicate that the meditative, sociocognitive and cognitive-attentional training programs were all effective for increasing
levels of mindfulness, and that these increases were accompanied by a variety of
improvements in mental health, wellbeing and goal-directed self-regulation.

191

The Impact on Mental Health and Wellbeing

The finding that increased mindfulness was accompanied by improvements in the
mental health and wellbeing is not new, given that the beneficial effects of mindfulness
meditation and other attentional training programs have been widely reported (e.g. Baer,
2003; Grossman et al., 2004; Papageorgiou & Wells, 2000). What the findings reported
in this study do suggest, however, is that the effects that accrue from MT training
programs vary according to the different points of perception they explicitly target. That
is, whilst it appears that internal and external stimuli can be successfully employed to
enhance mindfulness, different MT techniques appear to activate different psychological
mechanisms. Evidence for this can be found in the different pattern of effects noted
across the three experimental groups for the mental health and wellbeing variables.
For example, participants in the AT group reported significantly lower posttraining levels of depression and anxiety (but not stress), whilst participants in the MM
group reported significant decreases in anxiety and stress (but not depression). Both
groups reported an increase in the self-acceptance dimension of PWB. In contrast, the
MC program did not result in any significant decreases in these mental health variables
(although downward trends were evident), although significant increases were reported
for two dimensions of PWB; environmental mastery and positive relations with others.
Attention Training. It was not surprising to see decreased levels of depression and
anxiety in this group, as AT seeks to interrupt dysfunctional processing routines that
might otherwise lead to excessive amounts of self-focused attention and an escalating
spiral of rumination and fear (Wells & Matthews, 1994). Thus, AT may activate a
mechanism that helps individuals to liberate attentional resources and to direct those

192

resources towards forms of information that support, rather that thwart, adaptive thought
and action (Wells & Matthews, 1994).
Mindfulness Meditation. Given the growing body of evidence related to the
efficacy of MBSR and various other forms of mindfulness-based therapy (Baer, 2003), it
was not surprising to find participants in this group reporting lower levels of anxiety and
stress. As explained, one of the principle aims of MM is to improve an individuals
ability to dispassionately observe ongoing experience, such that they become less
enmeshed in their internal struggles and see the true nature of things more clearly
(Kornfield, 2004). Lower levels of anxiety would therefore be expected in this group, as
anxiety provoking thoughts are likely to have been met with lower levels of emotionality.
In addition, because MM is also useful for inducing relaxation (Baer, 2003), the regular
practice of these exercises was expected to have a positive effect on stress levels.
Mindful Creativity. In contrast to AT and MM, participants in this group appeared
to feel more efficacious, capable of effectively managing their surrounding world
(environmental mastery), whilst also reporting better quality interpersonal relationships
(positive relations with others). Given that the MC program encouraged participants to
mindfully engage with the world (by relaxing cognitive commitments and attempting to
form new categories or schema), it is not surprising that this program appears to have had
a greater impact on the sense of mastery that participants perceive over their external
experience, rather than their internal experience.

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The Impact on Goal Attainment

One of the most interestingly findings from this study was the observation that all
the MT groups reported pre-post increases in goal attainment, despite the fact that these
programs were not designed to enhance this aspect of personal functioning. This is
particularly intriguing because it suggests that all three forms of MT may have
importance for enhancing goal-directed self-regulation and, therefore, may be a useful
inclusion in coaching interventions. This raises an obvious question: Why should the
regular practice of attentional exercises lead improvements in self-regulation? Again, the
mechanisms that underpin these improvements are likely to differ for each of the
programs examined in this study.
Attention Training. The most obvious mechanism by which AT might have an
impact on goal attainment is its ability to liberate attentional resources. There are two
basic reasons why human beings struggle with affective states like depression, anxiety
and worry. First, the human attentional system only has a limited capacity (Ward, 2004).
Second, depression, anxiety and worry are attentionally demanding (Wells & Matthews,
1994). Thus, when these emotions are present, individuals often feel captured by them
and unable to focus on anything other than their emotional experience. As AT is designed
to help individuals build attentional control, it may facilitate goal attainment by helping
individuals to redirect limited resources toward forms of information that promote selfregulation and support adaptive functioning.
Mindfulness Meditation. Goal-directed effort can be compromised by a wide
variety of psychological processes (such as urges and negative thoughts) that trigger
unwanted behavioural responses. In this regard, MM may have supported goal attainment

194

by helping participants become more adept at disrupting habitual thought-action

sequences that might otherwise jeopardise goal progression. As Baumeister and
Heatherton (1996) point out, self-regulation is difficult if problematic thoughts, feelings,
sensations and behaviours go unnoticed. Whilst awareness of these processes does not
necessarily guarantee an adaptive response, the interval of time created by such
awareness, at worst, allows the temporary suspension of a habitual response and, at best,
will result in the substitution of a more useful alternative.
Mindful Creativity. Given that MC was associated with an increase in
environmental mastery, it is likely that greater goal attainment in this group was related
to improvements in general self-efficacy. Participants in this group were encouraged to
adopt a particular stance towards the world; mindfulness. This involved being open to
experience, seeking out novelty and difference, being sensitive to context, and varying
perspective. It seems plausible that, in applying this stance towards the completion of a
creative project, participants were also able to apply it to other personal goals. In so
doing, they may have become more adept at detecting alternative ways of approaching
their goals, along with greater confidence that they could attain them; cognitions that
hope theorists call pathways thinking and agency thinking (Snyder et al., 1991).

Limitations
There are a number of limitations that need to be considered when interpreting the
results of this study. First, as the participants were self-selected, it is likely they possessed
an interest in mindfulness that is not representative of the general adult population. As
such, the findings may not generalise to other groups. Second, as the study was not

195

placebo controlled, it cannot be conclusively stated that MT caused the observed

improvements in mindfulness, mental health and wellbeing. Rather, it may be that the
presentation of a credible rationale for MT (as reported in Table 6.2) created a placebo
effect within these groups, leading participants to expect and report these improvements.
Third, data presented in Table 6.8 suggests that the results may be related to the
idiosyncratic features of the instructors who delivered MT, as some participants in the
MM and MC groups identified the instructor as the most useful aspect of their program.
As such, the results for these groups may have been compromised by trainees wanting to
reward their instructors with positive results. The investigation of MT programs would,
therefore, be greatly enhanced by more standardisation of the programs to reduce the
influence of non-specific factors on the results. For example, a training kit could be
developed that incorporated audio-visual materials (such as compact discs) with a
program rationale, an instruction booklet and all the necessary MT stimulus materials
(e.g. AT soundscape, guided meditations). The delivery of MT programs in this way
would allow any observed effects to be more attributable the techniques themselves, than
to other factors such as the experience and ability of instructors.
Fourth, although the measurement of goal attainment used in this study was an
improvement on the simple scale used in Study 2, goal attainment ratings still relied
exclusively on subjective assessments of performance, which are susceptible to distortion
by self-serving biases, performance rationalisations or inaccuracy during memory recall.
Given the centrality of goals to coaching, future research would be greatly enhanced by
the inclusion of goal setting methodologies that control for such distortion. Goal
Attainment Scaling (GAS, Kiresuk & Sherman, 1968) is one such methodology. Based

196

on a structured goal setting methodology widely used by a variety of practitioners and

researchers (Schlosser, 2004), GAS attempts to improve objectivity by assigning
facilitators a greater role in the establishment performance goals and the evaluation of
outcomes. In short, GAS employs a collaborative approach to goal setting, with
facilitators helping individuals to specify their goal on a scale of possible attainment and
overseeing the measurement and evaluation of performance against that scale.
Finally, although mindfulness was measured in this study using a well validated
self-report instrument; the MAAS (Brown & Ryan, 2003), measuring changes in
consciousness in this way appears to be somewhat inadequate. Whilst behavioural
measures of mindfulness are currently being developed (e.g. the use of functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) to measure affect regulation) it is likely to be some
time before these are sufficiently well validated to gain widespread use (Brown, 2005).

Conclusion
The results presented in this chapter suggest that the development of
mindfulness skills may be an important component of any intervention that is designed to
facilitate the attainment of personal goals. Although further research is required to
validate the efficacy of these MT programs, it is tempting to speculate on how such
programs might be incorporated into a framework for coaching. Several questions
immediately arise. For example: At what point in the coaching process would MT best be
delivered? Should CB-SF coaching and MT be delivered simultaneously or sequentially?
If so, in what order? What is the optimal training period for MT?

197

This thesis will conclude with an exploration of some of these questions.

However, before consideration can be given to the development of an integrative
framework for coaching, some attention must be directed towards an issue that the
coaching industry has yet to adequately address: the measurement of goal attainment.
Given that coaching is primarily concerned with assisting individuals to progress
towards the attainment of desired outcomes, goal attainment will normally be the key
dependent variable in coaching research. Yet, there appear to have been few serious
attempts to address some of the important issues that surround the measurement of goal
attainment. Whilst the popular coaching literature is replete with advice, guidelines and
prescriptions for effective goal setting (e.g. Fortgang, 1998; Whitmore, 1996; Zeus &
Skiffington, 2005), the scholarly coaching literature has been surprisingly silent on the
issue of how goal attainment should best be measured. Given the importance of this issue
to the development of evidence-based coaching practice, the next chapter will consider
several conceptual issues related to the measurement of goal attainment. In the context of
this dissertation, the examination of these issues is significant as it will help to inform
how goal attainment is measured in the final study.

198

Chapter Seven
Applying Goal Attainment Scaling in Coaching Contexts:
A Useful Tool for Researchers and Practitioners
Introduction
The finding that different forms of mindfulness training (MT) can enhance goal
attainment is potentially important for the development of evidence-based coaching
practice (EBCP). It suggests that goal-directed self-regulation may be greatly enhanced
by the development of mindfulness skills, providing some justification for the inclusion
of MT in coaching interventions. However, as goal attainment ratings in the previous
study were based solely on each participants subjective assessment of performance, the
result should be interpreted with some caution. This is because self-reported goal
attainment ratings are susceptible to distortion and bias (e.g. performance rationalisations,
recall inaccuracy), raising doubts about the degree to which observed changes in goal
progression and goal attainment reflect actual changes in those variables. Ideally,
coaching research should involve the use of measures that attempt to control for potential
sources of distortion and bias. However, most of the outcome studies to appear in the
coaching literature have relied on simple self-report measures (Grant, 2003a; Green et al.,
2006; Spence & Grant, in press), with only the occasional study employing more
objective means of measurement (e.g., Olivero, Bane, & Kopelman, 1997).

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This chapter focuses on some of the key issues related to the accurate
measurement of coaching outcomes. After identifying the limitations of existing
measurement methods, goal attainment scaling (GAS) is introduced as an alternative
research tool and practice methodology, accompanied by a detailed description of the
scaling procedure and the computation of GAS T-scores. Whilst GAS has many positive
attributes that make its use within coaching contexts potentially beneficial (e.g. greater
objectivity, flexibility), several limitations are noted. Given that use of T-scores in
quantitative research analysis is one of the most contentious aspects of GAS (MacKay &
Lundie, 1998), this issue is examined in detail and alternative presentations of GAS data
explored.
It is concluded that there are two aspects of GAS that make it a potentially useful
tool for both coaching researchers and practitioners. First, it represents a more rigourous
approach to the measurement of goal attainment. Second, the cognitive processing that
the use of GAS elicits from individuals may catalyse important attainment processes,
such as action planning and behavioural monitoring. Given these (and other) positive
attributes, the use of GAS in coaching research and practice are worthy of exploration. To
this end, the conceptual issues discussed in this chapter help to inform the development
of a GAS coaching methodology that will be tested in the final study of this dissertation.

The Measurement of Goal Attainment in Coaching Research

To date the measurement of goal attainment in coaching research has been
accomplished by the use of self-report tools. In line with procedures used by other
personal goal researchers (e.g. Emmons, 1986; Sheldon & Elliot, 1998; Sheldon et al.,

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2002), the measurement process typically begins with a request that participants record a
specified number of goals in a personal goal questionnaire or workbook.
In these studies, goal attainment ratings are obtained in one of two ways. First, a
pre-coaching goal attainment score is obtained by having participants rate their success
for all goals on a simple 5-point Likert scale (e.g. 1 = 0% successful and 5 = 100%
successful). These ratings are then summed and divided by the total number of goals to
obtain a mean attainment score for Time 1. This process is then repeated at the postcoaching interval (Time 2), along with any follow-up intervals (Time 3, Time 4, etc).
Having obtained a series of attainment scores, data from multiple time points can be
statistical analysed to determine the impact of coaching on goal attainment. Both Green et
al (2006) and Spence and Grant (in press) have employed this method.
Second, the method outlined above can be extended by the addition of a difficulty
rating that, like attainment, can be measured on a Likert scale (ranging from, say, 1 =
very easy to 4 = very difficult). As explained in Chapter Six, this approach calculates
goal attainment scores in the following way:

Goal
=
Attainment

( Goal 1 Difficulty x Attainment) + (Goal 2 Difficulty x Attainment) + ()

Total Number of Goals

The major advantage of this method is that, by weighting each goal for its
perceived level of challenge, the measure becomes more sensitive to change, as goals
with higher difficulty ratings exert more influence the overall attainment scores than
goals with lower ratings. Thus, if the difficulty rating for Goal 1 is 4 (very difficult) and
Goal 2 is 2 (moderately easy), and the same amount of progress is observed for both
goals between two time points, then a greater degree of attainment will be recorded for

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Goal 1 than Goal 2, due to the greater weighting it has received. This approach was
employed in the previous chapter and has also been used by Grant (2003a).

Limitations of Existing Methods

Whilst there are some advantages associated with the use of these methods (such
as simplicity, ease of use), the accuracy and validity of these measures is open to
question. First, these methods tend to lock individuals into particular goal(s) without
specifying what a near-miss looks like. This can be problematic because when ones
goal-directed efforts are not aligned to the specifications of a goal, the evaluation of
attainment becomes post-hoc and subject to multiple distortions (such as self-serving
biases, performance rationalisations and/or inaccuracy during memory recall). Second,
demand characteristics are another potential source of distortion. This is because research
participants can sometimes be inclined to report overly positive outcomes, as a way of
pleasing or rewarding a researcher (or practitioner).
Finally, the articulation of personal goals in coaching research has generally been
achieved via a goal-setting workshop (for groups), or some form of structured goalsetting questionnaire or self-coaching manual (for individuals). As these approaches do
not usually involve much one-on-one assistance, they are usually both time and cost
effective. Yet, the absence of individualised assistance during goal-setting may
negatively impact research outcomes, as a lack of quality control may result in an
unacceptably high number of goals that are excessively vague and, therefore, difficult to
measure accurately.

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Goal Attainment Scaling

GAS is a method of program impact evaluation that has been used in a variety of
applied settings, such as occupational therapy (Ottenbacher & Cusick, 1993), paediatric
and geriatric rehabilitation (Mitchell & Cusick, 1998; Stolee, Zaza, Pedlar, & Myers,
1999), psychotherapy (Shefler, Canetti, & Wiseman, 2001) as well as multi-disciplinary
health initiatives, such as the delivery of rural and remote health services (Cox &
Amsters, 2002). Originally developed for the mental health field by Kiresuk and Sherman
(1968), GAS has proven to be extremely useful for evaluating progress towards programspecific goals (MacKay & Lundie, 1998). It has typically used as a clinical tool to help
address the physical or psychological needs of clients. An appealing aspect of GAS is the
active collaboration that it promotes between a client, a helper and the clients family or
significant others (Schlosser, 2004). Thus far, however, there has been little discussion of
its potential use within non-clinical contexts, even though goal constructs are widely used
by coaches and applied positive psychologists.

Description and Procedure

GAS can be summarised as involving: (i) the construction of a scale based on a
desired level of goal attainment, and (ii) the use of that scale to monitor progress and
evaluate performance at time points of interest (Ottenbacher & Cusick, 1990). The GAS
process begins with the preparation of a goal chart (see Table 7.1).
GAS charts articulate goals at two or more levels of abstraction. At the first level
goals are stated as general objectives that vary from vague, global statements (e.g.
Become more social), to more definitive statements related to particular areas identified

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for growth and development (e.g. Increase number of social interactions to overcome
shyness). At the second level these general goals are expressed according to a set of
specific behavioural units that are easily observable, measurable and, most importantly,
realistic for the client (e.g. Initiate conversations with two new people every day).
Table 7.1.
Example of a Goal Attainment Scaling Chart
Goal 1
Become more social

Goal 2
Become more serene

Increase number of social

interactions to overcome shyness

Increase serenity by doing more

meditation practice

Best expected
Outcome

Initiate conversation (min. 5mins)

with >4 new people per day

Complete 20-min. guided

meditation every day of the week

More than expected

outcome

Initiate conversation (min. 5mins)

with 3-4 new people per day

Complete 5-6 x 20-min. guided

meditations per week

Expected
Outcome

Initiate conversation (min. 5mins)

with 2 new people per day

Complete 4 x 20-min. guided

meditations per week

Less than expected

outcome

Initiate conversation (min. 5mins)

with 1 new person per day

Complete 2-3 x 20-min. guided

meditations per week (C)

No conversations with anyone

new (C)

Complete <2 x 20-min. guided

meditations per week

Higher order goals

Lower order goals
GAS Levels

Worst expected
Outcome

(C) = Current level of attainment

Once the client and the helper agree on the specific behaviours that represent
improvement, agreement is also sought on a specific level of attainment that represents a
realistic (but stretching) goal for the client. Once agreed, this becomes the scale midpoint (Expected Outcome). After a realistic goal has been set, four alternative levels of
accomplishment are agreed (i.e. Best Expected Outcome, More than Expected Outcome,
Less than Expected Outcome, Worst Expected Outcome) in order to permit program

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outcomes to be measured with a greater degree of accuracy. The important steps and
considerations for the completion of GAS charts are outlined in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2.
The Goal Attainment Scaling Process
Step

Description

1. Identify overall objective

Client and coach discuss and agree on the general goal(s) of the
program (e.g. improve physical fitness)

2. Identify specific problem

areas to be addressed

Requires prioritisation of problem areas (e.g. physical inactivity)

and reduction to observable and reportable components (e.g.
preferred form of exercise, frequency)

3. Identify behaviours that

would indicate improvement

Involves outlining the operational detail needed for the scale to

be a useful instrument in evaluating performance (e.g. defining
exercise in terms of completed gym sessions)

4. Determine how goal

attainment will be measured

Decisions made regarding the collection of goal attainment data:

Who will collect it? In what setting it will be gathered? (e.g.
exercise diary completed by client)

5. Select Expected Outcome

level of performance

A critical step. Both the client and coach appraise and agree on a
level of attainment that is both meaningful and realistic for the
client given their history and current situation

6. Identify alternative levels of

attainment

In addition to the Expected Outcome, four other levels of

attainment are identified in order to quantify greater and lesser
levels of performance

7. Check for overlapping goals

and gaps between levels

Overlapping goals can be used but they must be mutually

exclusive and internally consistent. Gaps between levels are not
permissible and can be addressed by defining a behavioural
range for each goal level

8. Ascertain current level of

attainment

Discuss past and present goal attainment with the client to

determine the GAS level that is current. A timetable for future
evaluations should also be agreed at this point

Adapted from Ottenbacher and Cusick (1990)

After establishing a goal chart, the intervention commences and runs for a
specified period of time. Having determined how goal attainment data will be collected

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prior to the commencement of the program (see Step 4, Table 7.2), data collection should
be unambiguous, relatively simple and as immediate as possible (rather than
retrospective). The GAS data is assembled and presented to all those involved in the goal
setting process (i.e. client, helper, others), such that an agreement can be reached on what
level of goal attainment has been achieved (Schlosser, 2004). This concludes the GAS
process.

The Calculation of GAS Scores

GAS maybe attractive to some researchers because GAS scales can be
transformed into standard scores and used for the purpose of comparison between
different program groups (Kiresuk, Smith, & Cardillo, 1994). Upon completion of the
goal attainment chart a numerical value is assigned to each outcome level (i.e., worst
expected = -2, less than expected = -1, expected = 0, more than expected = +1, best
expected = +2), along with a numerical weighting that reflects the relative importance of
each goal (MacKay & Lundie, 1998). At a predetermined future point, this five-point
scale (which has an assumed mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1) is used to quantify
goal attainment by taking the collected outcome data, comparing it to the scale and
calculating how much this deviates from the mean of 0.
Total goal attainment scores can then be calculated using the following formula,
which yields a standard score, or T-score, with a (hypothesised) mean of 50 and a
standard deviation of 10 (Kiresuk & Sherman, 1968):

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T = 50 +

10wixi
(1-)wi + (wi )

Where:
wi = weights assigned for each particular goal
xi = the attainment score for each goal (a value from -2 to +2)
= the average intercorrelation of attainment scores (assumed to be 0.30)
T-scores are useful for evaluation not only because they provide an index of
individual performance within different intervention groups, but also because obtaining a
standardised unit of goal progression allows statistical comparisons to be made between
groups (MacKay & Lundie, 1998). A fully worked example of a T score calculation is
provided by Schlosser (2004).

GAS: Strengths and Limitations

There are several potential advantages that practitioners and researchers may gain
from using the GAS methodology to measure coaching outcomes. These will now be
examined, along with some important issues that may limit its use in both applied and
research settings.

Strengths
The advantages of using GAS for program evaluations has been widely reported
(MacKay & Lundie, 1998; Ottenbacher & Cusick, 1990; Schlosser, 2004) and can be
summarised as follows:

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i)

GAS is not bound to any theoretical orientation, type of intervention or outcome

measure. This makes the procedure very flexible and suitable for measuring
performance across a wide range of applied settings;

ii)

GAS reduces the likelihood of erroneous post-hoc evaluations of success

because individuals have stated for themselves the alternative levels of
attainment and, therefore, should be able to measure their performance more
accurately;

iii)

The methodology appears to fit neatly within the boundaries of coaching

engagements and could form a natural part of the collaborative exchanges that
take place between a client and a coach;

iv)

GAS does not rely on the costly central reporting systems that produce many of
the metrics routinely used in executive or workplace coaching (e.g. personality
inventories, multi-rater feedback tools). Rather, GAS scales can be produced
relatively easily and at minimal cost;

v)

As GAS operates on a set of simple goal setting principles, the adoption of GAS
methods should be relatively straightforward for coaches and researchers
already trained in these principles;

vi)

Outcomes are not based solely on subjective assessments of performance.

Rather they are determined as a result of consensus between an individual and
their helper (i.e. practitioner or researcher) using data collected during the
course of the intervention. This provides the process with greater objectivity, as
the helper can ask questions about the attainment data and seek clarification on
issues that might otherwise distort or bias the results;

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vii) Finally, the calculation of GAS scores provides a numeric index that can permit
performance to be accessed over time and used for both within-subjects and
between-group comparisons. However, as it will be shown, the validity of GAS
scores has been widely questioned, which may make this aspect of the
methodology inappropriate in some circumstances.

Limitations
Despite its appeal, several aspects of GAS have been called into question.
Arguably the most contentious issue relates to the psychometric properties of GAS scores
and the argument that they are a parametric expression of non-parametric information
(Schlosser, 2004, p. 231). This criticism revolves around the calculation of T-scores and
the observation that whilst outcome scores such as -2 to +2 are ordinal data, GAS
computations treat them as interval data, in order to allow their transformation into
standard scores (MacKay & Lundie, 1998).
Second, the calculation and interpretation of GAS scores relies upon a number of
assumed values. These values, which include an assumed mean of 50 and a standard
deviation of 10, are required to permit the parametric analysis of GAS data. In addition,
the calculation of T-scores involves the use of a constant value () to represent the
expected overall inter-correlation among an individuals goal scores. Kiresuk and
Sherman (1968) originally assumed this value to be equal to 0.30. Critics have seriously
questioned the assignment of these arbitrary values, arguing that their use makes T-scores
almost meaningless (MacKay & Lundie, 1998)
Third, GAS is time consuming and labour intensive. Regardless of whether it is
used by researchers or practitioners, a considerable amount of time, energy and care is

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needed to ensure that (i) the construction of GAS charts is completed with precision, (ii)
the measurement systems are suitable, and (iii) the assessment of outcomes is rigourous
and objective. Finally, Cytrynbaum et al (1979) has noted the possibility that floor effects
may be present in GAS evaluations. Given that the 0-point on a GAS scale represents the
clients goal, it is likely that current attainment for most clients will be at lower levels on
the scale (i.e. the -1 or -2 levels). As such, goal regression may not be easily detected as
the scale provides little or no opportunity to measure deterioration in performance.

Research Considerations
Several recommendations have been made regarding the use of GAS for research
purposes (for a comprehensive discussion see Lewis, Spencer, Haas, & DiVittis, 1987).
As shown by Shefler and colleagues (2001), the psychometric properties of GAS improve
if certain methodological requirements are met. For example, to prevent bias of GAS
scores, it is strongly recommended that the follow-up assessments be conducted blindly
(that is, with no knowledge of the research hypotheses, the initial status of participants or
their group assignment) and by evaluators not otherwise involved in the intervention
(Ottenbacher & Cusick, 1993; Shefler et al., 2001). In addition, researchers have been
encouraged to minimise threats to internal validity by using control conditions (Schlosser,
2004), randomly assigning participants to groups after the completion of goal setting
(Ottenbacher & Cusick, 1990), and ensuring that research staff are adequately trained in
all aspects of goal scaling, such as the assessment of initial attainment status
(Cytrynbaum, Ginath, Birdwell, & Brandt, 1979; Shefler et al., 2001).

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The Analysis of Ordinal Data

As mentioned earlier, the transformation of GAS data into standard scores (for the
purpose of quantitative evaluation) has been strongly criticised. In response to these
criticisms, MacKay and Lundie (1998) have proposed that goal-scale ratings may be
better treated as ordinal data (thereby making fewer assumptions about the data) and
presented as frequency counts on dimensions such as post-intervention attainment levels,
goal categories, goal weightings, etc.
Table 7.3 displays how a post-intervention evaluation might be presented for
individuals pursuing three goals each in a group-based coaching program. As shown, the
outcome data is displayed according to the level of attainment achieved by each
individual for each goal. Alternatively, data might be displayed dichotomously, according
to the frequency of attainment levels that fall Below Goal or At or Above Goal (i.e.
expected outcome), or according to the amount of movement from baseline levels of
attainment (i.e. pre-intervention levels). The statistical analyses of such data could then
be performed by using the appropriate non-parametric tests for the purpose of hypothesis
testing (such as the Wilcoxon rank sum or the chi-square test of independence).
Table 7.3.
The Ordinal Display of GAS Data
GAS Outcome Levels
Client Name

-2

-1

+1

+2

David

Claire

Louise

Peter

Total

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Similar presentations are also possible by creating a selection of appropriate goal

categories (e.g. weight loss, social interactions) or by goal weightings, whereby postintervention attainment levels would be reported relative to their level of importance (for
examples see MacKay & Lundie, 1998).
Although there is no reason why these procedures could not also be utilised by
practitioners to document outcomes, it should again be noted that the validity of GAS
relies that certain conditions are meet (as outlined earlier). Thus, researchers and
practitioners should take similar precautions (e.g. the use of independent judges) when
attempting to remove distortion and bias from GAS data. Whilst such precautions add
additional demands of time, effort and resources to the use of GAS, they cannot be
ignored as they are necessary to ensure the credibility of the data (Shefler et al., 2001).

The Challenges of Facilitating Goal Attainment

Goal setting is vital for self-regulation because the goal defines for the person
what constitutes an acceptable level of performance (Latham & Locke, 1991, p. 234).
However, there are complexities associated with goal constructs that can make goal
setting and goal attainment challenging to facilitate. As it will now be shown, the use of
GAS may be helpful for meeting some of these challenges.

Goal Instability
The self-regulation of behaviour is relatively straightforward whilst a goal
remains unchanged. However, goals are unstable constructs. Clients will sometimes find

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that their aspirations, intentions and motivations change over time. For some this might
occur as a consequence of changed personal circumstances (e.g. personal injury, job loss)
or because an individual lacks commitment and is not appropriately energised towards it.
In any case, for researchers and practitioners using GAS to measure the
effectiveness of coaching interventions, changed goals are problematic because a new
scale is required every time a goal changes. It should be noted, however, that part of this
difficulty appears to be obviated in GAS by the presence of a higher order goal (e.g.
Increase muscular endurance) that is superordinate to a lower order goal(s) (e.g. Do
100 push-ups, 3 night a week). Given that goals are arranged hierarchically (Chulef,
Read, & Walsh, 2001), change in a lower order goal will not necessarily indicate goal
disengagement. Rather, it may merely indicate that a natural process of realignment has
occurred, one reflective of adaptive self-regulation (King, 1996).
While there is no way to ensure the stability of any clients goals over time, the
use of GAS does seem to provide a way to maximise goal stability. The establishment of
a GAS chart promotes a thorough examination of goals and aspirations. A GAS interview
provides an individual with opportunity to discuss, clarify and reality check the
appropriateness of their goals (a process that may be further assisted by a short period of
reflection). Given the intense cognitive processing that GAS encourages, it seems
reasonable to assume that these goals might be less susceptible to change.

Multidimensionality
Individuals have been shown to express goals across a number of different
dimensions. For example:

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Abstract-Concrete: This dimension reflects differences in the degree of

specificity reflected in goals (e.g. To be a top student versus To do two hours
of study a day);

Approach-Avoidance: This dimension reflects an individuals general

orientation towards particular goals (e.g. Be more appreciative of my partners
efforts versus Avoid arguing with my partner);

Autonomous-Controlled: This dimension reflects the feeling of subjective

ownership one has towards a goal (e.g. Get a promotion because I would enjoy
the work versus Get a promotion because my Dad would be proud).

These dimensions are potentially challenging for coaches because they represent
preferences for certain types of goals that are associated with particular outcomes. For
example, autonomous goals have been found to be associated with sustained goaldirected effort and enhanced wellbeing, whereas controlled goals tend to produce less
effort over time and poorer wellbeing outcomes (Sheldon & Elliot, 1998).
The abstract-concrete dimension is important to the present discussion because a
clients willingness (or unwillingness) to engage in GAS may simply reflect a preferred
tendency to express goals at a particular level of abstraction. According to Emmons
(1992) these differences are related to low-level or high-level thinking. Low-level
thinkers are likely to find GAS naturally appealing, as they can express desired outcomes
as a series of well-defined behavioural units. On the other hand, high-level thinkers are
likely to find the expression of specific goals as overly simplistic, uninteresting, or even
insulting, given their preference for thinking more broadly. However, there seems to be

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some virtue in encouraging people to understand how their goals fit together, as this can
allow coaches to engage clients in big picture discussions about their personal goal
systems and the degree to which their goals are congruent (i.e. reflect their values and
interests) and coherent (i.e. relatively free of competing goals) (Sheldon & Kasser, 1995).

Change Readiness
Another challenge often experienced when attempting to facilitate goal attainment
working with clients who are in different stages of change (DiClemente & Velasquez,
2002). For example, for clients in the contemplation stage of change (marked by
ambivalence towards behavioural goals) the use of GAS is unlikely to be met with much
enthusiasm, as they have yet to determine a compelling reason to change. As such, they
are unlikely to be appropriately energised towards any aspect of goal striving (including
goal establishment) and the introduction of GAS during this stage may only serve to
increase ambivalence and resistance. For this reason it is recommended that GAS be used
selectively with clients and only after an assessment has been made about a clients
readiness for change. Failure to do so may lead to mutual frustration and only serve to
develop a perception that the technique is ineffective.
In contrast, GAS is more likely to be embraced when a client has decided to make
change and is in the preparation stage (DiClemente & Velasquez, 2002). Here, GAS is
likely to provide the client with a useful process for formulating realistic action plans
and, once formulated, the GAS chart may be used as a point of reference during
implementation (action stage) and for sustaining effort (maintenance stage). Indeed,
many features of the GAS methodology suggest that it might be an effective way to move

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people from a deliberative mindset, which is characterised by the careful examination of

competing goals, to an implemental mindset, which is characterised by a commitment to
attain some goal(s) and ones initial steps to move towards that goal(s) (Gollwitzer,
1993).

Conclusion
Given these complexities, goal setting should not to be underestimated. Indeed,
being able to distinguish between different types of goals, knowing how they relate to
goal attainment and understanding how to maximise client motivation should be key
competencies for coaches. GAS has many positive attributes that appear well suited to
coaching. By finding ways of adapting GAS to coaching interventions, researchers and
practitioners would be furthering EBCP in at least three ways.
First, GAS could provide coaches with a useful framework for making the best
use of their goal-setting expertise. The focus that coaching places on goals implies that
coaches possess expert knowledge of different goal types, the associated goal attainment
literature, and the skills to use a range of goal setting methodologies. For coaches,
however, the possession of this expertise may not necessarily guarantee its use. Coaching
is underpinned by a basic assumption that clients are functional, the experts in their own
lives and capable of making important decisions, such as the articulation of goals
(Whitworth et al., 1998). Anecdotal reports suggest that this philosophical stance may be
so pervasive that many coaches feel uncomfortable about using technical expertise, lest
they become too directive and commit a violation of core Rogerian and solutionfocused principles. Yet, as Cavanagh (2005) has noted, the use of domain specific

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knowledge is vital to effective coaching because sometimes the client simply does not
have access to what they need to know, and no amount of questioning will change that
(p. 4).
Second, apart from its practical value, GAS may prove useful for stimulating
meaningful communication between researchers and practitioners. Although both share
an interest in the formal assessment of coaching interventions, they are likely to be drawn
towards different outcome measures. For example, researchers interested in the
psychological effects of coaching will tend to be drawn towards quantitative measures
that permit within-subject and between-group effects to be detected on variables of
interest (e.g. emotional intelligence). In contrast, an executive coach will be more
interested in assessing and reporting on more tangible coaching outcomes (such as goal
attainment); data more likely to capture the attention of organisational stakeholders.
Finally, the utility of GAS may extend well beyond the measurement of outcomes
to the facilitation of goal attainment (Schlosser, 2004). Whilst this hypothesis remains
largely untested, such an effect seems plausible given the cognitive effort a client is
encouraged to expend during the GAS process. That is, setting specific and realistic goals
requires a client to think clearly about what they want to achieve and how much they are
capable of doing. As Locke (1996) has noted, there is overwhelming evidence that
intensive cognitive processing is a major factor in successful goal attainment. Thus, the
use of GAS in coaching seems sensible because increased self-reflectivity, the
collaborative nature of the process and the formal agreement of goals, may all interact to
stimulate goal-oriented cognitions (e.g. planning) and behaviour (e.g. monitoring), whilst
enhancing goal commitment; other variables known to be important for successful self-

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regulation (Locke, 1996). If so, GAS may play an important additional role in goal
attainment by helping an individual to move from a deliberative to an implementation
mindset (Gollwitzer & Kinney, 1989).
Having outlined the relevance of GAS to the goals of EBCP, this dissertation will
conclude with the first empirical investigation of its use within a coaching context. More
specifically, GAS will be used to assess the impact of an integrative coaching framework;
a framework that combines mindfulness training with cognitive-behavioural solutionfocused coaching.

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Chapter Eight
The Integration of Mindfulness Training and
Cognitive-Behavioural Solution-Focused Coaching Practice
Introduction
In Chapter 6 mindfulness training (MT) was found to be an effective means of
helping individuals better regulate behaviour towards the attainment of goals. This is
potentially important for the development of EBCP as it provides some justification for
integrating MT and coaching practices. Although the empirical validation of these
techniques requires further investigation, there are good theoretical and empirical reasons
for proposing such integration. However, it is currently unclear at what point in the
coaching process it would be best to introduce structured training in mindfulness skills.
This chapter specifically addresses this issue by outlining a rationale for the integration of
MT and cognitive-behavioural solution-focused (CB-SF) techniques, before testing
whether MT techniques are best employed at the beginning or the end of a coaching
intervention.

The Integration of Mindfulness Training and Coaching

To understand how MT and CB-SF coaching might best be integrated, it is worth
returning to Martins (1997) proposal that mindfulness has two subtypes or forms.
According to Martin, an open attentional form reflects ones capacity to suspend
attachment to particular perspectives (akin to the non-judgemental observation of

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thoughts, beliefs, schemas, etc). In contrast, a focused attentional form is more action
oriented. It involves the redirection of attention away from more dominant schema, in
order to focus freshly on less dominant percepts that may assist cognitive restructuring
and support behaviour change. Whilst proposing that mindfulness is common to all forms
of psychotherapy, Martin argues that different therapeutic orientations place differing
emphasis on the use of open and focused attentional forms (e.g. the open attentional form
is more prominent in psychodynamics; the focused attentional form in cognitivebehavioural approaches).
Despite differences in the degree to which psychotherapies emphasise one
attentional form over another, both play an important role in cognitive, affective and
behavioural self-regulation (Martin, 1997). For example, when married couples attempt
to improve their communication patterns, success is likely to depend upon the ability of
both partners to use both open and focused attentional forms. That is, it will be important
(during spousal interactions) for the partners to be able to: (i) dispassionately observe
their thoughts, feelings and behaviours as they occur (open attentional form), in order to
help suspend habitual and unhelpful communication, and (ii) direct attention towards
novel sources of information (e.g. personal strengths and resources) that may help to
establish more helpful communication patterns (focused attentional form). In this way,
open and focused attentional forms represent both sides of the same coin.

Strengthening Attentional Muscle

Both aspects of mindfulness place differing demands on the attentional system,
requiring a high degree of control over how attentional resources are deployed and what

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type of stimuli are selected for elaborative processing. However, individuals differ in
their ability to control attention. Fortunately, a growing body of evidence indicates that
individuals can strengthen their attentional control (refer to Chapter 6). The primary
objective of MT is to build attentional control. In this regard attention is like a muscle,
and MT like gym equipment designed to strengthen and build that muscle. To better
explain how MT might be integrated with coaching, it is useful to further develop such
metaphors.
World-class rock climbers need to be exceptionally fit to remain competitive
in their sport (Goddard & Neumann, 1993). Whilst a considerable amount of a
climbers training regimen is spent climbing rock faces, this method of training
would be inadequate for developing the level of fitness required for elite climbing.
More likely, outdoor training will be supplemented by other forms of training, such
as gym training aimed at developing upper body strength, general muscular
endurance and flexibility. Although gym equipment has no direct connection to
rock climbing, such training is generally considered indispensable because it helps
the more technical aspects of rock climbing to be executed with greater precision
(Goddard & Neumann, 1993). Simply put, going to the gym is essential preparation
for rock climbers who wish to perform at their peak.
This example can be used to help understand the importance of mindfulness
within a coaching context. Although coaching has been found to be useful for facilitating
goal attainment (as shown in Study 2), a persons ability to self-regulate effectively may
be compromised if they do not have enough attentional muscle to support effective selfregulation. Thus, if goal striving is preceded by some form of MT (analogous to gym

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equipment), then individuals are more likely to find the technical aspects of goal striving
(which is addressed in coaching) easier to manage and, in so doing, increase the
likelihood of goal attainment (analogous to successfully scaling a rock face). Restated in
terms of Martins (1997) concepts of open and closed attentional forms; the MT phase of
a coaching intervention would seek to develop open attentional form (and be useful
preparation for change), whilst the CB-SF coaching phase would seek to develop
focused attentional form (and be useful for helping to implement change).
Given the logic behind the use of MT as a preparation for goal striving, it was
hypothesised that significantly higher levels of goal attainment would occur when MT
preceded CB-SF coaching, compared to when MT followed CB-SF coaching. To test this
hypothesis, two coaching groups were included in the study design so that the delivery of
MT and CB-SF coaching could be systematically varied. Both coaching groups were
expected to report significantly greater goal attainment than the GHE group.
In keeping with findings reported in Study 3, it was also hypothesised that MT
would be associated with significant increases in mindfulness, improvements in mental
health (i.e. depression, anxiety and stress) and enhanced wellbeing (i.e. satisfaction with
life, environmental mastery and self-acceptance). Given the conceptual links between
mindfulness and metacognitive processing (as outlined in Chapter 6), MT was expected
to lead to reduced levels of rumination and increased self-reflection.

Study 4: Health Coaching Evaluation

As the prevalence rates for serious medical conditions (e.g. coronary heart
disease, diabetes, cancer) increase across the globe, health professionals continue to

222

wrestle with the problem of how to encourage people to adopt positive health behaviours
(Armitage, 2005; Myers & Roth, 1997). A variety of different physical, psychological,
social and environmental factors appear to act as barriers to good health. According to
Myers and Roth (1997), these factors include psychological states such as laziness,
boredom, perceived lack of time and poor discipline. In recent times, however, health
coaching has been identified as a promising approach to achieving better health outcomes
(Palmer, Tubbs, & Whybrow, 2003). Defined in Chapter 2 as the practice of health
education and health promotion within a coaching context (Palmer et al., 2003, p. 92),
health coaching may prove to be a efficacious way of counteracting the apparent power
of the psychological states that undermine positive health behaviours.
Given these barriers to good health, it was decided that health coaching would be
an appropriate context for assessing the efficacy of an integrated MT/CB-SF framework
for coaching. Consistent with Studies 2 and 3, the current study draws on an adult
community sample and involves the random assignment of participants to experimental
groups. In addition, it utilises a placebo control group and a cross-over design, to allow
the delivery of MT and CB-SF coaching to be systematically varied (in order to
determine whether MT best supports self-regulation when it is delivered before or after
CB-SF coaching).

Method
Participants and Procedure
Participants responded to local media advertisements and registered their interest
via the internet or telephone. A series of information sessions were conducted in order to
provide registrants with a detailed description of the research and to determine suitability
223

for the study. A total of 57 adults attended these sessions. Upon giving their consent the
participants were asked to complete a packet of questionnaires, including a pre-activity
questionnaire.
Pre-Program Screening. The pre-activity questionnaire was used to screen
participants for any past or present medical conditions that might be exacerbated by
participation in a fitness program. These conditions were assessed in three categories.
Category 1 covered conditions such as hypertension, diabetes and heart problems;
Category 2 covered conditions such as asthma, high cholesterol and pregnancy; whilst
Category 3 covered back pain and musculoskeletal or joint injuries. Screening was to
ensure safety, not exclusion from the study. Medical clearances were required for any
participants reporting any incidence of a Category 1 condition, and for participants who
reported Category 2 or Category 3 conditions occurring within the preceding 12 months.
A total of ten participants reported Category 1 conditions and eight participants reported
recent Category 2 or Category 3 conditions. These participants (31% of the initial
sample) were contacted by telephone within 24 hours and advised of the need to obtain a
medical certificate from a general practitioner or specialist. A total of 12 participants
were subsequently excluded from the study based on their failure to provide a medical
certificate. This reduced the final sample to 45 participants.
After screening the participants were randomly assigned to one of three
conditions: Mindfulness Training-Coaching (MT-C), Coaching-Mindfulness Training (CMT), or General Health Education (GHE). Three participants decided not to continue
beyond the first week and were excluded from the analysis (N = 42). The characteristics
of the final sample are presented in Table 8.1.

224

Table 8.1.
Sex and Age of Participants in Study 4

Female/Male
Mean Age
(SD)

MT-C

C-MT

GHE

Total

(n=14)

(n=15)

(n=13)

(N=42)

11/3

10/5

7/6

28/14

35.5
(11.1)

36.2
(12.3)

36.2
(8.7)

36.0
(10.6)

No control group was used in this study. Rather, the use of a cross-over design
allowed each participant to serve as their own control. Data was collected across four
time points, with data collected at the information sessions constituting Time 1. The
control period spanned a 4 week interval that preceded the commencement of the
programs, with Time 2 data collected at the goal setting workshops (described below).
Additional data was collected at the conclusion of Week 4 (i.e. halfway through the
intervention; Time 3) and the conclusion of Week 8 (i.e. the end of the study; Time 4).

Goal Setting Workshops

To assist participants set health goals for this study, a series of pre-program
workshops were conducted. These workshops were important for two reasons. First, they
allowed participants to develop their own targets for the health coaching program.
Second, using GAS as a measurement tool requires each participant to construct a GAS
chart and to do this each participant needed to take part in a one-on-one interview.
GAS Preparation. Participants were primed for the GAS interviews in two ways.
First, in the week prior to the workshop, participants completed a short exercise that was
designed to stimulate thinking about possible health goals (see Appendix G). The
exercise included 3-sections:
225

(i)

Identifying What Needs Work;

(ii)

Identifying a Short List of Desired Outcomes;

(iii) Moving from Outcomes to Goals.

Participants were asked to bring the completed exercises to the workshop.
Second, to assist participants formulate sensible and appropriate health goals, the GAS
workshops commenced with a 30-minute health seminar facilitated by an experienced
sports dietician and exercise physiologist (both tertiary qualified). The purpose of the
seminar was to provide participants with important basic information about nutrition and
exercise management. These presentations were followed by 20 minutes of open
discussion to allow participants to check their understanding of important principles or
address areas of uncertainty.
GAS Interviews. After attending a health seminar participants took part in a 30
minute GAS interview facilitated by an interviewer with postgraduate qualifications in
Coaching Psychology. The purpose of these interviews was to develop a GAS chart for
each participant (for an example see Appendix G). Upon completion of these interviews,
each chart was checked for its specificity, measurability and consistency. Follow-up
telephone calls were made to ensure that each participants GAS chart conformed to these
basic standards.
Once data from the GAS charts had been assembled, the full data set was checked
to determine whether the groups were equivalent with respect to their current levels of
attainment. As expected, all the goals represented in the data set had current levels of
attainment below the 0-point of the GAS scale (i.e. -1 or -2 outcome levels). When
frequency counts were performed on these outcome levels for each group, similar
226

proportions were found at both the -1 and -2 levels (ranging between 33% and 37% for
the -1 level, and 63% and 67% for the -2 level). As such, the groups can be considered to
have started the program with equivalent baseline levels of goal attainment.

Health Coaching Programs

The programs commenced one week after the goal setting workshops. At the first
group meeting/coaching session each participant received a workbook containing the
following materials: (i) a personalised GAS chart; (ii) daily and weekly GAS monitoring
sheets; and (iii) a selection of health promotion materials that covered basic information
regarding exercise and nutrition (see Appendix G). After receiving their workbooks
participants were advised that they could begin working on their goals.

Mindfulness Training-Coaching Group

The MT-C group program was conducted in two phases. In the first phase (4weeks), participants undertook a MT short-course using specially designed training kits
(description to follow). In the second phase (4-weeks), participants were assigned a
health coach for a series of weekly one-on-one coaching sessions. This program was run
using a combination of face-to-face and telephone sessions.
MT Phase. In this phase, participants attended two group meetings (45-minutes)
and received two telephone calls from an instructor (5-10 minutes).These interactions
were alternated, such that each group meeting was followed a week later by a telephone
call. After introducing participants to the MT protocol and materials at the group meeting
in Week 1, the remaining sessions were designed to support participants through the MT

227

phase by giving them the opportunity to share their training experience and to engage in
discussion about the relevance and application of MT to health goals.
Coaching Phase. This involved two face-to-face sessions (45 minutes) and two
telephone sessions (45 minutes). Again, these sessions were alternated so that the face-toface sessions were followed by telephone sessions. The face-to-face sessions were held in
interview rooms at the University of Sydney and were facilitated by six tertiary qualified
coaches (all of whom had a Masters degree in Coaching Psychology). To further assist
coachees during this phase, sheets were included in the Participant Workbooks to allow
note taking during coaching sessions (see Appendix G).

Coaching-Mindfulness Training Group

In the C-MT group the delivery of MT and coaching was reversed, such that the
program began with one-on-one coaching and concluded with MT. All other aspects of
the program were identical to the MT-C group, including use of the same six coaches that
delivered coaching to the MT-C group

General Health Education Group (Placebo Control)

The GHE group program was designed to provide participants with basic
information on various aspects of exercise and nutrition. To ensure that the group
acted as a counterpoint to the coaching groups, the activities of this group were
limited to a series of short (45-minute) seminars. To prevent the group meetings
from becoming pseudo group-coaching sessions, the group leader (a highly
experienced sports dietician) was asked to ensure that these seminars be content
rich and delivered with an instructive (rather than a facilitative/coaching) style.
228

Participants attended four such seminars (one per fortnight) which were held in the
training room of a local sports centre. In the week between each seminar, the group
leader contacted each participant by telephone to check on progress and address any
questions or concerns. These calls lasted between 5-10 minutes.

Mindfulness Training Kits

The MT component of the two coaching programs was manualised and presented
to participants in a training kit containing the following materials:
Digital Audio Files. The MT exercises were replications of the attention training
(AT) and mindfulness meditation (MM) programs reported in Study 3. These exercises
were selected for two primary reasons: (i) their demonstrated ability to enhance mental
health and goal-directed self-regulation, and (ii) their amenability to standardisation. As
explained below, it was possible to convert the AT and MM exercises into audio files that
could be used by all the MT participants. It should be noted that whilst the mindful
creativity (MC) approach was also shown to produce beneficial effects in Study 3, it was
not considered for the MT program because it was felt that further attempts to standardise
this approach would stifle real creativity by imposing too much structure on participants.
To make these exercises as manageable as possible, participants were provided
with an MPEG Audio Layer 3 (MP3) player containing six digital audio files (three AT
exercises and three MM exercises). The AT exercises were as previously described.
However, to provide participants with guidance for each of the three 5-minute
soundscapes, instructions for each exercise were digitally recorded and overlaid onto
each soundscape using digital audio editing software (GoldWave Version 5.10). This

229

simplified the AT procedure considerably as it eliminated the need for participants to

create their own soundscapes (a requirement that participants in Study 3 reported as time
consuming and arduous).
To ensure comparability of the interventions, the MM exercises were similarly
presented. That is, guided meditations were provided as audio files on the MP3 player
from digital recordings made by the Buddhist teacher used in Study 3 (Venerable
Tedjadhammo). Three 15-minute meditations were recorded; a breath meditation, a
negative-thoughts meditation and an emotions meditation.
MT Manual. A training manual was developed to help standardise the program.
This included a rationale for MT, some general instructions (relating to the practice
exercises and the collection of data), a weekly training schedule and practice completion
logs. The training schedule specified the amount of practice that participants were to
complete each day. To help participants develop a regular pattern of practice, participants
were asked to complete only the AT exercises (15 minutes) in Week 1. For the remaining
three weeks participants were asked to increase their daily practice to 30 minutes by
adding one of the meditation exercises (15 minutes). Rotation of the meditation exercises
was specified in the training schedule.
In addition to the MP3 player and the MT manual, the training kits also included a
set of earphones, an MP3 operating manual, a spare AAA battery and a pencil (for
completing the practice log). To give the kit portability, these materials were packaged in
a compact vinyl case (see Appendix H for sample materials). By making the MT kits
portable, it was hoped that MT would be easily incorporated into regular daily activities.

230

That is, participants would be free to carry the kits to and from work, away on business
trips or into any quiet space suitable for MT (such as a public library or bedroom).

Measures
Goal Attainment
GAS charts were used to obtained data on goal attainment. To ensure that this
data was collected in a continuous (rather than retrospective) fashion, participants
received a workbook containing a personalised GAS chart and eight weekly GAS data
sheets. Participants were asked monitor and record their progress on a daily basis.

Mindfulness, Mental Health and Well-Being

The measures used for these variables were the same as used in Study 2 and Study
3. Cronbach alphas for this sample were 0.84 (mindfulness), 0.89 (depression), 0.82
(anxiety), 0.79 (stress), 0.90 (satisfaction with life), 0.82 (environmental mastery), and
0.80 (self-acceptance).

Metacognition
Two aspects of private self-consciousness were measured using the RuminationReflection Questionnaire (RRQ) (Trapnell & Campbell, 1999), a 24-item self-report
measure scored rated on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree). Items
from the rumination sub-scale include Often Im playing back over in my mind how I
acted in past situations and It is easy to put unwanted thoughts out of my mind. Items
from the reflection sub-scale include I love exploring my inner self and Im not really
a meditative type of person. The instrument has good test-retest reliability (interclass

231

correlation = 0.81) and internal consistency ranging from 0.80 to 0.87 (Brown & Ryan,
2003). In this sample, Cronbach alphas were 0.93 for both subscales.
See Appendix B for a copy of these measures.

Results
A manipulation check was conducted to determine whether the groups were
equivalent with regard to their understanding of the program rationale and expectancy of
benefit. After the first group meeting, at which the programs were outlined in detail,
participants were asked to rate how much they: (i) understood the rationale for their
program, and (ii) expected it would benefit them. A 100-point scale was used (0 = not at
all, 100 = very much). The results reflected a satisfactory understanding of the rationale
for the intervention, along with a reasonable expectation that the programs would be
beneficial. The mean ratings for all groups were >75.

Completion of Mindfulness Training Exercises

Data collected from the MT kits showed that the MT homework completion rates
for the MT-C group were significantly greater than for the C-MT group (t(26) = 2.67, p
<.02) (see Figure 8.1). The result was not surprising, however, as MT was the first part of
their health coaching program. It is likely that participants in this group were more highly
motivated to complete the MT exercises, simply because MT occurred in the early stages
of the study. In contrast, C-MT group did not commence MT until halfway through the
study (i.e. Week 5) and as the end of the study approached may have become fatigued
and less motivated to complete the MT exercises.

232

80

% Completion

70

60

50

40

30
Wk1

Wk2

Wk3

Wk4

Time

MT-C AT

MT-C MM

C-MT AT

C-MT MM

Figure 8.1. Mindfulness training homework completion rates

Goal Attainment
To examine the differential effects of health coaching on goal attainment, GAS
outcome data was collated according to each participants post-coaching level of
attainment. As frequency data was to be used to test this hypothesis, it was necessary to
analyse the data using non-parametric tests. In this case the chi-square () test of
independence was the appropriate analysis, as this test compares two or more patterns of
frequencies to see whether they are different from each other (i.e. independent or not).
From a maximum total of 126 possible goals (i.e. 42 participants x 3 goals), GAS
data was collected for 117 goals. Of the nine goals for which data was not available, one
goal was excluded because attainment data could not be accurately deciphered, three
goals related to the non-return of a GAS chart, and five goals were simply not established
(such that five participants had only two goals). The remaining 117 goals were distributed
across the groups as follows; MT-C = 42 goals, C-MT = 39 goals, and GHE = 36 goals.

233

Tables 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4 display frequency counts for all participants by group and by level
of goal attainment.
Table 8.2.
Frequency of Goal Attainment Across GAS Outcome Levels
GAS Outcome Levels
Groups

-2

-1

+1

+2

MT-C

23

10

C-MT

10

17

GHE

13

13

Total

27

53

23

According to the first null hypothesis, if the effect of the health coaching
programs was the same there would be no difference between the groups in their pattern
of attainment. That is, the groups would be expected to show the same proportions in
each cell (i.e. +2, +1, etc). To test the null hypothesis, it is necessary to calculate a
statistic:

(O E)
E

where O = the observed frequency for each cell and E = the expected frequency for each
cell. With values for O already noted, it is only necessary to calculate values for E:

E=

Row total x column total

overall total

234

235

0
0
0
0

MT-C

C-MT

GHE

Total

Remained the
same
3
7
10
20

Groups

MT-C

C-MT

GHE

Total

Goal Attainment by Levels of Progression

Table 8.4

Regressed from
baseline

Groups

43

14

12

17

Moved up
one level

20

10

Remained at
baseline

31

12

13

Moved up
two levels

Attainment frequencies

15

Advanced but did

not attain goal

18

Moved up
three levels

53

13

17

23

Attained goal

Goal frequencies in relation to baseline level

Extent of Goal Attainment in Relation to Baseline Level

Table 8.3

Moved up
four levels

29

10

13

Exceeded goal

However, for the use of the distribution to be valid, it is generally agreed that
expected frequencies (i.e. the value of E) should be 5 or larger (Howell, 1997). As shown
in Table 8.2, very small frequencies were observed at the scales extremities (i.e. -2 and
+2), resulting in E values of less than 5. To overcome this difficulty the cells were
rearranged into the two categories of primary interest: Below Goal, which combined the
frequencies for the -2 and -1 cells; and At or Above Goal, which combined the
frequencies for the 0, +1 and +2 cells. The test of independence was then conducted
using the cell arrangement shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5
Frequency of Goal Attainment Relative to Goal
Groups

Below Goal

At or
Above Goal

MT-C

36

C-MT

12

27

GHE

17

19

Total

35

82

Based on the cell counts shown in Table 8.5, the goal attainment patterns for these
groups were significantly different ( (2) = 10.1, p < .01), suggesting that the health
coaching programs were not equally effective in facilitating goal attainment. A series of
planned comparisons were then conducted, in order to determine how these patterns of
attainment differed between the groups. To test the hypothesis that the delivery of MT
prior to CB-SF coaching is more effective than the reverse sequence, the patterns of goal
attainment were compared for the two coaching conditions. Although no significant

236

difference was found (p =.09), the indication of a trend towards higher levels of
attainment in the MT-C group does provide some support for the hypothesis. Additional
evidence in support of this delivery configuration can be found in the comparisons with
the control group. That is, whilst the MT-C group significantly differed from the control
group on goal attainment ( (1) = 10.1, p < .005), surprisingly the C-MT group did not
( (1) = 2.1). Thus, the integrated health coaching intervention only resulted in
significantly greater goal attainment (compared to the control group), when the delivery
of MT preceded, rather than followed, CB-SF coaching.

Phase I and Phase II Analyses

To better understand the impact of MT and CB-SF coaching on goal attainment,
the GAS data for the two coaching groups was split into Phase I (weeks 1 to 4) and Phase
II (weeks 5 to 8) data. This permitted a more fine grained analysis of coaching outcomes,
as it allowed the effects of MT to be compared to CB-SF coaching at both the cross-over
point in the intervention (i.e. week 4), and the conclusion of the study (i.e. week 8). In
addition, by using the control group data, it is possible to determine what impact GAS
had on program outcomes. These frequency counts are displayed in Tables 8.6 and 8.7.
Chi-square tests of independence found that goal attainment patterns for the
groups significantly differed at the end of Phase I ( (2) = 7.4, p <.05). Interestingly,
despite receiving one-on-one assistance during this phase, the C-MT group made less
progress than participants who engaged in MT first (i.e. the MT-C group). During this
phase MT also appears to have provided an incremental benefit over and above GAS.
This can be seen in the significantly different Phase I attainment patterns between the

237

MT-C group and the GHE group ( (1) = 7.4, p <.01). No difference was found between
the C-MT group and controls. It should also be noted that, although goal attainment was
lower in the GHE group than either of the coaching groups, 58% of the goals in that
group were attained at or above desired outcomes levels. This suggests that GAS may
indeed have some utility as a facilitator of goal attainment.
Table 8.6.
Goal Attainment Frequencies at End of Phase I
Below Goal

At or
Above Goal

MT-C (MT)

36

C-MT (CB-SF)

12

27

GHE

15

21

Total

33

84

Groups

The Phase II analysis revealed a similar pattern of differences (see Table 8.7).
Given the continued high levels of attainment in the MT-C group, the introduction of
coaching appears to have been helpful in maintaining initial levels of attainment. For the
C-MT group, however, the introduction of MT appeared to have had a positive effect on
attainment. Goal attainment did not differ between the two coaching conditions during
that phase ( (1) = 1.8). In contrast, the GHE groups showed a slight decline in
attainment, although the overall pattern of attainment in this group was still positive (with
over 50% of goals at the At or Above outcome level).

238

Table 8.7.
Goal Attainment Frequencies at End of Phase II
Below Goal

At or
Above Goal

MT-C (CB-SF)

37

C-MT (MT)

30

GHE

17

19

Total

31

86

Groups

In sum, these results appear to be consistent with the findings reported in Study 3,
which indicated that goal attainment can be enhanced by structured training in
mindfulness skills. Most surprising was the observation that (during Phase I) participants
who completed MT attained their goals at levels that were more than comparable to those
who received one-on-one CB-SF coaching. As indicated in the Phase II data, these
participants then appeared to derive more value from CB-SF coaching than their
counterparts. Whilst the use of GAS appears to have played some part in the facilitation
of goal attainment for the GHE group, the addition of other intervention ingredients
(particularly MT) seem to provide a more potent intervention package.

Other Study Variables

The means and standard deviations for the mindfulness, mental health,
metacognitive and wellbeing variables are shown in Table 8.8. To assist interpretation,
effect sizes (Cohens d) are reported for the difference between pre-post intervention
means. Values of d equalling .20, .50 and .80 were taken to represent small, medium and
large effect sizes respectively (Cohen, 1992). In general, the delivery of MT appears to
239

have had more impact on these variables when delivered before, rather than after, CB-SF
coaching. Participation in the GHE group appears to have had minimal impact.
The analysis of pre-post MAAS scores revealed a significant main effect for time
(F(2, 38) = 5.42, p <.01) but not for group. No interaction effect was found. Although the
MT-C group did report a statistically significant pre-post increase in MAAS scores (p
<.005), these scores were not significantly higher than the C-MT or GHE groups. Whilst
these groups also reported increased levels of mindfulness, pre-post differences were not
statistically significant.
Consistent with findings reported in Study 3, participants who received MT in the
first half of their intervention (i.e. the MT-C group) reported significant pre-post
decreases in anxiety (p <.05) and stress (p <.001). Whilst decreases in depression were
also reported by this group, this difference was not significant (p = .10). Interestingly,
when delivered during the second half of the intervention, MT appears to have had less of
an impact on mental health, with the C-MT group reporting a significant pre-post
difference for stress only (p <.05). Participants in the GHE group did not report any
significant changes in mental health. Interestingly, there was minimal metacognitive
change reported in both coaching conditions. Despite, reporting general improvements in
mental health, participants in the MT-C group were only slightly less ruminative and no
more reflective. Whilst a similar pattern was reported by participants in the C-MT group,
the decrease in rumination did approach significance for this group (p <.08). The lack of
improvement in these variables may be related to the brevity of the MT period, with four
weeks an insufficient timeframe for producing enough metacognitive change to induce a
robust change in the way one approaches events.

240

241

61.9
(8.6)
3.8
(2.5)
2.6
(2.5)
6.6
(3.7)
41.6
(9.8)
45.7
(9.6)
24.4
(7.1)
36.7
(5.8)
43.4
(7.1)

58.6
(11.3)
6.1
(4.9)
4.5
(3.2)
10.1
(3.9)
42.5
(7.7)
45.4
(7.4)
22.9
(6.9)
36.4
(5.7)
41.3
(5.3)

Mindfulness

Depression

Anxiety

Stress

Rumination

Reflection

Satisfaction with Life

Environmental Mastery

Self-Acceptance

43.9
(7.4)

38.6
(7.6)

23.7
(6.7)

45.1
(9.2)

41.3
(9.8)

5.9
(3.1)

2.6
(2.1)

3.9
(3.4)

65.2
(8.2)

T3

Post

.18

.17

.56

.83

.59

<.001

<.05

.10

<.005

0.40

0.33

0.12

0.04

0.14

1.19

0.70

0.51

0.67

2.9
(3.2)
7.2
(5.4)
39.6
(9.5)

2.7
(2.2)
8.2
(4.8)
40.1
(11.2)

27.4
(6.8)
41.8
(7.9)
43.6
(6.7)

25.0
(8.4)
41.1
(9.5)
43.3
(8.3)

38.9
(8.0)

3.0
(3.6)

39.0
(9.1)

T3

Post

44.4
(7.0)

42.0
(7.7)

27.1
(7.2)

39.4
(8.6)

37.7
(10.4)

5.8
(3.8)

2.5
(2.8)

3.0
(3.1)

61.2
62.6
(11.2) (12.8)

T2

3.1
(3.4)

59.5
(9.0)

T1

Pre

Note: All pre-post (T1-T3) tests of significance were conducted using paired t-tests. All p-values are 2-tailed.

T2

T1

Measure

Pre

C-MT
(n = 15)

MT-C
(n = 14)

.44

.40

.07

.72

.08

<.05

.72

.91

.27

0.14

0.10

0.26

0.05

0.22

0.55

0.08

0.03

0.28

Means and Standard Deviations for Mindfulness, Mental Health, Metacognition and Wellbeing Variables

Table 8.8

40.5
(7.5)

39.2
(6.2)

23.1
(5.7)

39.3
(8.0)

38.1
(9.6)

7.7
(2.5)

2.9
(2.6)

5.1
(4.3)

58.1
(9.5)

T1

Pre

39.9
(7.3)

40.4
(6.2)

23.2
(4.7)

40.5
(6.2)

39.2
(9.0)

6.8
(3.4)

2.4
(2.7)

4.5
(3.8)

62.3
(8.6)

T2

GHE

40.0
(9.8)

40.4
(7.2)

24.9
(5.2)

41.9
(5.5)

37.5
(9.0)

7.5
(4.0)

2.4
(3.4)

3.5
(5.1)

62.5
(9.8)

T3

Post

(n = 13)

.69

.34

.08

<.05

.72

.79

.43

.17

.13

0.06

0.18

0.33

0.38

0.06

0.06

0.16

0.33

0.44

Finally, although pre-post increases were noted for almost all the wellbeing
variables, the groups did not significantly differ on any of these variables. Within the
groups themselves, differences in satisfaction with life approached significance for both
the C-MT (p <.07) and GHE (p <.08), whilst the MT-C group reported modest increases
in self-acceptance during the MT phase of their program (p =.18), and in environmental
mastery during the coaching phase (p =.17).

Supplementary Analyses
In order to supplement the main findings of this study, additional analyses were
conducted in order to determine: (i) the perceived value of the GAS charts, and (ii) the
degree to which access to a training kit increased compliance with the MT regimen.

GAS Charts
As this was the first time that GAS has been used in coaching research, it was
decided that an assessment of participants perceptions of their GAS charts would help to
inform the use of the methodology in future research. As such, a short questionnaire was
designed and included in the Time 3 measures (i.e. the midpoint in the study). Using a 5point rating scale (1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly agree), participants were asked to
respond to the following questions:

1) Having a goal chart has been useful for me;

2) I find that I carry the goal chart around in my head;
3) Monitoring my goals like this isnt the way I usually do things;
4) I seem to be planning my daily activities better these days;

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5) I tend to focus on the Expected Outcome level more than any other;
6) I would prefer it if the goal chart didnt show other levels of attainment

(e.g. Best expected, Worst expected);

7) The goal chart has helped me to stay motivated.

As can be seen in Figure 8.2, the presence of a GAS chart was generally
perceived to be a useful addition to the program (Q1), with participants indicating that the
charts helped to maintain a high level of awareness about their health goals (Q2). In
addition, although participants reported that explicitly monitoring goal progression was
not something that the usually did (Q3), there was general agreement that the planning of
daily activities had improved (Q4).
Questions 5 and 6 were included to assess the degree to which participants
focused on the Expected Outcome level of the chart (i.e. the goal), as opposed to the four
alternative outcome levels. This was of interest because the multiple levels of a GAS
chart may potentially be demotivating if individuals become more concerned with overperformance or under-performance, rather than the expected (and realistic) level of
attainment (i.e. the 0-point). According to the data, however, participants appeared to
focus most of their attention on the Expected Outcome level (Q5), whilst also indicating
that the display of alternative levels attainment was not unduly bothersome (Q6). Given
that participants also reported that the charts helped with motivation (Q7), it is reasonable
to conclude that GAS charts have several properties likely to support goal-directed selfregulation.

243

5.0

4.0

Rating

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
Q1

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5

Q6

Q7

Item s

Figure 8.2. Participant perceptions of GAS charts

MT Homework Completion Rates

Finally, the homework completion rates reported in this study were compared to
those reported in Study 3. To do this, the homework completion data was examined for
both studies and a MT completion rate calculated based on the actual number of exercises
completed divided by the maximum number of exercises possible. As the MT kits used in
this study were a blend of the AT and MM exercises from Study 3, only data from these
groups was considered for this analysis. Results are displayed in Table 8.9.
Table 8.9.
Comparison of MT Completion Rates in Study 3 and Study 4
Groups

Wk1

Wk2

Wk3

Wk4

Wk5

Wk6

AT

49%

48%

48%

44%

41%

35%

MM

66%

71%

69%

67%

64%

68%

74%

66%

73%

69%
70%

56%

Wk7

Wk8

45%

45%

Study 3

Study 4
MT-C
C-MT
AT = Attention Training, MM = Mindfulness Meditation

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The use of a MT kit in this study appears to have been effective in improving
adherence to the MT regimen. Between Week 1 and Week 4 participants in the MT-C
group were found to complete more training exercises than both the AT and MM group
(with the exception of the MM group in Week 2). Although the C-MT group did not
replicate this level of completion between Week 5 and Week 8, meaningful comparisons
between the groups is difficult as only a further two weeks of data (Week 5 and Week 6)
are available from Study 3. Nonetheless, participants in the C-MT group were found to
have outperformed the AT group during this time, as well as the MM group in Week 5
(but not Week 6). Based on this comparison, it appears that the completion of MT
exercises can be enhanced by making the materials more easily accessible.

Discussion
This study set out to test a general hypothesis, that goal-directed self-regulation
would be enhanced by the integration of MT and CB-SF coaching; and a more specific
hypothesis, that goal attainment would be greatest when MT was delivered prior to
(rather than after) CB-SF coaching.
Overall, the results provided some support for these hypotheses. In relation to the
general hypothesis, the integration of MT and CB-SF coaching was found to result in
greater levels of goal attainment compared to the non-coaching GHE group. However,
differences in the patterns of attainment were only found to be significant for the group
receiving MT first (i.e. the MT-C group). Interestingly, whilst goal attainment was
greater in the C-MT group compared to the controls, these differences were not
statistically significant. Whilst this suggests that the MT-C sequence was more effective

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in facilitating the attainment of health goals than the C-MT group, this can only be
tentatively claimed as the differences in attainment did not prove to be statistically
significant.
Nonetheless, results derived from the Phase I and Phase II analyses further
suggest that the MT-C sequence was the more effective formulation for supporting goaldirected effort. Interestingly, data from the Phase I analysis revealed that goal attainment
was greater in the group receiving MT than for the group engaged in CB-SF coaching
group. This is surprising because goal attainment was the specific focus of the one-onone CB-SF coaching phase. However, as expected levels of attainment (i.e. the 0-point on
the GAS scale) were exceeded for almost 70% of the goals in this group during Phase I,
there seems little need for an explanation of this groups poor performance (as they
performed well). Rather, the more interesting explanation relates to possible reasons why
the MT group excelled during this period.
Given that this MT result is consistent with the findings reported in Study 3, it
seems likely that both sets of results can be explained by reference to similar
mechanisms. Indeed, given that the MT-C group reported significant increases in
mindfulness, and significant decreases in anxiety and stress, the performance of this
group can be explained by reference to at least two mechanisms; (i) the liberation of
attentional resources, and (ii) the disruption of habitual thought-action sequences.
First, the presence of AT in the MT kits are likely to have helped participants to
gain greater control over their attention. Given that AT is specifically designed to reduce
excessive self-focused attention (Wells & Matthews, 1994), completion of the AT
exercises is likely to have helped individuals redirect more of their limited attentional

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resources away from self-relevant stimuli (e.g. worry), and towards stimuli that enhance
self-regulation (e.g. presence of social support). The observation of elevated MT
completion rates in this study (compared to Study 3) adds further weight to this
explanation, as greater practice should translate to increased attentional control. Second,
as MM was the other element of the MT program, it is possible that participants in this
group quickly became more adept at disrupting habitual (mindless) thought-action
sequences (such as eating chocolate or drinking alcohol when stressed) through the use of
non-judgemental observation. If so, these disruptions may have been accompanied by the
substitution of behavioural alternatives that supported the attainment of health goals (e.g.
going for a walk).
Whilst these mechanisms provide a plausible explanation for some of the
observed effects, the absence of any significant change in metacognitive or wellbeing
variables suggests these effects may have been relatively short lived. However, due to the
absence of any follow-up data, this cannot be determined.

Other Notable Findings

This study also reported findings on two innovations that were designed to
enhance the health coaching process. The first related to the delivery of MT and, more
specifically, addressed the issue of the MT exercise completion rates. In order to increase
the amount of MT attempted by participants, a portable MT kit was developed and
implemented. As mentioned, the MT completion rates were higher for participants in this
study than for participants in Study 3 and, as such, there is some evidence to support the
use of such kits in future research.

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The second innovation related to the use of GAS. As this study was the first to
employ GAS within a coaching context, it was decided to assess the motivational
properties of GAS charts (the tangible outcomes from GAS interviews). According to the
participants perceptions, GAS charts appear to possess several properties that may
support goal-directed self-regulation. These include a heightened awareness of personal
goals, better planning of daily activities, and more explicit monitoring of goal
progression. In addition, results from the GAS Phase I and Phase II analyses suggest that
GAS may be an active contributor to the facilitation of goal attainment. Whilst over 50%
of the goals recorded by the GHE group were ultimately attained at or above desired
outcome levels, it is not possible to say how beneficial GAS was to these participants,
due to the absence of an inactive control group.

Limitations
There are a number of limitations that need to be considered when interpreting the
results of this study. First, the small sample size used in this study would have been
accompanied by a loss of statistical power. As this increases the probability of a Type II
error (Howell, 1997), it may be that the interventions were effective in generating certain
hypothesised outcomes (e.g. changes in metacognition) but could not be detected because
of the lack of power. It is therefore recommended that future studies use larger sample
sizes. However, given the labour intensive and time consuming nature of the research
design used in this study, this may prove to be difficult.
Second, the MT period used in this study (4 weeks) may have been insufficient
for generating the hypothesised changes in metacognition and wellbeing. Whilst results

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from the Phase I analysis revealed significant changes in mindfulness and mental health
variables (for the MT/CB-SF coaching group), these effects were not accompanied by
changes in variables such rumination or self-acceptance. This suggests that a brief MT
intervention might be quite effective for impacting a variety of psychological states, but
have little overall impact on variables with trait-like qualities.
Finally, one of the primary reasons that GAS was used in this study was to make
the measurement of goal attainment more objective. However, due to time constraints and
resource limitations, it was not possible to agree and gather attainment data during an
exit interview with each participant (as was intended). Rather, the validation of each
participants attainment data was limited to telephone interviews. Whilst helpful for
correcting some inaccuracies and omissions in the data set, this means of validation
seriously restricted the extent to which participants and the researcher could explore the
data (as collected in monitoring logs, diaries, calendars, wall charts, etc). As such, the
attainment data cannot be considered immune from distortion and bias, although the
influence of these factors is likely to be less apparent than data reported in previous
coaching studies.

Conclusion
The results presented in this chapter suggest that the integration of MT and CBSF coaching is an effective way of facilitating change in health behaviours. Specifically,
the results indicated that MT may be better employed as a means of preparing people for
change, rather than as a self-management tool that helps people to sustain change.
However, given that this study was the first to integrate MT and CB-SF coaching into a

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practice framework for coaching, more research is needed to validate the approach. In the
final chapter, consideration will be given to the implications of these findings, along with
a series of recommendations for the benefit of future researchers.

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Chapter Nine
General Summary and Conclusions
Introduction
This dissertation has outlined a diverse body of work designed to advance the
emerging field of coaching psychology and promote a greater level of professionalism in
coaching practice. The material was presented in two parts.
In the first part, it was argued that the longevity of the coaching industry would
ultimately depend upon on its ability to lay down a solid evidence-based foundation for
coaching practice. As seen in the events surrounding the decline of the human potential
movement (HPM), it appears that the absence of theoretically-based rationales and solid
research support may be a reliable predictor of decline for particular treatment modalities
(Weigel, 2002). Given that the coaching industry had not firmly established those
foundations, initial efforts concentrated on defining the notion of evidence-based
coaching practice (EBCP) and establishing a profile of the Australian coaching industry.
In the second part, discussion was focused on goal-directed self-regulation and,
more specifically, the degree to which cognitive-behavioural solution-focused (CB-SF)
coaching techniques and mindfulness training (MT) positively impact goal attainment,
mental health and wellbeing. In general, the research has further validated the use of CBSF coaching and also shown that the development of mindfulness skills can enhance goal
attainment. This led to the first attempt to integrate MT and CB-SF coaching, and
culminated in an exploratory study of its efficacy as a practice framework for coaching.

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The foci of this dissertation have been purposively broad and exploratory.
Although the coaching field has attracted increasing interest from psychologists over the
past decade, this interest has yet to translate into a substantial scholarly literature. As
such, little was known about: (i) the industry surrounding the practice of coaching; (ii)
the efficacy of coaching practices; or (iii) the impact of coaching on a range of cognitive,
affective and behavioural variables. That these areas are underdeveloped is attested by
the number of firsts associated with the studies presented in this dissertation.
Chapter 3 reported data from the first survey of the coaching industry to assess the
diversity of coaching experience, formal education and training, occupational
background, ethical practices and professional affiliations of coaches practicing in the
Australian context. The results revealed the existence of a highly diverse industry, with
the majority of practitioners possessing minimal experience and few formal
qualifications. Chapter 4 represents the first controlled trail of alternative life coaching
formulations. More specifically, it was the first study to compare CB-SF life coaching
(i.e. professional coaching) with a less informed, more commonsensical approach (i.e.
peer coaching). When compared to peer coaching participants and controls, professional
coaching was found to have resulted in significantly greater goal attainment, goal
commitment and environmental mastery.
Chapter 6 represents the first assessment of three alternative mindfulness training
(MT) programs; one drawn from the Eastern religious traditions and two from Western
psychology. In an empirical investigation of these programs, all were found to
significantly increase mindfulness and result in a variety of improvements in mental
health and wellbeing. Importantly, MT also appeared to enhance goal-directed self-

252

regulation. Finally, Chapter 8 represents the first attempt to validate an integrative

framework for coaching practice, one that combines MT with cognitive-behavioural
solution-focused (CB-SF) coaching. In an exploratory study, the delivery of MT prior to
CB-SF coaching was found yield greater improvements in goal attainment and mental
health, than when MT was delivered after CB-SF coaching. From this is tentatively
concluded that MT might enhance goal-directed self-regulation by better preparing
people for dealing with the disturbances that occur during goal striving.
The findings from these studies have provided valuable data that will help to
guide further theoretical and empirical development in the field. However, before
considering the implications of these findings and suggesting directions for future
research, some limitations and cautions applying to the interpretation of these studies
should be considered.

Limitations of this Dissertation

Considerable time and effort was taken in this dissertation to ensure that the
research was of the highest possible quality. For example, all of the intervention studies
were conducted as controlled trials; involved the random assignment of participants to
experimental conditions; and used adult community samples to ensure high ecological
validity. In addition, several attempts were made to counter certain methodological
weaknesses that emerged as the research unfolded over time. This is evidenced by the
discussion (in Chapter 7) and subsequent use of GAS (in Study 4) as a response to
measurement concerns; the development of the MT kits (in Study 4) to improve
standardisation; and the inclusion of a placebo control group (in Study 4).

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Arguably the most significant limitation of this dissertation is its reliance on selfreport measures, particularly with respect to the measurement of mindfulness. Whilst
self-report inventories are used to assess a full range of psychological constructs and
phenomena, their use in measuring this highly specific mode of consciousness seem
somewhat problematic. Rather than being asked to report on the presence and intensity of
particular cognitions or affective states, mindfulness measures challenge individuals to
report on their general states of awareness and use of attention. Irrespective of whether
people can accurately reflect these states, Langer (1994) points out that experimental
contexts tend to elicit greater levels of mindfulness than might normally be present.
Whilst measurement options are currently somewhat limited, there are some more
objective measures that may help to confirm the validity of self-reports. For example, the
Test of Everyday Attention (TEA) (Robertson, Ward, Ridgeway, & Nimmo-Smith, 1994)
has several subscales that appear to tap some relevant dimensions of the construct; such
as attentional switching (Test 4: Visual Elevator) and sustained attention (Test 3:
Elevator Counting). An attractive feature of the TEA is that it uses everyday materials as
test stimuli (e.g. a map, a telephone directory), materials that appear to effectively engage
participants. Other behavioural measures that might help to indicate the presence of
mindfulness are cold stressor tests (e.g. submerging an arm in ice cold water) and tests
that involve unsolvable tasks (such as anagrams and puzzles). That is, high levels of
mindfulness are likely to lead to a greater capacity to endue a cold stressor, or result in
less emotionality when confronted by an unsolvable task.
It is also worth noting that although developments in neuroscience have seen
recent advances in the measurement and understanding of brain states (Davidson et al.,

254

2003), it is likely to be some time before apparatus such as functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) become sufficiently well validated to justify their widespread use
(Brown, 2005). Irrespective of which measures are used, the establishment of causal links
between mindfulness and observable phenomena will continue to be a challenge of some
magnitude.
It should also be noted that these studies possessed some other features that do not
necessary necessarily conform to the best practice conventions of social psychological
research. For example, the interventions were relatively lengthy and complex; the use of
community samples provided little chance to control for the effects of extraneous
variables; and the sample sizes were moderate at best. However, the reader is reminded
that an early decision was taken to trade-off rigour for ecological validity. Whilst this
may have resulted in some loss of precision, it has permitted some observations that may
not otherwise have been possible. As such, there are a number of implications and
recommendations that flow from the research has been presented in this dissertation.

Implications for Researchers

Mental and Physical Health Screening
As discussed throughout this dissertation, it is strongly recommended that
researchers screen participants for the presence of significant mental and physical health
conditions prior to their involvement in coaching trials. This recommendation is based
upon data from two life coaching studies indicating the presence of clinically significant
levels of psychopathology amongst research participants (Green et al., 2006; Spence &
Grant, in press), and data from Study 4 indicating the presence of a significant physical or

255

mental health issue(s) in 31% of the initial sample. As such, the use of appropriate
screening tools, such as the Brief Symptoms Inventory (Derogatis, 1993), appear to be
especially prudent. However, researchers are strongly advised to ensure that the use of
such tools is accompanied by clearly defined exclusion thresholds and the development
of simple referral processes; in order to ensure that any referrals are handled with care
and sensitivity.

Measures
The results obtained from the three intervention studies presented in this
dissertation have indicated that future research involving brief goal-focused coaching
programs may struggle to detect changes on variables of interest. This is because whilst
some measures (e.g. the MAAS) are sensitive to change, others are not (e.g. Ryffs
(1989) Scales of Psychological Wellbeing). As such, researchers as recommended to
think seriously about the use of state and trait measures in coaching research.

Research Design
The appeal of EBCP rests on the premise that client outcomes can be optimised
when research evidence is translated into coaching practice (Grant & Stober, 2006).
However, it should be noted that not all evidence is inherently good just because it
emanates from research. As Wampold and Bhati (2004) point out, the quality of
empirical research can vary greatly in quality. In medical and clinical psychological
intervention studies, the double-blind, randomised controlled trial (RCT) is generally
considered to be the most reliable source of evidence (Wampold & Bhati, 2004).

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However, in a comprehensive review of evidence-based practice and its relevance to

coaching, Grant and Stober (2006) argue that the nature of coaching may not suit the use
of gold standard RCT research designs. The RCT is well suited to situations where the
intervention can be consistently and reliably administered without deviation, and where it
is targeted at a single issue uncomplicated by other issues (Cavanagh & Grant, 2006).
Coaching does not often fit these conditions. The conduct of coaching trails
present significant challenges, not least of which are the difficulties associated with
standardising coaching programs and controlling for the influence of extraneous variables
(e.g. social support) that may have an impact on coaching outcomes. These issues were
complicated in this dissertation by the decision to have research designs reflect the
realities of real world coaching. This has meant using situated adult community samples,
coaching over extended timeframes, and not limiting samples via control measures and
inclusion criteria designed to isolate single dimensions only. By allowing sources of
variance typically excluded from classical RC trails, such research has higher practical
and ecological validity at the expense of clear interpretability. An ongoing challenge for
coaching researchers will be ensuring that, in the quest for greater scientific rigour, the
field does not become overly sanitised and yield little of practical value.

Other Observations
It may interest the reader to know that early in this research program an attempt
was made to conduct a coaching trial within a large Australian organisation. Due to a
variety of factors (e.g. leadership rotation, budgetary constraints) however, these plans
had to be abandoned. This revealed a lot about the difficulty of conducting scientific

257

work within private organisations and, as a consequence of the experience, it was decided
that community samples would provide the most viable alternative for the planned
research agenda. Although significant investments of time and energy are required when
community samples are used in intervention studies, they can be recommended as
community participants seem to provide a degree of stability that cannot always be
assured in organisational settings.

Future Directions in Coaching Research

Explorations of Mental Health Issues in Coaching
In Chapters 3 and 4 evidence was reviewed that suggested coaches are likely (at
some time) to encounter clients with significant mental health issues. Thus, this
dissertation has raised at least three important questions that are worth the consideration
of future researchers.
First, when a mental health issue arises in coaching, how does it emerge? While
mental health issues may be indicated by a range of obvious signs of distress or
disorientation (e.g. crying), experience suggests that clients with mental health issues
tend to present at coaching in ways that may mask the presence of mental health issues,
or at least make them more difficult to detect. For example, the socially anxious client
may present with goals around enhancing presentation skills rather than a frank
admission of debilitating anxiety in social settings. Seriously depressed clients may
present seeking assistance with time management, procrastination, career change, or even
attaining unrealistic stretch goals. While some research does exist linking the type of
personal goals adopted by individuals to the development of negative affect and

258

vulnerability to depression (Emmons, 1992; Street, 2002), there is no research to date

investigating the relationship between goals and mental health in coaching clients. As
personal goals are the usual starting point in any coaching relationship, one avenue for
future research would be to study the presenting issues of coaching clients (expressed as
personal goals) and correlate these with well established measures of psychopathology.
Second, how do coaches define mental health issues? Do they recognise mental
health issues when they arise? Approximately 10% of coaches in Study 1 reported that
self-esteem, negative life events, social isolation and distress were all issues that they
commonly encountered in coaching. Such issues may reflect deeper psychological
distress and, hence, may indicate the presence of mental health concerns. The current
research does not indicate whether respondents make any substantial distinction between
issues such as improve my career prospects and improve my self-esteem, or whether
they are likely to investigate for potential mental health difficulties. Thus, another avenue
for research could be assessing coaches perceptions of what are appropriate issues for
coaching, and determining how adept coaches are at recognizing the presence of
underlying psychological issues and implementing appropriate referral procedures.
Third; what mental health training does the industry provide? Having identified
mental health issues as an area of importance to practicing coaches, it would be useful to
examine what level of mental health training is currently provided within the industry. As
such, a content analysis of the various curriculum offered by coach training providers
would be helpful for both identifying whether a training need exists in the preparation of
Australian coaches and for making recommendations about appropriate syllabus.

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Goal Research: Goal Attainment Scaling and Causality Orientations

An obvious avenue for future research would be the continuation of research
initiated in this dissertation concerning the utility of goal attainment scaling (GAS) within
coaching contexts. Such research could tackle several issues not addressed here. For
example, research could further examine the motivational properties of GAS and its
ability to act as a facilitator of goal attainment. As Schlosser (2004) has pointed out,
whilst there are conceptual reasons for believing that GAS might stimulate goal
attainment, this hypothesis has largely gone untested. Researchers could assess this
property of GAS relatively easily, however, via the use of simple intervention studies that
compare the attainment outcomes GAS groups (either with or without coaching) to nonGAS control groups.
Another aspect of GAS that could be developed is the utilisation of information
related to higher order goals. In Chapter 7 it was observed that changes in lower order
goals may merely reflect a natural process of goal realignment, as individuals fashion a
new pathways towards the same higher order goal (Snyder et al., 1991). However, unless
a way is found to reflect these positive developments within the GAS framework,
forward momentum is left to look like a backward step. The coaching field would
therefore benefit greatly from research which addressed this issue, perhaps by finding
ways to capture more information about higher order goals (which are inherently more
stable).
An alternative avenue for future research could involve investigations of the
impact of coaching on causality orientations. According to self-determination theory
(SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985) there are two types of causality orientation; the autonomy

260

orientation, which describes the tendency for behaviour to be initiated and regulated by
events internal to ones sense of self; and the control orientation, which describes the
tendency for behaviour to be initiated and regulated by events external to ones integrated
sense of self (be they internal compulsions or external inducements). As noted by Grant
(2006a), 30 years of SDT research has repeatedly shown the autonomy orientation to be
associated with better self-regulatory and wellbeing outcomes (compared to the control
orientation). Whilst there is reason to suspect that coaching might facilitate stronger
autonomy orientations, this has yet to be studied. As such, longitudinal research that
assessed the impact of coaching on these trait-like dimensions would be a valuable
addition to the literature.

The Further Development of Mindfulness Training

One of the most significant contributions of this dissertation has been the
identification and examination of three alternative conceptualisations of the mindfulness
construct. As there has traditionally been a tendency to bind mindfulness to the practice
of meditation (Brown & Ryan, 2004b), this work represents something of a departure
from current trends. The recognition that mindfulness can be cultivated in multiple ways
is valuable because it may broaden the appeal of the construct and its associated
practices. That is, for individuals not inclined towards the meditation because of its
religious connotations, this research is likely to yield more palatable alternatives, such as
auditory exercises or creative pursuits. Given the positive effects that mindfulness
appears to confer on individuals, future research of these alternatives should be
encouraged.

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Ideally, the first step for future researchers would be to carry out replication
studies to validate the MT programs trialed in Chapters 6 and 8. Beyond that, however,
further work could be done to improve the operationalisation of these programs. For the
attention training (AT) program this might include the development of more than one
soundscape, in order to further increase interest and participation rates. Similarly, the
mindfulness meditation (MM) program might include other meditative alternatives, such
as guided walking meditations, or other variants appropriate to the focus of an
intervention (e.g. an eating mediation for a health coaching program). Finally, the
standardisation of the mindful creativity program might be improved by finding a way to
deliver its components via electronic means (such as was achieved for the AT and MM
programs in Study 8). Apart from improving the standardisation of these programs,
electronic methods of delivery (such as an MP3) are attractive because they increase
portability and convenience. If coaching research is to continue using adult community
samples (and it is recommended it should), then simple, easy-to-use methods will be vital
for ensuring that participants can adequately cope with the MT regime, in conjunction
with their ordinary everyday activities.

Implications for Practitioners

Consistent with basic intention of this dissertation, the findings derived from this
research program will have a number of implications for coaching practitioners.

Mental health issues

Given that findings reported in Chapters 3 and 4 suggest it is almost inevitable
that significant mental health issues will emerge during coaching, a number of challenges
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and opportunities. The challenges relate to the need to make judgments about the nature
of a clients issues (and their own limits of competence), before presenting their concerns
to the client and referring appropriately when necessary. In this, coaches have to tread the
fine line between identifying when pathology needs to be addressed and pathologising the
client (Maddux, 2002b). This challenge introduces added complexity to the coaching
engagement for which coaches need to be trained. Furthermore, the process of referral is
not intrinsically attractive. Not only does it have the potential to confuse or anger clients,
it also results in an immediate loss of income.
Whilst these difficulties are undoubtedly trumped by a coachs duty of care
(which were demonstrated in Chapter 3), they also present as opportunities for coaches to
demonstrate to clients that they offer a sophisticated and differentiated service to the
market one which adds real value to the client by ensuring the most appropriate
intervention is selected. Thus, in developing an informed and professional strategy for
dealing with mental health issues, coaches will be working towards discharging both a
legal and ethical duty of care owed to their client, and moving the coaching industry
toward a more professional footing.

The use of mindfulness training

In Chapters 6 and 8, MT was found to positively influence goal attainment.
Whilst these findings are likely to attract the attention of practitioners interested in using
such methods, the use of MT in coaching engagements is accompanied by an important
caveat relating to the role of intention in self-regulation (Shapiro & Schwartz, 2000). As

263

Shapiro and Schwartz (2000) point out, although mindfulness qualities specify the way in
which one attends:

attention by itself is not enough. It is crucial to attend in a particular way,

with the intention to incorporate the mindfulness qualities as part of the selfregulation technique. It is not simply paying attention, but the intention
behind it, that may be important for enhancing health. (p. 261)

Thus, developing the intention for mindfulness is likely to be key in the successful
integration of MT and coaching. Without it, MT is likely to become just another personal
development tool; one that can be picked up and put down whenever personal
circumstances dictate. Whilst there is nothing inherently wrong with using MT in this
way, the beneficial effects of MT practiced without intention are likely to be short lived
(Shapiro & Schwartz, 2000). Thus, for clients interested in achieving long-term
improvement in self-regulation and wellbeing, coaches will need to assist them to
develop the appropriate intention.

Documenting and measuring coaching outcomes

The use of GAS in Chapter 8 was found to be associated with general
improvements in goal attainment and, consequently, the application of the methodology
appears to be justified within coaching contexts. Fortunately, GAS has many positive
attributes make it easily accessible to all members of a diverse coaching community
(Spence et al., 2006). As outlined in Chapter 7, GAS methods are flexible and can be
used across a wide range of applied settings; appear to fit neatly within the boundaries of

264

coaching engagements; will be relatively straightforward for a coach trained in basic

goal-setting techniques; and the production of GAS charts and related data does not
depend on costly central reporting systems. As such, practitioners have access to a simple
practice methodology that could significantly increase the rigour with which they
document and measure the effectiveness of their coaching outcomes.

Implications for the Coaching Industry

As this dissertation commenced with a discussion of the importance of developing
a sound, evidence-based foundation for coaching practice, it is appropriate to conclude
with some comments regarding implications of this research for the coaching industry.
Some of the most significant findings to emerge from this dissertation relate to the
diversity of the Australian coaching industry. Data presented in Chapter 3 indicates that
the industry is a cottage industry, consisting of a large number of small firms that are
operated by practitioners with relatively little experience and few formal qualifications.
As such the industry appears to have some critical training needs. From a psychologists
perspective, the most important of these relates to the identification and appropriate
referral of mental health issues.
However, as argued in Chapter 2, it is unlikely that the coaching industry will see
any form of state sanctioned regulation whilst consumers remain free from harm. As
such, any movement towards a standard education for coaches will need to be driven
by the industry itself. Principally this will require coach training organisations to make a
commitment to the adherence of certain minimum standards in coach education and
training. This seems especially important in light of recent findings that suggest life

265

coaching schools appear to not explicitly distinguish between coaching and

counselling/therapy (Grant & O'Hara, 2006).
As suggested by Grant and OHara (2006), the accreditation of courses by
government agencies (rather than self-accrediting industry bodies) is one way of
safeguarding minimum standards. It is therefore recommended that coach training
schools seek such accreditation. In so doing the coaching industry will not only be
demonstrating its commitment to the best interests of its consumers (by addressing its
duty of care obligations), it will also be mirroring the highest standards of professional
practice. In addition, given that evidence-based techniques have been shown to be
effective in the research presented here, accreditation frameworks could be used to ensure
that course curricula give some acknowledgement to methods and techniques that have a
solid grounding in behavioural science.

Conclusion
This dissertation set out to advance the emerging field of coaching psychology. In
large part it has been successful in achieving this basic aim. Notable highlights include:
(i) discussion of EBCP and its importance to the longevity of the coaching industry, (ii)
the presentation of profile of the Australian coaching industry; (iii) the development of
EBCP through theoretical and empirical investigations of the mindfulness construct; (iv)
the introduction of GAS into coaching practice, and (v) the development and initial
validation of an integrated MT/CB-SF practice framework for coaching.
As a result, some new directions have been set for the psychology of coaching. It
is the fervent hope of this author that this work will stimulate the imagination and energy

266

of others and lead to the development of a vibrant research community. As the decline of
the HPM showed in the 1970s, the establishment of a vibrant research agenda is critical if
coaching is to realise its full promise and potential. An opportunity currently exists for
coaching to become a rigourous and respected sub-discipline of psychology. Given that
coaching provides a unique platform from which to dispense user-friendly applications of
positive psychology to individuals, organisations and the broader community, there is
much to be gained by utilising this opportunity.

267

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Appendix A
The survey questionnaire used in Study 1 (Chapter 3)

298

Coaching Psychology Unit

University of Sydney

Survey of Australian Life Coaches and Executive Coaches

A principle aim of the Coaching Psychology Unit is the development and promotion of coaching practice in Australia. As
little information is currently available regarding coaching in Australia, the aim of this survey is to collect some general
information to improve our understanding of what is a rapidly growing field.
Please understand that your participation in this survey is voluntary, you are free to refuse to participate or to withdraw at
any time. Further, the data collected from your participation will be used for a journal publication in a way that cannot
identify you. By completing this survey you are indicating your consent to participate in the survey entitled "Survey of
Australian Life Coaches and Executive Coaches" conducted by Dr. Anthony Grant (Ph: 9351 6792) and Gordon Spence (Ph:
9351 4353) of the University of Sydney.
Instructions
This survey should only take 5-10 minutes to complete. Please tick the boxes that most closely reflect your situation and,
where indicated, please provide any additional comments. When finished, please check you have completed all questions and
return completed survey form to either Dr. Anthony Grant or Gordon Spence.

Section One Personal Details

Firstly, we require a small amount of personal information about you. These details will only be used for the purposes of: (i)
contacting you, should we wish to request a follow-up interview, and (ii) collecting basic demographic information about
coaches. All information is strictly confidential.
Name:
I am:

Email:
Female

Male

Phone:

Age:

Section Two - Your Current Coaching Practice

Your responses to this section will help us gain an understanding of what your coaching practice looks like and how
long it has been operating.
Are you a practicing coach?

Yes

How long have you been coaching?

<1yr

Is coaching your main occupation?

Yes

If yes, for how long?

No
1-2yrs

2-4yrs

>5yrs

1-2yrs

2-4yrs

>5yrs

No

<1yr

If no, what is your main occupation?

How many hours a week do you coach?

<5hrs

What are your total coaching hours to date?

<50hrs

50-100hrs

101-200hrs

How many clients have you coached in total?

<10

11-25

>50

5-10hrs

11-20hrs
26-50

>20hrs
>200hrs

In your experience, what are the 3 most common issues that lead clients to seek coaching?
In which state do you practice?
City or town:

ACT

NSW
NT
QLD
Suburb (if applicable):

Where do you coach?

What % of the time do you coach by:
Email
Face-to-face

At home
On-line chat

At work

TAS

VIC

Rented office

Telephone

WA

SA

Client's office
Other

If other, please specify

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In general I find that my clients' (initial) expectations of the benefits that coaching can provide are:
too high
too low
about right
Do you explicitly measure the outcomes of coaching? Yes
No
If yes, how do you do this?
Coachees own verbal feedback
Always
Sometimes
Never
Feedback from others (e.g. organisation)
Always
Sometimes
Never
Your behavioural observations
Always
Sometimes
Psychological/assessment test (e.g. 360)
Always
Sometimes
Other
Always
Sometimes

Never
Never
Never

Yes
No
Do you have a niche specialization?
If so, how would you describe this specialization?

Section Three Training and Education

Coaches are drawn to coaching from many different walks of life and possess a broad range of skills. The
following questions are designed to gauge the breadth of these skills.
Prior to coaching, in which industry have you spent the most time working?
Consulting
Training
Finance
Education
Other
How long did you work within this industry?

<5yrs

5-10yrs

Counselling

Marketing
Medicine
Human Resources
10-20yrs

What sort of coach-specific training have you had?

(* i.e. Tertiary education in coaching related field,
E.g. psychology, social work, etc)

Coach Training School

NLP training
Other

When was your most recent qualification obtained?

Please specify where this training was obtained:

<5yrs

5-10yrs

Social Work
Sales

>20yrs
Tertiary education *
No formal training
10-20yrs

>20yrs

Psychology
Counselling
Mediation
Training
What coach-related experience have you had?
Consulting
Social Work
Youth Work
HR
(i.e. experience that drew upon core coaching skills)
Sports
Bus.Mgmt
Natural therapies
Other

Section Four Ethics and Professional Affiliations

At the beginning of a coaching relationship, do you inform your client about the ethical standards and practices that exist in
Yes
No
relation to coaching?
Verbally
Written hand-out
Both verbal/written
Neither
If so, how do you do this?
What professional bodies do you belong to?
International Coach Federation
Coachville
None

NSW Psychologists Registration Board

Australian Psychological Society
Others (please specify)

Thank you for your participation

Any person with concerns or complaints about the conduct of a research study can contact the
Manager of Ethics and Biosafety Administration, University of Sydney, on (02) 9351 4811.

300

Appendix B
Copies of measures used in Studies 2, 3 and 4

Study 2
Satisfaction with Life Scales
Positive and Negative Affect Scales
Scales of Psychological Wellbeing

Study3
Mindful Attention Awareness Scales
Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales
Satisfaction with Life Scales
Positive and Negative Affect Scales
Scales of Psychological Wellbeing

Study 4
Mindful Attention Awareness Scales
Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales
Satisfaction with Life Scales
Scales of Psychological Wellbeing
Rumination and Reflection Questionnaire

301

Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS)

Please circle the number that best reflects the way you have felt in the past 3 months.
Dont take too long, your first impression is generally the correct one.
Extremely
So

Not al all

Happy

Angry

Joyful

Depressed/Blue

Enjoyment/Fun

Anxious

Pleased

Frustrated

Enthusiastic

10

Unhappy

Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS)

Please circle the number that indicates the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement
Dont take too long, your first impression is generally the correct one.
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Slightly
Disagree

Neutral

Slightly
Agree

Agree

Strongly
Agree

In most ways my life is close to my ideal

The conditions of my life are excellent

I am satisfied with my life

So far I have gotten the important things I want in life

If I could live my life over, I would change almost nothing

302

Scales of Psychological Wellbeing (SPWB)

The statements deal with how you feel about yourself and your life.
Please circle the response that indicates the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement.
Remember that there are no right or wrong answers.
Strongly
Disagree

Somewhat
Disagree

Slightly
Disagree

Slightly
Agree

Somewhat
Agree

Strongly
Agree

Most people see me as loving and affectionate

In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live

I am not interested in activities that will expand my horizons

When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out

Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me

I am not afraid to voice my opinions, even when they are in opposition to the
opinions of most people

The demands of everyday life often get me down

I live life one day at a time and dont really think about the future

In general, I feel confident and positive about myself

10

I often feel lonely because I have few close friends with whom to share my
concerns

11

My decisions are not usually influenced by what everyone else is doing

12

I do not fit very well with the people and the community around me

13

I tend to focus on the present, because the future nearly always brings me
problems

14

I feel like many of the people I know have gotten more out of life than I have

15

I enjoy personal and mutual conversations with family members or friends

16

I tend to worry about what other people think of me

17

I am quite good at managing the many responsibilities of my daily life

18

I dont want to try new ways of doing things - my life is fine the way it is

19

Being happy with myself is more important to me than having others approve of
me

20

I often feel overwhelmed by my responsibilities

303

Scales of Psychological Wellbeing (SPWB)

The statements deal with how you feel about yourself and your life.
Please circle the response that indicates the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement.
Remember that there are no right or wrong answers.
Strongly
Disagree

Somewhat
Disagree

Slightly
Disagree

Slightly
Agree

Somewhat
Agree

Strongly
Agree

21

I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how you think
about yourself and the world

22

My daily activities often seem trivial and unimportant to me

23

I like most aspects of my personality

24

I dont have many people who want to listen when I need to talk

25

I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions

26

When I think about it, I havent really improved much as a person over the years

27

I dont have a good sense of what it is Im trying to accomplish in life

28

I made some mistakes in the past, but I feel that all in all everything has worked
out for the best

29

I generally do a good job of taking care of my personal finances and affairs

30

I used to set goals for myself, but that now seems like a waste of time

31

In many ways, I feel disappointed about my achievements in life

32

It seems to me that most other people have more friends than I do

33

I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality

34

People would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with

others

35

I have confidence in my opinions, even if they are contrary to the general

consensus

36

I am good at juggling my time so that I can fit everything in that needs to be done

37

I have a sense that I have developed a lot as a person over time

38

I am an active person in carrying out the plans I set for myself

39

I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others

40

Its difficult for me to voice my own opinions on controversial matters

304

Scales of Psychological Wellbeing (SPWB)

The statements deal with how you feel about yourself and your life.
Please circle the response that indicates the degree to which you agree or disagree with each statement.
Remember that there are no right or wrong answers.
Strongly
Disagree

Somewhat
Disagree

Slightly
Disagree

Slightly
Agree

Somewhat
Agree

Strongly
Agree

41

I do not enjoy being in new situations that require me to change my old familiar
ways of doing things

42

Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them

43

My attitude about myself is probably not as positive as most people feel about
themselves

44

I often change my mind about decisions if my friends or family disagree

45

For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth

46

I sometimes feel as if Ive done all there is to do in life

47

I know that I can trust my friends, and they know they can trust me

48

The past had its ups & downs, but in general, I wouldnt want to change it

49

I have difficulty arranging my life in a way that is satisfying to me

50

I gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long time ago.

51

When I compare myself to friends and acquaintances, it makes me feel good

about who I am.

52

I judge myself by what I think is important, not by the values of what others think
is important.

53

I have been able to build a home and a lifestyle for myself that is much to my
liking.

54

There is truth to the saying that you cant teach an old dog new tricks.

305

Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MASS)

Below is a collection of statements about your everyday experience. Using the scale below, please indicate how
frequently or infrequently you currently have each experience.
Please answer according to what really reflects your experience rather than what you think your experience
should be. Please treat each item separately from every other item.
Almost
Always

Very
Frequent

Somewhat
Frequent

Somewhat
Very
Infrequent Infrequent

Almost
Never

I could be experiencing some emotion and not be conscious of it until some time
later

I break or spill things because of carelessness, not paying attention, or thinking of

something else

I find it hard to stay focused on whats happening in the present

I tend to walk quickly to where Im going without paying attention to what I

experience along the way

I tend not to notice feelings of physical tension or discomfort until they really
grab my attention

I forget a persons name almost as soon as Ive been told it for the first time

It seems I am running on automatic, without much awareness of what Im

doing

I rush through activities without being really attentive to them

I get so focused on the goal I want to achieve that I lose touch with what Im
doing right now to get there

10

I do jobs or tasks automatically, without being aware of what Im doing

11

I find myself listening to someone with one ear and doing something else at the
same time

12

I drive places on automatic pilot and then wonder why I went there

13

I find myself preoccupied with the future or the past

14

I find myself doing things without paying attention

15

I snack without being aware that Im eating

306

Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS)

Please read each statement and circle a number 0, 1, 2 or 3 that indicates how much the statement applied to you
over the past week. There are no right or wrong answers.
Please do not spend too much time on any one statement.
Not at all

Very Much

I found it hard to wind down

I was aware of dryness in my mouth

I could not seem to experience any positive feeling at all

I experienced breathing difficulty (e.g. excessively rapid breathing, breathlessness

in the absence of physical exertion)

I found it hard to work up the initiative to do things

I tended to over-react to situations

I experienced trembling (e.g. in the hands)

I felt that I was using a lot of nervous energy

I was worried about situations in which I might panic and make a fool of myself

10

I felt that I had nothing to look forward to

11

I found myself getting agitated

12

I found it difficult to relax

13

I felt down-hearted and blue

14

I was intolerant of anything that kept me from what I was doing

15

I felt that I was close to panic

16

I was unable to become enthusiastic about anything

17

I felt that I was not worth much as a person

18

I felt that I was rather touchy

19

I was aware of the action of my heart in the absence of physical exertion (e.g. sense
of heart rate increase, heart missing a beat)

20

I felt scared without any good reason

21

I felt that life was meaningless

307

Rumination and Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ)

For each of the statements below, please indicate your level of agreement or disagreement by circling one of the
scale categories to the right of each statement.
Dont spend too long on any one item. Your first answer is usually the right one.
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
Agree

I love exploring my inner self

I tend to ruminate or dwell over things that happen to me for a really long time
afterward

I often love to look at my life in philosophical ways

Often Im playing back over in my mind how I acted in a past situation

I love to meditate on the nature and meaning of things

I always seem to be rehashing in my mind recent things Ive said or done

I dont really care for introspective or self-reflective thinking

Long after an argument or disagreement is over with, my thoughts keep going back
to what happened

My attitudes and feelings about things fascinate me

10

I dont waste time rethinking things that are over and done with

11

I love analysing why I do things

12

I often find myself reevaluating something Ive done

13

I dont care much for self-analysis

14

I often reflect on episodes in my life that I should no longer concern myself with

15

Im not really a meditative type of person

16

I spend a great deal of time thinking back over my embarrassing or disappointing

moments

17

Philosophical or abstract thinking doesnt appeal to me that much

18

I never ruminate or dwell on myself for very long

19

Contemplating myself isnt my idea of fun

20

It is easy for me to put unwanted thoughts out of my mind

308

Rumination and Reflection Questionnaire (RRQ)

For each of the statements below, please indicate your level of agreement or disagreement by circling one of the
scale categories to the right of each statement.
Dont spend too long on any one item. Your first answer is usually the right one.
Strongly
Disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Strongly
Agree

21

People often say Im a deep, introspective type of person

22

Sometimes it is hard for me to shut off thoughts about myself

23

Im very self-inquisitive by nature

24

My attention is often focused on aspects of myself I wish Id stop thinking about

309

Appendix C
Sample materials from Study 2: Life Coaching Evaluation (Chapter 4)

Sample materials from coaching handbooks used in the Professional coaching condition.

Sample materials used during peer coaching sessions in the Peer coaching condition.

The Coach Yourself program used as the basis of the Peer coaching condition (Grant
& Greene, 2001).

310

Sample materials: Professional coaching condition (Study 2)

Date:

Week Session Notes

Goal:

Reality:

Options:

Wrap Up:

Task 1

Task 2

Task 3

Task 4

Next Session (date, time & place)

Coachs task (for client)

311

Sample materials: Professional coaching condition (Study 2)

Date:

Week Additional Notes

How did the client feel on leaving the session? What did they gain from the session?

How do I feel the session went? What went well / not so well?

What was the clients (homework) confidence rating? What are the clients major obstacles at
present?

What issues / challenges need to be explored more in the next session?

General Notes

312

Sample materials: Peer coaching condition (Study 2)

Guide to ReGROW:
Review & Evaluate
(5 mins)
y What was your goal(s) & plan of action?
y What successes/problems did you have last week? (identify only)
Goal
y What is your goal for this week?
y Is it the same or slightly different?
y How SMART is it? Could it be SMARTer?

(5 mins)

Reality
y What did you learn from your efforts last week?
y What worked? What didnt work?
y What things might get in your way in the next week?

(10 mins)

Options (give suggestions and feedback)

(5 mins)
y How can you improve this week?
y How can you build on the progress you have made so far?
y How can you use the things that didnt work to your advantage?
y What options do you have for making progress towards your goal(s)?
y What would you do differently if you knew then, what you know now?
Wrap-Up
(5 mins)
y How can you incorporate these insights into a 4-week action plan?
y What are the next steps to take?
y Who will support you?
y How will you keep track of your progress?
y How will you celebrate your successes?

313

Sample materials: Peer coaching condition (Study 2)

Date:

Session ReGROW Notes

Review & Evaluate:

Goal:

Reality:

Options:

Wrap Up:

Task 1

Task 2

Task 3

Task 4

314

12

315

coach yourself: a life-coaching

programme for change

momentum

coach yourself

chapter twelve

(co-coaching)

pages 170 / 171

chapter twelve

316

About the programme

This programme has been tried, tested and developed over five
years. Hundreds of people have used this programme (or earlier
versions of it) to make significant changes in their lives, and in doing
so have given feedback as to what was useful or not useful for them.
This feedback allowed psychologists at the University of Sydney,
Australia, to fine-tune and further develop the programme, and to
discard any techniques and strategies that were too complex or
confusing to use. After this extensive development process was
complete, the programme as a whole was validated in a scientific
study run by the Coaching Psychology unit at the University of
Sydney.

What does the research show? Does it really work?

To determine whether the Coach Yourself programme was truly effective, 20
individuals used it to help them make a number of changes in their lives. These
changes included starting a new business, enhancing time-management skills,
career development, and improving interpersonal skills. On average these people
had been trying unsuccessfully to make these changes for 23.5 months. Rating
their progress towards goal attainment before and after the programme on a
scale from 1 to 5 (5 being total goal attainment), there was a statistically
significant difference before and after the Coach Yourself programme. That is to
say that completing the Coach Yourself programme really helped these people
reach their goals. Whats more, there was a statistically significant decrease in
depression and stress, even though depression and stress were not specifically
targeted in the change programmes.

317

As well as testing the programme as a whole, all of the individual

techniques and strategies in this programme have been empirically
validated that is, they have been shown in scientific studies to be
genuinely effective means of inducing change.

Insight/
self-assessment

Take stock
of your
life

pages 172 / 173

This programme is no magic bullet, theres nothing mystical,

mysterious or complex about it. In fact, its taken years to make it
simple (see Figure 12.1).

Irritations
inventory

Select 2 or 3 areas of your life to work on

Understand the dynamics of change

chapter twelve

Create a dream
Develop a broad vision of how life could be
Examine your values and needs
Maximize your motivation
Set SMART goals
Turn your ANTs into PETs
Focus on solutions
Gather your resources

coach yourself

Stay on track
Weekly action plan

Do more of what
works & change
whats not working

Monitor your
progress

Evaluate your
performance
momentum

Celebrate
success!
Figure 12.1 A road map of coaching

318

Keeping it simple
A common mistake in life coaching is to try to change too much, too
fast and too soon. Research shows that it is best to make small but
significant changes in two or three key areas of your life, and that
these small changes inevitably lead to big changes over time. Trying
to change your whole life at once will not normally be effective.
Small steps lead to big changes. Making two or three small but
significant changes in your life spreads the benefits of change
throughout your life. Its like dropping a stone into the centre of a
still pond the ripples reach to the very edge.
This programme is based on the following principles:
Make the implicit explicit examine and question the
assumptions we make about our lives and ourselves.
Keep it simple.
Do the least work to make the greatest change.
Focus on solutions not problems.
Dont try to solve the unsolvable.
People are functional not dysfunctional.
People have the abilities to reach their goals, despite the fact that
they may not acknowledge these in themselves.

Why you need to write it out

To complete the programme you need to do a fair amount of writing
about your thoughts, feelings, dreams and plans. Sometimes people
doing this programme feel that actually putting pen to paper is not
necessary and that they can make changes and coach themselves
without completing the written exercises. It has been my experience
that people who do not complete the written exercises are not as
successful in making changes the written exercises significantly
contribute to your chances of success. If you skimp on the written
exercises you are cheating yourself.

319

Written exercises can be a powerful way of creating change. Depressed patients

who complete written homework exercises have been found to improve three
times as much as those who do not.1 Writing it out helps make change in a wide
range of areas, including panic attacks,2 test anxiety,3 and shyness.4 Of course, it
could be that people who complete the written exercises are more motivated to
make changes and that is why they get better. But by using sophisticated
statistical techniques it has been shown that while individuals levels of motivation
were important, it was the written homework, not the motivation, that caused
people to make changes.5

pages 174 / 175

What does the research show?

chapter twelve

Laying the foundations for change

What do we need to create purposeful change? Essentially there are
four factors.
1. We need a sense of discontent with the present.
If we are really happy with what we have then why bother changing?
2. We need a broad, inspirational vision of the future.

coach yourself

If were uninspired by our vision of the future, were unlikely to put the
effort in to create change if the vision we have is too rigid and specific,
it will not allow us the necessary flexibility in the enactment of our action
plans.
3. We need the skills to reach our goal.
Here skills means both skills and knowledge. Without both of these we
will have the desire and vision to change, but will not know how to do it.
4. Underpinning both of these is continuous and deliberate action towards our
goals.

momentum

Creating purposeful, directed change requires continuous and deliberate

action not just wishful thinking (see Figure 12.2).

320

Unfulfilled dreams

Discontent
with the
present

1.

Self-examination
e.g. Irritations inventory

Recognition of missed
opportunities

Vision of
the
future

2.

Broad
vision

Inspirational

Specific
goals

Motivational
enhancement

Form a plan
of action

Begin action
Remember where we
want to go

Understanding
of change
process

4.

Based on values and beliefs that

are congruent with ourselves

Skills to
get
there

3.

Motivational

Examine
assumptions
about self &
world

Maintain
action

Monitor our
progress

Celebrate
success
Change whats
not working

Continuous and deliberate action

Figure 12.2 The foundations of change

How do we create change?

If we want to make real, lasting change we need to
make sure that all areas of our lives are supporting us
in reaching our goals. The House of Change reminds

321

pages 176 / 177

us that we need to alter our thoughts, feelings and behaviour and set
up the situation or our environment so that we are supported in
making change. Changing just one of these four probably will not
bring us the results we want, or at least the change wont work for
very long.

The Coach Yourself programme

Step 1 An irritations inventory
Think about the main areas of your life. In each of these areas think
about what it is that you are not enjoying. What are the things that make
learned to tolerate and put up with? Heres a list of ideas to get you
started. Add your personal irritations if these dont match your life:
Working life

Work performance

Working for a lousy boss

Unmanageable e-mail and voice mail

Too stressed

Poor time management

Insufficient resources

Unclear job role

Not organized

Low work satisfaction

Poor relationship with work colleagues

Inadequate training and support

Over-long work hours

Working in the wrong occupation

Not delegating enough

Poor working conditions

No recognition / reward

Dysfunctional organization culture

Poor leadership skills

What else?

What else?
momentum

Insufficient pay

coach yourself

chapter twelve

your life uncomfortable? What are those irritating things that youve

322

Family life

Career development

Deteriorating relationship with partner

Children too messy/noisy
Not seeing relatives
Not enough family time
Family life feels like a burden
Poor relationship with children
Lack of communication

No explicit written business/career plan

Fear of losing your job
Dead-end career path

What else?

What else?

Physical health

Emotional life

Overweight
Feeling unfit
Lack of energy
Unhealthy, unbalanced diet
Not enough exercise
Back/neck pain
Drug/alcohol intake
Smoking

Feeling too stressed or fearful

Feeling down or depressed
Sense of being lost
Being perfectionist
Unhappy with appearance
Poor time management
Lonely and isolated
Anxiety about the future

What else?

What else?

Money/finances

Personal growth

Unmanageable credit card bills

Unpaid bills keep piling up
Not enough provision for retirement
Not enough life/health insurance
Bank overdraft
Not enough money for lifestyle
Worry about money

Lack of intellectual stimulation

No spiritual direction
Poor self-acceptance
Sense of stagnation
No participation in the local community
Need to know more
Lack of time for self-reflection

What else?

What else?

323

Social life

Size, type of house/home

Not your preferred residential area
Home constantly too messy
Home needs redecorating
Car/appliances need repair or
replacement
Rent/mortgage repayments too high
Furniture needs replacing
Washing-up never done

Socially isolated
Never going out for recreation
Lack of fun in your life
Friends who use you
Small social circle
Too many people in social life
Only superficial social contacts
Lack of meaningful friendships

What else?

What else?

pages 178 / 179

Home situation

chapter twelve

Any other life areas or irritations not listed that are relevant to you?

What does the research show?

momentum

Often the nagative things that we learned to tolerate are in fact quite easy to
identify and change. As far back as 1954, studies6 found that systematically
taking a personal inventory helped people reach their goals quicker, and in 1976
studies7 found that self-assessment increased self-awareness and personal wellbeing. Whats more, this process is effective for enhancing a wide range of life
issues, including career development,8 hyperactivity,9 and sales performance.10

coach yourself

The idea that it is worthwhile spending time examining ones life goes back at
least to Socrates the unexamined life is not worth living. But pyschological
research also supports the process of self-assessment or self-examination in
order to dismantle those irritating barriers to personal growth.

324

Step 2 Select an area to work on

From your irritations inventory or your previous experience select an area
of your life in which youd like to see some changes. You may of course
choose more than one.
Life area one is
Life area two is
Life area three is

Step 3 Understand change

Task: work out which stage youre at
James Prochaska and Carlo DiClementes work on the stages of change
shows that change is a complex, dynamic process which has six stages.
For the life area(s) you choose to work on, identify the stage of change
that you are at.
Stage of change

Explanation

Pre-contemplation

I havent been thinking about making changes in this area and I

dont intend to in the near future

Contemplation

I have thought about making changes in this area of my life, but

havent actually done anything about it yet.

Preparation

I am intending to (or have just started within the past week) to

make some changes in this area of my life.

Action

I have been actively making real changes in this area of my life for
at least the last month.

Maintenance

I have been actively making successful changes in this area for

about six months.

325

Relapse

I had started to make real changes but I seem to have slipped back
into my old ways.

Task: aim for the next stage

You need to be able to move yourself from contemplation, through to preparation and
pages 180 / 181

into action, and from action to maintenance and termination. Certain techniques work
particularly well at specific stages.11
Stage of change

Tips to move forward

Focus less on changing others, or demanding that the situation
changes, and focus more on what you are doing to create or

Pre-contemplation

Look to see what factors could support you in making change

friends, social networks, what you could change in your
environment that would help you reach your goals.

chapter twelve

maintain the problem.

Get angry about how the problem has had a negative impact on
your life.
Turn your attention from trying to understand the why of the
problem to the how of the solution.
Tune into the reasons for change rather than the reasons not to
change.
Examine a wide range of options.

coach yourself

Contemplation

Dont rush into change develop a sound action plan first.

Make a genuine personal and public committment to change.
momentum

Preparation

326

Continue to see yourself from a new perspective focus on the

future and your new changed self.
Focus on how good youll feel when you make these changes.
Continue to make a genuine personal and public commitment to
change.
Keep busy and focused on action and activity.
Action

Make sure your situation or environment continues to support you in

making change.
Find someone else to co-coach or help.
Avoid complacency avoid relapse.
Reward yourself at regular intervals.
Recognize that maintenance is a long-term, ongoing process.

Maintenance

Give something back to those who helped you, and help others
make similar changes.
Consolidate and build on the benefits of the action stage.
Accept that relapse is normal.

Relapse

Learn from past mistakes.

Abandon past failed solutions.
Move back into action as soon as possible.

Step 4 Creating dreams

Task: write yourself a letter from the future
Choose a date in the future this should be at least three months time,
and up to one or two years. Imagine that you have travelled in time to this
date and you are sitting down writing a letter to your coach (which is
yourself) telling them how great your life is now, and how youve
managed to get rid of so many of those things that were irritating you.
When you write this letter, rather than focusing on the negative the
things that you want to be rid of write about what you would like to

327

have happening focus on the solution, not the mere absence of the
problem. Dont forget to include the whole of the House of Change
situation, behaviour, thoughts, and feelings. Also write about how your
needs and values are being met and expressed and how these are
motivating you. You might like to use a separate piece of paper for your
letter from the future.

chapter twelve

pages 182 / 183

This letter from the future is a simple and very powerful tool for change.
Over the years Ive consistently been amazed at the fabulous results
people have achieved using this technique. When I started using this
technique in my coaching practice I thought it would appeal only to
individuals who saw themselves as being creative types. But this
technique has been used successfully by an incredibly wide range of
personality types, including elite Royal Australian Air Force test pilots,
captains of industry, school teachers, builders and construction workers,
and accountants. It really works!

Task: identify your needs and values

coach yourself

Values and needs are powerful motivating factors in our lives, so much so
that throughout history people have been prepared to die for them. On a
less extreme basis, people who act in accord with their needs and values
are more likely to achieve their goals. If you want to create real change in
your life you must take time to identify the values and needs that are
important to you.

momentum

You must make sure that these needs and values are really your own
personal needs and values. We need to take time to examine this
time to make the implicit explicit. It is easy to unthinkingly take on other
peoples or societys values when deep down we know they are not
our own. If in the past you have had difficulty in making changes, it may
be that you have been trying to make changes based on what others
want.

328

What does the research show?

In a study of 271 sales people, Michael Swenson12 and Joel Herche found that
individuals values were predictive of sales performance individuals whose work
was in alignment with their core values had greater sales performance.

Here is a list of some values and needs that may be relevant to you. Read
it and identify the needs and values that are important to you in each of
the two or three areas of life you want to work on changing.
Accomplishment
Acknowledgement
Adaptability
Artistry
Authenticity
Beauty and aesthetics
Being admired
Being alone
Being different
Being valued
Being with others
Belonging
Change and variation
Collaboration
Communication
Community
Competition
Comradeship
Control over time
Creativity
Excitement
Expanding knowledge

Fun and enjoyment

Freedom to choose
Friendship
Helping society/others
Honesty
Humour
Independence
Influencing others
Integrity
Intellectual stimulation
Interaction with public
Intimacy
Joy
Love
Making decisions
Medium pace
Meeting challenges
Money
Order
Participation
Peace
Personal empowerment

Physical health
Power and authority
Profit
Recognition
Respect
Security
Self-determination
Self-expression
Self-fulfilment
Sensuality
Sexuality
Solitude
Spirituality
Stability
Status
Success
Support
Time
Tranquillity
Zest

329

What other values and needs are important to you that are not on this
list?

My needs and values are

Rank

In this area of my life these are met

importance
Always

Often

Sometimes

Seldom

Never

coach yourself

chapter twelve

from 1 to 7

pages 184 / 185

Now write down up to seven needs and for each life area check whether
these needs are met Always, Often, Sometimes, Seldom or Never. Rank
from 1 to 7 the relative importance you place on each need or value.

You need to make sure that your most important core needs and values
are expressed and supported in your change programme.

Step 5 Maximize your motivation

momentum

Having clearly defined goals has been shown to be an effective way of

bringing about successful change in your life. But goals need to be
SMART.

330

S pecific: vague goals lead to vague, half-hearted attempts to achieve

them.
M easurable: we need to be able to evaluate our progress.
A ttractive: if we dont want it, were unlikely to put in a sustained effort.
R ealistic: we must be capable of achieving the goal.
T ime-framed: we need to have an appropriate time frame in mind.
Heres an example:

Life area physical health

Project name The fit, flexible and pain-free me!
Sign/symbol photo of myself when younger looking, active and fit
Purpose to reduce neck and back pain, to be fit, lose weight
Values respect for my body, personal empowerment
Goal

Be fit and flexible, reduce neck and back pain

S pecific

Swim 10 laps in 25m pool, 3 times a week

M easurable

Keep monitoring log on office wall

A ttractive

Will feel fit, flexible, more productive

R ealistic

Pool near work, can swim before work

T ime-framed

Have weekly plan, start on Monday

331

Life area
Project name
Sign/symbol

pages 186 / 187

Purpose
Values
Goal
S pecific

chapter twelve

M easurable
A ttractive
R ealistic

Rate how attractive this goal is

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Rate how challenging this goal is

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Rate your confidence in reaching your goal

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Ideally, your scores will be in the following ranges:

Attractiveness 8 10

Challenge 7 9

coach yourself

T ime-framed

Confidence 7 9

momentum

If your scores fall outside these ranges you may need to rework your plans by making
them more/less attractive/challenging.
Any changes?

332

Task: weigh up the positive and negative effects of making a change

To stay motivated you need to think about the positive effects of making
a change and the negative effects of failing to do so.
Write down the positive and negative impacts of making changes in each
of your chosen life area(s).

Negative effects which will be caused

by my failure to make changes in
life area 1

Positive effects in my life

when I do make changes in
life area 1

Ask yourself which side looks better to you?

333

Step 6 Turn Your ANTs into PETs!

What kind of negative self-talk (automatic negative thoughts) is likely to
come up as you begin to work on your change project?

pages 188 / 189

Ask yourself: How would thinking like this affect me? Will it help or
hinder my progress?
If you decide that this kind of thinking will not enhance your performance,
ask yourself: What kind of positive self-talk (PETS performanceenhancing thoughts) would be useful? Write down these ideas and keep
them where you can see them.

Feelings

New PETs

coach yourself

ANTs

momentum

Event

Evaluate ANTs
How are they inaccurate?
how are they unhelpful?

chapter twelve

You might like to take an inventory using a table like the one below.

334

Step 7 Focus on the solution

Task: build up your motivation to change by spending some time thinking
about your new life. See it in your minds eye. Run through it like a movie
whats happening in this positive, solution-focused future life? Allow
yourself to enjoy a day-dream about the future.
Whats the situation like? How is it different and better than the past?
What are you doing? How is your behaviour different and more
effective than the past?
What are you thinking? How do these new positive, solution-focused
thoughts enhance your life?
How do you feel? How do these feelings support you in reaching your
goals?
For each life area you choose, ask yourself the following questions.
How would I notice if I reached my goal?
What would be different about the situation or environment?
How would I be behaving, talking, feeling?
How would other people notice that Id changed?

Task: write out how your thoughts, feelings, behaviour and the situation will
be supporting you in reaching your goals. Were also interested in how the
interaction between our thoughts, feelings and behaviours help us reach
our goals. Use the House of Change as a guiding template and think about
the following questions:
What is your goal?
How does the situation support you in reaching your goal?
What small changes can you make in your usual environment that will
help you reach your goal?

335

 What are you doing (behaviour) that helps you reach your goal?
What are you thinking and how does that impact on your feelings and
behaviour?

Behaviour

Thoughts

Emotions

chapter twelve

Situation

pages 190 / 191

My goal is

Task: check and see how far youve progressed already!

In solution-focused coaching we often find that people have already
moved a considerable way towards the realization of their goals even
before they start systematically working on achieving them. Take a
moment to rate how much progress youve already made.
1

Change

Moderate goal
achievement

10
coach yourself

0
No

Complete goal
achievement

Step 8 Gather your resources

Task: choose a name for your project, and a symbol or sign to represent
the project

momentum

Think about the development of your future life as a project youre going
to undertake. Making this project as real as possible can be helpful in
forwarding the action. So, choose a name for your project and a sign or

336

symbol to represent the project. The sign or symbol can be anything you
like, as long as it has meaning for you.
Having an easily accessible mental image of the project helps you to stay
on track. For this sign or symbol you might want to do a sketch, or collect
some item or memento and put it where you cant fail to see it.

Task: map your resources

What resources do you have that will help you in moving towards your
goals?
physical resources
mental/intellectual resources
emotional resources
spiritual resources
financial resources
situational resources.
Task: think about your life areas and the things you want to achieve.
Look back in time to where you have faced similar situations and
challenges. What strengths did you have that helped you deal with the
situation? Note that it doesnt matter if you were successful or not. What
matters is that you recognize that you really do have the abilities to
succeed. Make a note of at least five strengths that you bring with you to
your life challenges.

337

Strengths

pages 192 / 193

Challenges

Step 9 Staying on track

Task: develop an action plan

chapter twelve

Small steps lead to big gains. When developing an action plan,

remember: K eep I t S imple.
Ask yourself: what would be a small but significant step that would move
me towards my future?

coach yourself

What would be the next step after that one? And the next one? And the
next one? Develop a series of small steps that will make your project
really happen. Describe these steps in ways that outline what you will
actually be doing. This way you have an easy-to-follow plan of action. For
example:

If your goal is to make your work more enjoyable:

You could write:

momentum

I will focus on the things that I enjoy in my work. I will keep a note in a journal of
the enjoyable things (however small) that happen at work and I will find a way to
make these things happen more often.

338

If your goal is to make your work more productive:

You could write:
I will take note of the times when I am productive, work out what I am doing well at
those times and do more of that. I will examine my time management and improve
on it. I will keep a log of my time use for one week, analyze where I am wasting
time, and make moves to reduce these time-wasters. If necessary I will seek out a
mentor to help me improve my time-management skills.

If your goal is to make your work more harmonious:

You could write:
I will focus on other peoples good points. I will talk enthusiastically about my work.
In my interactions with others I will listen to what they have to say before
responding. I will express my views in a moderate fashion and develop empathy for
other people. I will acknowledge others successes. I will not fuel heated
conversations; rather, I will be a voice of calm, reason and moderation.

For each of the life areas you want to work on, plan a series of small
steps:
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5
Make more than five steps if you like.

339

Task: anticipate problems and work out how to solve them

Ask yourself:
What obstacles might slow down my progress?
What setbacks might occur?

pages 194 / 195

How can I overcome these obstacles and prepare for any setbacks?

Make a note of the factors working for and against change.

Task: optimize your optimism

chapter twelve

List five reasons why you will be successful:

1
2
3
4
5
Task: commit to action and make a decision to begin

momentum

coach yourself

Now we need to commit to action thinking, wishing, wanting are not

enough, we need to DO IT and to start RIGHT NOW! Now that you know
how much you have to gain, ask yourself: Am I prepared to give it a real
go? Put it in writing.

340

My Contract For Change

I take
personal responsibility for creating change in my life. I will begin the
project called .
and formally make a contract with myself to see this project
through. Ive listed the benefits of living in the solution and I am
going to start living in the solution from
Signed
Date
Witness

What does the research show?

Making a written contact to make changes really helps people stick to their
change committment. In one study13 schoolchildren aged 9 to 12 made a written
contract to study consistently. They spent more time studying and their grades
increased significantly. Making a written contract helps people stick to exercise
programmes14 and helps maintain motivation when looking for a new job following
long-term unemployment.15 Written contracting has also been used extensively
and successfully in suicide prevention.16

We now have many of the skills we need to create real change. We

understand the change process, have looked at our values and needs,
and learned how to align our thoughts, feelings and behaviour with our
goals. We know the value of structuring the situation or environment to
support us in reaching our goals and weve set SMART goals, formed a
plan of action and made a written committment to change.

341

Now we need to set up a system that will keep us on track. We need to

be able to regularly monitor and evaluate our progress and do more of
what works, and less of what doesnt work. This kind of feedback is vital if
we are going to make real change (see Figure 12.3).

pages 196 / 197

Set a goal

Develop an
action plan

Act

Change whats not working.

Do more of what not works

chapter twelve

Monitor

Evaluate

Success

coach yourself

Figure 12.3 A system for staying on track for change

Task: monitor your progress

In order to monitor your progress and evaluate how your project is going,
you will need to keep a journal of your project. What kind of journal
format will be best for you? Will you need a folder to put your notes in? Is
a diary best? What other journal-type processes might be useful?

momentum

Heres an example of one kind of simple weekly self-monitoring log that

you can use to keep a record of the actions you need to take in order to
create your desired changes.

342

Change Action 1
Done Yes/No

Change Action 2
Done Yes/No

Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday

Each week, preferably at the same time on the same day, set aside some
time to hold a self-coaching session. This need take only ten minutes, but
it will significantly enhance your probability of success.

What does the research show?

Regularly spending a short time elevating how you are sticking to a change
programme increases your chance of successful change. It has even been found17
that regularly examining household energy use on a bi-weekly basis reduces
energy consumption. Regular self-assessment has also helped overly aggressive
baseball coaches to develop more effective coaching behaviour and heightened
self-awareness.18

343

Task: use the GROW self-coaching method

Use the GROW model to monitor your progress.
In your diary, schedule a weekly GROW session. Take time to look at:
GOALS
pages 198 / 199

REALITY
OPTIONS
WRAP-UP (the way forward see Chapter 9).

Step 10 Getting help

chapter twelve

You cant get support unless you let people know what youre doing and
why youre going to be successful. So, let people know that you are
starting this project broadcast your good news! Who will you share your
news with?
Does anyone need to know about your plan?
Sometimes, for example in business, we need to inform others of our
plans. In other situations it is best not to tell people but to just get on with
it. A simple rule of thumb is to share your up goals only with those who
coach yourself

will support you in attaining them. For example, if you want to be the best
salesperson in your company, share that goal only with your sales
manager, not the salespeople you are in competition with.
Co-coaching
Making change is often easier with a co-coach.

momentum

Who can you co-coach in making changes?

What kind of guidelines will you need? How will you co-coach do you
prefer to co-coach by phone or face to face?

344

Put something back give back to others

What can you do in order to give a bit back? How can you help other
people who are also trying to make changes?
Step 11 Celebrate your success
How can you celebrate on a daily basis and at the end of your project?
You might like to develop a success-monitoring log in which you keep a
note of your success and the feelings associated with each success.
Focusing on positive outcomes in a monitoring log is a powerful means of
keeping the action plan moving forward.

Successes I had today and how I felt

Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Step 12 Draw up an action plan for the first four weeks of your
change programme
What needs to be done, and when? Draw up or use a time planner like
this one below and put it up where you can see it. Remember to renew
this when the four weeks are up.

345

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Saturday

Sunday
pages 200 / 201

Monday

Now draw up a detailed plan for the following week. Set yourself a goal
to achieve each day. Work out below what you are going to do each day.
You might like to rate your successes in achieving your goals on a daily
basis on a scale from 1 to 10.

Things to be done and

things I did

Success rating
1 to 10

chapter twelve

Day

Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday

coach yourself

Thursday
Friday
Saturday

momentum

Sunday

You MUST do something each day that moves you

towards your goal.
346

If your plan doesnt call for concrete action each day, work out how you
can strengthen your commitment on a daily basis.
You could work on developing your vision write about it, collect
newspaper clippings, magazine pictures, do some research/reading.
Whatever you do, you must keep a record of it.
Finally, ask yourself: How will I feel if I make this plan and DONT carry it
out?
Circle one of the following
Absolutely
terrible

Really bad

OK

Pretty good

Fantastic!

How intensely will you feel this?

Check one number below
1

10

How will you feel if you DO stick to your plan?

Circle one of the following
Absolutely
terrible

Really bad

OK

Pretty good

Fantastic!

How intensely will you feel this?

Check one number below
1

10

Ask yourself: which feeling would you rather have?

Its your choice!

Its your life what are you going to do with it?

347

Appendix D
Developing Mindfulness training manuals used in Study 3 (Chapter 6)

Excerpt from training manual used in the Attention Training condition.

Excerpt from training manual used in the Mindfulness Meditation condition.

Excerpt from training manual used in the Mindful Creativity condition.

348

349

School of Psychology, University of Sydney

Coaching Psychology Unit

14th October 18th November 2004

Research Project

Developing Mindfulness:
The Effective Use of Everyday Attention

6.30pm 7.30pm
Thursday 14th October
Thursday 21st October
Thursday 28th October
Thursday 4th November
Thursday 11th November
Thursday 18th November

Time:
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6

* Attention Training is based on a theory developed by Dr. Adrian Wells and Dr. Gerald Matthews
at the University of Manchester, UK. Over the last decade they have published several research
articles and books on the subject.

McCrae Room
Main Quadrangle Building,
University of Sydney

Venue:

Meeting Dates

Thus, many of the challenges we face in life are made harder when our attention
is captured by particular thoughts and feelings. Learning an effective way to free
up attention is useful because it gives us a greater awareness of the world and can
help us to become open to a wider range of experiences. In short, it helps to
develop greater levels of mindfulness.

Research has shown that when we are too self-focused (i.e. we direct too much
attention towards information relevant to the self) we tend to experience poorer
health outcomes, increased stress and worry, lower mood, reduced ability to cope
with change and we direct less effort towards life goals.

Our ability to cope with the stresses and strains of everyday life has a lot to do
with how we use our attention. Most people, however, are rather passive in the
way they use their attention and often feel they have no control over what they
focus on (e.g. negative thoughts, bodily sensations).

Attention Training:
A Course for Developing Mindfulness

350

20 mins

20 mins

5 mins

7.25pm

10 mins

6.35pm

7.05pm

5 mins

6.30pm

6.45pm

Duration

Time

Wrap-up

Attention Training exercises

Feedback & Questions

Small group discussion

Welcome

Description

Structure of Meetings

The basic structure of these meetings will be as follows:

The aims of the Attention Training group meetings are three-fold:

(i) to understand and practice the ATT exercises
(ii) to plan for ATT@home and monitor your progress each week
(iii) to allow group discussion about your experience of ATT

Weekly Meetings
The weekly group meetings will last approximately 60-minutes. They will be held
every Thursday between 6.30pm-7.30pm.

As such, we will ask you to come back to the University of Sydney during this time
to complete some questionnaires/tests.

The Manual
This manual is intended to act as a point of reference for you to use during the
duration of this course. It includes a brief summary of the rationale for ATT, along
with instructions for completing ATT@home, some handy hints, sheets to help
you monitor your progress each week and some space for you to record your
experiences throughout the course.
February 2005
Thursday 1st & Saturday 3rd

November 2004
Thursday 23rd & Saturday 25th

Thank you for your participation!

Please mark these dates in your diary.

This is not expected to take more than 90 minutes of your time and refreshments
will be provided.

These dates will be confirmed closer to the time.

(NB: You are only required to attend one session in November and one session in February).

The dates for these data collection sessions have been provisionally set as follows:

Please note, in order to successfully conclude the research, it will be necessary to

collect some more data from you at the end of November 2004 and the
beginning of February 2005.

The End of the Program

The last group meeting will be held on Thursday 18th November. Beyond this date
there are two other important dates to keep in mind.

Tonight you will learn more about the Attention Training (ATT) program and
understand just how these group sessions will be conducted over the next 6
weeks.

Welcome to Attention Training!

Overview and Rationale

Overview (contd)

351

It is important to understand that these exercises are not designed to

be used in response to negative feelings or bad events. They only
help to train your attentional muscles, so that they will perform
better for you when you are faced with difficult or stressful
situations

Imagine that your attention is a muscle and that doing Attention

Training is like going to the gym for your attention

Attention Training is designed to enhance attentional control, so

that attention can be used more positively

Absorbing, external activities work better because they direct

attention away from the self. When this happens mood often
improves, negative thoughts subside and attention starts to turn
outwards

Distraction techniques arent usually very effective because it requires

you to keep in mind the thing you wish to ignore

Sometimes it feels like we dont have much control over how we

use our attention. However, recent research has shown that
attentional control can be improved through training

When we are particularly sensitive to self-relevant information our

attention will be easily captured and the pains, memories and
threats start to amplify (the more we dwell on them)

When anxious, discouraged or stressed, it is common for people to

direct excessive amounts of attention inwards, towards anything that
is self-relevant (e.g. aches & pains, sad memories, perceived threat)

Attention Training does not try to directly change the content of

negative self-beliefs and self-talk, rather it seeks to change the way
people process information (via the use of attention)

Rationale

Attention Training

Introducing

3 sounds in the near distance (e.g. microwave, wind chimes, TV in another

room, dishwasher)
3 sounds in the far distance (e.g. traffic, rain, wind, birds, jackhammer)

ii
iii

Iii simultaneously (3-5 minutes)

Widen your attention and try to listen to as many sounds as possible

Ii Rapidly shift your attention between each sound for about 5 minutes

I in total)

Focus attention on individual sounds for about 30 seconds each (5 minutes

Step 2:
The exercise is carried out in the same way as it was during the group meeting:

Use the monitoring log to record each time you complete the exercise.

For Attention Training to be effective, it needs to be practiced regularly. You are

asked to practice the exercise below twice a day (10-15 mins) for the next 6
weeks.

Attention Training Exercises

3 sounds in the room that you will choose to do the Attention Training
exercise (e.g. a clock, radio tuned to music, the hum of a fan)

Step 1:
We would like you to identify or create:

So, if there arent that many sounds naturally at home, you will need to create
them yourself.

Being able to do the Attention Training exercise at home may require a little
preparation on your part. This is because, to do it well, you will need to hear
about nine (9) different sounds.

Getting yourself organised

Attention Training @ home

352

ATT@home

DONT be too discouraged if you have some difficulty with the

task at first. The task is quite challenging but you will improve
with practice

DONT use Attention Training in response to negative feelings

or as a way of coping with bad events

DONT worry if your mind wanders during practice. Just gently

bring it back to the task

DONT choose a time when you are likely to be interrupted

(e.g. at work)

What not to do

DO more than 2 practice sessions a day if you have time. The

more practice you can do the better you will get

DO think of attention training as a skills training program (i.e.

training in the skill of attention control)

DO get adequate rest. The exercise wont work very well if you
drop off to sleep every time you sit down for a moment

What to do

Helpful hints

Week 1

Questions I would like to have answered at the next weeks ATT meeting:

Since starting ATT, what have I noticed that is different about my use of attention?

What could I do differently that would help me keep up the practice?

How well am I arranging the ATT@home exercises?

Which exercise did I seem to do the best at?

Which of the exercises was the most challenging?

How successful was I this week in completing the ATT exercises?

Journal Entry

353

You may wish to discuss of these experiences during next weeks small group
discussion.

An additional journal page to record your experiences, reflections and major

learnings from ATT Week 1.

Journal Entry

Week 1

1
1
1
1
1
1

Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday

Yes

No

PLEASE HAND THIS IN BEFORE YOU LEAVE

To what degree were these completed?

If so, how many did you complete?

Attention Training
Session 2

Did you managed to complete more than 2 sessions?

Monday

Attention Training
Session 1

In completing the log, please circle according to the following:

1 Not completed
2 Partially completed
3 Fully completed

Please complete the following chart by indicating how many times you practiced
the exercises on each day and to what you degree the exercises were successfully
completed.

This monitoring log will help you to monitor progress on your completion of the
Attention Training exercises.

Monitoring Log

ATT@home Week 1

354

School of Psychology, University of Sydney

Coaching Psychology Unit

14th October 18th November 2004

Research Project

Developing Mindfulness:
The Effective Use of Everyday Attention

6.30pm 8.00pm
Thursday 14th October
Thursday 21st October
Thursday 28th October
Thursday 4th November
Thursday 11th November
Thursday 18th November

Time:
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6

* Mindfulness Meditation has been extensively researched over the past 20 years by Dr. Jon KabatZinn (and others) and found to be effective for improving physical, psychological and behavioural
functioning.

Buddhist Library
90-92 Church Street
Camperdown

Venue:

Meeting Dates

In mindfulness meditation you will learn how to pay attention on purpose. You
will practice the skill of being able to focus on all their present thoughts, feelings
and internal sensations but in a non-judgmental way, with no evaluation of
experiences as being either good or bad. Developing this form of attentional
control is known to be an important skill for successfully dealing with the stresses
and strains of everyday life.

Mindfulness meditation does not seek to distort or distract people from these
experiences. Rather, meditation seeks to help people develop greater acceptance
of their inner experience, by teaching them how to become attentive to (and
aware of) all that is taking place in ones mind and body at the present moment.

Most people find it difficult to accept negative thoughts, feelings and physical
sensations as a natural part of living. Consequently, when faced with anxiety
inducing events (like public speaking) many people will active try to avoid such
activities in order to short-circuit difficult emotions and troublesome thoughts.

Mindfulness Meditation:
A Course for Developing Mindfulness

355

Duration

5 mins

10 mins

60 mins

15 mins

Time

6.30pm

6.35pm

6.45pm

7.45pm

Discussion & Wrap-up

Meditation exercises

Group discussion (with Bhante)

Welcome

Description

Structure of Meetings

The basic structure of these meetings will be as follows:

The aims of the Mindfulness Meditation group meetings are three-fold:

(i) to practice a series of meditative exercises
(ii) to plan your MM@home and monitor your progress each week
(iii) to allow group discussion about your experience of MM

Weekly Meetings
The weekly group meetings will last approximately 90-minutes. They will be held
every Thursday between 6.30pm-8.00pm.

The Manual
This manual is intended to act as a point of reference for you to use during the
duration of this course. It includes a brief summary of the rationale for
Mindfulness Meditation (MM), along with instructions for completing
MM@home, some handy hints, sheets to help you monitor your progress each
week and some space for you to record your experiences throughout the course.

Tonight you will learn more about the Mindfulness Meditation program and
understand just how these group sessions will be conducted over the next 6
weeks.

Welcome to Mindfulness Meditation!

Overview and Rationale

February 2005
Thursday 1st & Saturday 3rd

November 2004
Thursday 23rd & Saturday 25th

Thank you for your participation!

Please mark these dates in your diary.

This is not expected to take more than 90 minutes of your time and refreshments
will be provided.

These dates will be confirmed closer to the time.

(NB: You are only required to attend one session in November and one session in February).

The dates for these data collection sessions have been provisionally set as follows:

As such, we will ask you to come back to the University of Sydney during this time
to complete some questionnaires/tests.

Please note, in order to successfully conclude the research, it will be necessary to

collect some more data from you at the end of November 2004 and the
beginning of February 2005.

The End of the Program

The last group meeting will be held on Thursday 18th November. Beyond this date
there are two other important dates to keep in mind.

Overview (contd)

356

Mindfulness has been defined as the awareness that emerges from

through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and
non-judgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by
moment

But to do this requires us to use our attention more flexibly.

Although it often doesnt feel like it, we can learn to better control
our attention it just takes a bit of practice

Mindfulness meditation helps people take a step back from these

experiences and to recognise the temporary quality they have. Once
this is recognised and understood, it becomes easier to let go of
negative experience

When this happens awareness diminishes and we get captured by

our momentary discomfort, which we will normally evaluate
negatively

As a general aim, mindfulness meditation seeks to reduce varying

degrees of human suffering. By suffering we mean the discomfort
that people feel when their attention gets overly fixated on
unpleasant thoughts, feelings, sensations and events

The contribution of Buddhism has in part been to develop and

emphasise simple and effective ways to develop this human capacity
and bring it to all aspects of everyday life

As we are all mindful to one degree or another, moment by

moment, mindfulness is universal concept (even though it is most
commonly linked to Buddhism)

Getting yourself organised

Rationale

For instructions on how to do your practice, refer to the guidelines that will be
given to you by Bhante (your teacher).

Mindfulness Meditation Practice

fitting in your practice

iii meditation practice (e.g. family commitments) and look for the best ways of

Doing your practice will probably require you to make some small
adjustments to your day. Be clear about what will be impacted by your

ii and comfortable

Select a place that is appropriate for doing meditation. It should be quiet

i practice. Be realistic

Work out when is the best time in the day for you to be doing your

Step 1:
We would like you to think about the following:

So, here are some things to think about when you are planning MM@home:

This practice is important however because, like any new skill, you are unlikely to
neither improve nor get the benefits that mindfulness meditation can provide.

Practicing your mindfulness meditation at home will require a little preparation on

your part.

Introducing

Mindfulness Meditation @ home

Mindfulness Meditation

357

MM@home

DONT be discouraged if you have some difficulty with the

meditation at first. You will improve with practice

DONT worry if your mind wanders during practice. Just gently bring
it back to the task

DONT choose a time when you are likely to be interrupted (e.g. at

work) or that isnt realistic (e.g. on the train)

What not to do

DO use the meetings to ask Bhante any questions that you might have.
He is your teacher and is very experienced in his field

DO get adequate rest. Meditation wont work very well if you drop
off to sleep every time you sit down for a moment

DO choose a time to practice when you are generally at your most

relaxed (e.g. early morning)

What to do

Helpful hints

Since starting MM, what have I noticed that is different about my attention?

Questions I would like to ask Bhante at the next meeting:

What could I do differently that would help me keep up the practice?

How well am I arranging the MM@home?

Which aspect of MM did I seem to do the best at?

What part of MM proved to be the most challenging?

How successful was I this week in completing the MM exercises?

Week 1

Journal Entry

358

You may wish to discuss of these experiences during next weeks group discussion.

An additional journal page to record your experiences, reflections and major

learnings from MM Week 1.

Journal Entry

Week 1

1
1
1
1
1
1

Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday

Yes

No

PLEASE HAND THIS IN BEFORE YOU LEAVE

To what degree were these completed?

If so, how many did you complete?

Meditation
Session 2

Did you managed to complete more than 2 sessions?

Monday

Meditation
Session 1

In completing the log, please circle according to the following:

1 Not completed
2 Partially completed
3 Fully completed

Please complete the following chart by indicating how many times you practiced
on each day and to what you degree the mediation was successfully completed.

This monitoring log will help you to monitor progress on how many meditation
sessions you have completed.

Monitoring Log

MM@home Week 1

359

School of Psychology, University of Sydney

Coaching Psychology Unit

14th October 18th November 2004

Research Project

Developing Mindfulness:
The Effective Use of Everyday Attention

6.30pm 8.00pm
Thursday 14th October
Thursday 21st October
Thursday 28th October
Thursday 4th November
Thursday 11th November
Thursday 18th November

Time:
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6

* ReMind is based on the work of Dr. Ellen J. Langer, Professor of Psychology, Harvard University.
Dr. Langer has been researching mindlessness and mindfulness for over 30 years and has published
over 200 journal articles and several books on the subject.

Room 401, Level 4

Old Teachers College
University of Sydney

Venue:

Meeting Dates

ReMind* is underpinned by the idea that we are better served in life by

maintaining a limber state of mind and an attitude of curiosity. As such,
this course will impel you to think more (not less) about your life
experience and to challenge any musty myths you might hold about life.
In doing so, the aim is to develop mindfulness and reduce mindlessness.

Being open or closed to alternative courses of action is a reflection of

how flexibly we are able to use our attention. When we are openminded we cannot only see things from multiple perspectives but also
flexibly move our attention between those perspectives. In contrast,
when close-minded we tend to be rigid and our attention tends to
become trapped by a single perspective.

Our ability to adequately deal with the stresses and strains of everyday
life has a lot to do with the type of mindset we bring to these challenges.
For example, in coping with the loss of a job we might immediately
decide to take on a lower paid job for a short time, or stubbornly hold
out for a replacement that is at least as good as the last one.

Mindful Creativity(ReMind):
A Course for Developing Mindfulness

360

15mins

30mins

30mins

7.00pm

7.30pm

6.35pm

6.45pm

5 mins

10 mins

6.30pm

Duration

Time

Small group discussion + Wrap-up

Theme for the Week

Feedback

Small group discussion (in pairs - 5min. each)

Welcome

Description

Structure of Meetings

The basic structure of these meetings will be as follows:

The primary aim of the group meetings is to present the next section of the
manual and to encourage group discussion about the different components of the
course.

Weekly Meetings
The weekly group meetings will last approximately 90-minutes. They will be held
every Thursday between 6.30pm-8.00pm.

You might like to include in your manual any notes or other relevant materials
that you happen to accumulate during the course.

The Manual
ReMind is a manual-based program. This means that all the instructions you need
for completing the course are to be found in the following pages. To avoid any
confusion, care has been taken to express all concepts and instructions in straight
forward language, with examples provided as necessary.

Tonight you will learn more about the ReMind program and understand just how
these group sessions will be conducted over the next 6 weeks.

Welcome to ReMind!

Overview and Rationale

February 2005
Thursday 1st & Saturday 3rd

November 2004
Thursday 23rd & Saturday 25th

Thank you for your participation!

Please mark these dates in your diary.

These dates will be confirmed closer to the time. The sessions are not expected to
take more than 90 minutes.

(NB: You are only required to attend one session in November and one session in February).

The dates for these data collection sessions have been provisionally set as follows:

As such, we will ask you to come back to the University of Sydney during this time
to complete some questionnaires/tests.

Please note, in order to successfully conclude the research, it will be necessary to

collect some more data from you at the end of November 2004 and the
beginning of February 2005.

The End of the Program

The last group meeting will be held on Thursday 18th November. Beyond this date
there are two other important dates to keep in mind.

Overview of Program (continued)

361

WILLIAM JAMES

Mindlessness is also created by our tendency to categorise or pigeon-hole

information. That is, often times we learn about the world in absolute terms, label
it as fact and store the information in memory without ever questioning its

Repetition is a major contributor to mindlessness. This is because the more

practiced we are at certain tasks, the more our behaviour becomes automatic and
habitual. When this happens we can act in the absence of active thought (e.g.
driving) and even direct spare attention to other tasks (e.g. driving and talking on
the phone).

But why are we only half awake? What contributes to mindlessness?

In making this observation, William James was pointing to a general failure of

human beings to remain alert and attentive to momentary experience.

The Nature of Mindlessness

Compared to what we ought to be, we are only half awake

Thus, there are good reasons to believe that by developing mindfulness we also
improve our physical and psychological health, thereby enhancing the overall
quality of our life experience. Before introducing the concept of mindfulness,
however, it is best to first describe the main features of its opposite: Mindlessness.

In contrast, numerous studies have shown that when people become more
mindful it is typically associated with a wide range of benefits, including greater
competence, health and longevity, improved learning, increased positive emotion,
creativity and reduced burn out!

Whilst people undoubtedly spend at least some of their time alternating between
these different modes, much of the time we are mindless and 30 years of scientific
research has revealed that mindlessness does not always serve us very well.

Mindlessness and Mindfulness describe two modes of human consciousness,

or rather, two different states of mind. They describe important differences in the
quality of human conscious experience, or the degree to which people are aware
of (and attentive to) their moment to moment experience.

ROLAND BARTHES

I prefer the play of a kaleidoscope: you give it a tap and the

little bits of colored glass form a new pattern

Rationale

Mindfulness Training

ELLEN LANGER

ReMind is based on a model of mindfulness that consists of:

Process Before Outcome: Developing the ability to focus more attention on

the present than the future or the past.

Creating New Categories: Breaking down of rigid categories (or mental

models) and replacing them with categories that pay attention to situation
and context.

Unlike the Buddhist understanding of mindfulness (which places importance on

slowing down and quietening the mind), this model highlights the importance of
active, creative thinking.

The Nature of Mindfulness

In every situation we encounter, we should either manifest

mindfulness, or maintain the potential for mindful behaviour

Besides consequences that can vary in intensity, mindlessness can also serve to
erode our sense of control (e.g. recovering alcoholics), lead to discrimination (e.g.
ageism), a narrow self-image (e.g. Im not intelligent) and learned helplessness
(e.g. long term unemployed).

Name a time(s) when you behaved mindlessly?

Mindless behaviour can have consequences that range from the benign (e.g.
locking your keys in the car) to the tragic (e.g. the Air Florida crash in 1985).

The Costs of Mindlessness

A mindless approach to life gives us a false reading of the world. We think the
world is standing still, when actually its our perceptions of the world that are
being held constant with single-minded views.

validity. This can leave us out of step with reality as this sort of mindless encoding
ignores the power that situations and context have on our perceptions. In other
words, we only focus our attention on limited aspects of the things we
experience.

362

Openness To New Experience: Mindful listening and observation can better

attune people to changing circumstances and allow people to be more
adaptive. Mindfulness as a continual and active search for novelty.
Developing Different Perspectives: Openness to different points of view
can increase tolerance, as we can see that people often have perfectly good
reasons for behaviour we consider negative.
Using Context: An understanding that activities are not inherently good or
bad, but that we bring those qualities to the activity.

Thursday 28th October

Thursday 21st October

Thursday 14th October

Thursday 4th November

Theme: Staying Mindful

Week 6

Theme: Using Context

Week 5

Thursday 18th November

Thursday 11th November

Theme: Developing Perspectives

Week 4

Theme: Openness to Experience

Week 3

Theme: Taking A Fresh Look

Week 2

Theme: Living As A Process

Week 1

Program Outline

ReMind

There is now enough research to suggest that fostering greater levels of

mindfulness can improve both our physical and psychological health, infuse life
with greater interest and allow people to cope more adaptively with a constantly
changing environment.

In this course we will spend time investigating each of these aspects of

mindfulness. As suggested, mindfulness relies heavily on an expanded awareness of
oneself and the world and enough attentional flexibility to be able to move
between a wide range of alternative sources of information.

Do I need to be sure I can do something before l will start an activity?

How often do I fall victim to procrastination?
Do I get discouraged easily prior to commencing a difficult task?
Do I get discouraged easily just after I start something new?

Fear and Anxiety

The idea that good outcomes are associated with error-less processes can lead
to both fear of failure (If I cant get this right, Ill be humiliated!) and
anxiety (If this doesnt go perfectly Ill lose my job). This leads to us feeling
bad, and often to procrastination (something else we can feel bad about!)

By over-emphasizing outcomes, we tend to separate achievement from all

the steps that led to it (i.e. the process). As a consequence, good outcomes
are often perceived as following from flawless processes, or a right way of
doing things. This is rather unrealistic because it doesnt acknowledge the
value of trial and error, and can be a big barrier to doing anything at all!

Poor Judgment

Being too outcome focused can have some negative consequences, including:

Of course, this isnt necessarily a problem, as life would be directionless without a

sense of where we were going or what we were trying to achieve. However, like
most things, a balance is needed.

If you answered yes to some or all of these questions, its possible that you
might be a little too outcome-focused (i.e. overly concerned about the results of
your effort)

A good place to start is by looking at the way we usually approach our day-today activities. Ask yourself these questions:

Tonight we start to experiment with some new ways of approaching the world
and our experiences of it. Like all new ways its going to involve doing some
things differently.

Week 1
Living as a Process

363

Self-Criticism

When we live our lives without permission to get things wrong, its easy to
evaluate ourselves negatively when things go wrong and for self-criticism to
become automatic. If this happens, we dont even need to think about beating
ourselves up anymore and can feel bad on a regular basis.

What sort of things would

you have thought about?

How did it feel?

What was good about it?

What were you doing?

Jot down some thoughts about your experience(s):

For some of you this might be harder than you expect. Take a few minutes to think
back to a time(s) when you were engaged in an activity more for the enjoyment of the
activity itself than for the outcome it would produce.

Shortly you will divide up into pairs and begin to discuss one way that you might
increase your focus on process (rather than outcome).

Maybe we could find a way to loosen up a little and start to enjoy the ride a little bit
more.

Week 1 (continued)

Write here

Week 1 Notes

364

Painting
Clay Sculpture

Woodwork
Knitting

Creative Writing
Fashion Design

Any others?

Clay Sculpture
Clay
Water bowl
Sculpting Board

Woodwork
Design sketch
Wood
Hammer
Nails

ReMind@home:
Obtain project materials
Start your project - aim to spend 20 mins per day
Also:
Read Langers chapter: The Nature of Mindfulness
Complete the journal entry

Painting
Canvas
Tubes of Paint
Brushes
Palate

Materials (suggestions only)?

Needlework
Pattern
Wool
Needles
Cotton

Important!
Make sure you choose something that youve never done before, or havent done in
the past 5 years.
This will work better if you are relatively unfamiliar with the activity.

Break up into pairs and discuss which of these options you might select. Talk about
the following:
(i)
How much experience have I had with this activity?
(ii)
What will I need to do to get the project started?
(iii)
Where can I get the materials? Can I borrow them?
(iv)
When you will do that? How much time will it take?
(v)
How much will it cost? (Preferably <$30)

Questions I would like to ask at the next group meeting:

Since starting ReMind, what have I noticed about the way I use my attention?

What examples of mindfulness did I observe this week?

What examples of mindlessness did I observe this week?

Which aspect of the exercises did I seem to do the best at?

How well am I arranging ReMind@home?

How successful was I this week in completing the ReMind exercises?

Creative Project

Over the next 6-weeks you will be engaged in a creative project. Tonight you need
to choose what you are going to do. Here are some suggestions:

Week 1

Journal Entry

ReMind@home Week 1

365

Week 1

You may wish to discuss of these experiences during next weeks group discussion.

An additional journal page to record your experiences, reflections and major

learnings from ReMind Week 1.

Journal Entry

Unfortunately it often takes an emergency or crisis to jolt us into a more mindful

state of mind

This is akin to a mindlessness because little attention is being paid to the finer
details of the toy (e.g. its shape, size, rubbery-ness) and what it could be
recategorised as (e.g. an eraser) if those details were considered.

Take the dogs rubber toy. Once we decide that the toy is only a toy, our brains
will store the information as a category (toys) and, having decided what it is,
we have little reason to think much more about it.

These results suggest that when we learn about things in absolute terms, we tend
to switch off to potential novelty. That is, we rely on categories of objects, people
and experience that are built upon only limited information.

Similar results were found in two follow-up experiments.

The results were clear cut. Of the individuals who were introduced to objects in
an unconditional way (i.e. Object A is a), none were able to respond to the
experimenters need by finding a novel use for any of the objects. In contrast, over
40% of the conditional group (i.e. Object A could be a) suggested that the
dogs toy be used as an eraser.

After presenting these objects, the experimenter then concocted a situation in

which there was an urgent need to use an eraser (a job the rubber toy could do if
used creatively) and the participants were asked to help.

In one experiment individuals were divided into two groups and shown three
objects (one of which was a rubber dog toy). In the first group all three objects
were presented unconditionally (i.e. Object A is a dogs toy), whilst for the
second group the objects were presented conditionally (i.e. Object A could be a
dogs toy).

In 1987, over 160 participants took part in a series of experiments designed to test
the hypothesis that viewing the world in absolute terms stifles creativity and
promotes mindlessness.

Week 2
Creating New Categories

366

Mindfulness theory suggests that experiences are not inherently good or bad, but that
we bring those evaluations to our experiences. This offers the hope of change. That is,
by thinking more actively about the world, noticing more of the fine detail and creating
new categories, it is possible to improve many aspects of our experience.

Experience (or events)

We also tend to categorise our experience in rigid, absolute terms. For example:

Cricket is mind-numbingly boring

Public speaking is horrible

Melbourne is a dump

Ironing sucks!

However, as we are biased towards negative information, if we detect something about

the person we dont like, we are more likely to categorise them negatively (e.g.
arrogant) and less likely to change our opinion if faced with positive information (e.g.
an act of humility). That is, we tend to learn about people in absolute terms.

Other People
We think about and describe other people through the use of categories and labels. That
is, upon meeting a person for the first time, we form an impression of them by
processing all sorts of information that is available to us at the time.

Of course, this sort of thinking isnt limited to inanimate objects our reactions to other
people and particular experiences are often associated with a lack of active thought:

Although somewhat artificial, this example does illustrate a key feature of mindfulness.
By learning about things in a more mindful way (i.e. paying attention to the finer
features of a pen) we can begin to see possibilities and potential.

MacGyver may well be the most mindful person who ever lived. This is because, for
MacGyver, even the humble pen had almost unlimited potential. Never merely an
instrument for writing, a pen could be used to defuse a bomb, repair a radio transmitter
and escape from a maximum security prison cell.

Take an example from 1980s pop-culture: MacGyver.

Oftentimes when we are put under pressure and forced to solve a problem, we
suddenly become lateral thinkers and are able to generate creative and imaginative
solutions that meet the demands of the situation.

Week 2 (continued)

Write here

Week 2 Notes

367

ReMind@home:
Complete Part A (above)
Continue your creative project - in line with Part B (20 mins per day)
Also:
Complete the journal entry

Painting without paint: Possible substitutes include anything with pigment (e.g.
beetroot) or colour (e.g. melted chocolate)

celery, your fingers or an empty roll-on deodorant

Painting without paint brushes: Possible substitutes include cotton balls, a stick of

For example:

This week you are challenged to advance your creative project (in some way)
without the aid of an important piece of equipment.

Imagine that you go and sit down to resume your work when you discover that your
tools are either broken or missing. Disaster!! No paint brushes for painting, no
hammer for building the bookcase, no computer for the creative writing.

PART B
This week youll continue to work away on your project, but with a slight twist.

The task:
Relate your work on the Creative Project to each of these 5 activities.

What would a more mindful approach to these activities look like?

What would you do that you wouldnt normally do?

How might this make a difference to your levels of anxiety and stress?

Now, make a list of 5 activities that you are often involved in.

PART A
Spend time reflecting on the first 7-days of your Creative Project. Most importantly,
think about the intent of the project (i.e. Process over Outcome).

Questions I would like to ask at the next group meeting:

Since starting ReMind, what have I noticed about the way I use my attention?

What examples of mindfulness did I observe this week?

What examples of mindlessness did I observe this week?

Which aspect of the exercises did I seem to do the best at?

How well am I arranging ReMind@home?

How successful was I this week in completing the ReMind exercises?

Week 2

Journal Entry

ReMind@home Week 2

Creating New Categories

368

Week 2

You may wish to discuss of these experiences during next weeks group discussion.

An additional journal page to record your experiences, reflections and major

learnings from ReMind Week 2.

Journal Entry

ELLEN LANGER

Mindfulness implies openness to novelty and new experience. That is, an

individual who is mindfully engaged will actively scan for changed signals and
continually seek out difference.

So, processing and using information in this way will lead us to block out small,
inconsistent signals and be less likely to notice difference when difference occurs.

When we create categories in this way, we develop a lack of attention to fine

details and will tend to overlook things. For example, whilst most people would
acknowledge that the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney were the the best games
ever, fewer people are likely to have noticed the double the in first part of that
sentence.

Creating Categories and Being Open

As we discussed last week, if we learn about things in absolute terms, we are more
likely to behave inflexibly when called upon to access that information. Firmly
believing that something is a certain way reduces our need to give it much extra
thought when we encounter it (provided it retains a familiar structure).

Hence, there is a flip side to our attentional system: when we are exposed to
patterns of stimulation that are perceived as repeated and unvarying, we tend to
tune-out because nothing new is detected. Just as a baby or young child will
start to show less interest in an old toy, so does an adult start to become less
interested in certain objects, people and/or situations as they become more
familiar.

Research has shown that this orientation exists very early in life. For example, by
measuring the sucking rate of infants, researchers have observed that the sucking
rate of babies tends to increase in the presence of novel objects (e.g. a colourful
toy, a face) and decrease in the presence of familiar objects.

The circuitry of the human brain is arranged in such a way that our attention is
drawn more towards new and novel forms of information, rather than to
information that is perceived as repeated and unvarying.

An important component of mindfulness is the continual and active

search for novelty

Week 3
Openness to Experience

369

Feeling brave? Try it out on someone during the week.

What did you learn? Did you find out something interesting or surprising? How
long do you think it would have taken to find this out if you hadnt directly asked
the questions?

An active search for novelty

Turn to someone who you dont know very well. Ask them these questions:

What were you doing in 1997?

Where were you living?

What was your best memory of that year?

We start becoming more open to new information when we start directing more
questions at life. Yet, this does not necessarily take much effort and, as we become
more curious, so increases our level of mindfulness.

Whilst actively challenging such thoughts and beliefs wont necessarily eliminate all
the anxiety, actively disputing the validity of such rigid thinking is likely to ease
the pressure a good deal.

A more mindful response, however, would involve an active search for difference,
by asking several questions about the situation at hand. For example:

When have I spoken well in public?

Have I ever seen a speech not go well and still be well received?

How common is it for people to feel nervous before public speaking?

Add to this a burden of responsibility (towards your friend) and you automatically
start to feel tense, anxious and begin to dread the day. This is, by definition, a
mindless response. As a result, all sorts of negative thoughts and images begin to
flood through your head: Im a useless public speaker, Ill ruin the day,
People will think Im stupid, Ive got to get out of this.

Mindless Anxiety
Imagine a close personal friend asks you to give a speech at their wedding and,
despite being an inexperienced public speaker, you agree. Almost immediately
you start to feel some discomfort - public speaking is not your forte and youve
had some bad experiences.

Week 3 (continued)

ReMind@home - Week 3

Find a time when you wont be disturbed

Try not to see things as good or bad, just observe
Dont try and make sense of everything there and then
Notice what others are up to (e.g. birds, butterflies, ants, etc)

ReMind@home:
Continue with your creative project (20 mins per day)
Complete this weeks exercises
Also:
Complete the journal entry

If your mind begins to wander, dont give yourself a hard time - just bring it gently
back to the task.

This is not a meditation task. You are not being asked to empty your mind or focus
on your breathing. Some tips:

The object of these exercises is simply to sit down, be still and observe with a limber
state of mind. A good way of doing this is to pay attention to the small details of
what is going on around you and to look for the differences between things.

PART B: Find somewhere outdoors, a place that is fairly familiar to you (e.g. the
backyard, local park) and sit down.

The Exercises (2 x 15 mins):

PART A: Find a relatively small, quiet room somewhere at home or in the office.
Find a spot on the floor and sit down.

This weeks exercises are designed to get you to actively seek out novelty within the
very familiar. Your challenge is to remain interested for as long as you can, by paying
attention on purpose to your surroundings.

BLAISE PASCAL

Most of the evils of life arise from mans being unable to sit still in a room

Openness to Experience

370

Week 3

How successful was I this week in completing the ReMind exercises?

How well am I arranging ReMind@home?

Which aspect of the exercises did I seem to do the best at?

What examples of mindlessness did I observe this week?

What examples of mindfulness did I observe this week?

Since starting ReMind, what have I noticed about the way I use my attention?

Questions I would like to ask at the next group meeting:

Journal Entry

You may wish to discuss of these experiences during next weeks group discussion.

An additional journal page to record your experiences, reflections and major

learnings from ReMind Week 3.

Week 3

Journal Entry

371

ELLEN LANGER

Without looking closely and noticing that the same stimulus in different
contexts is a different stimulus, we become victims of the associations we
ourselves constructed. When we are tormented by unwanted emotions, we
assume it could be no other way

Context results from learning. For example, waiting room anxiety will be related
to how we have learnt about dentists in the past and may be either direct
(previous painful experiences), indirect (someone elses horror story) and/or based
on very limited experience (one trip to the dentist). Regardless of how it is
acquired, a mindless, passive acceptance of context can be problematic because
we begin to feel a loss of control.

Context and Control

From this we can see that, whilst context can be changed by the actions of others
(e.g. choice in a nursing home or a classroom), the responsibility for how we
interpret a situation ultimately lies with us. That is, whilst life provides the events,
we provide the context.

Viewed objectively, however, most dental waiting rooms are fairly benign places
and usually only consist of a few chairs, some magazines and a fish tank. Thus, it is
not the situation but our understanding of the situation that produces such intense
emotional reactions.

Everyday experience also shows us how powerful context can be. For example,
upon entering the waiting room of a dental surgery it is not uncommon for
people to become consumed by dark imaginings about what might be wrong with
their teeth and which instruments of torture will be used to fix them. The result is
usually high anxiety, increased heart rate, perspiration and nervous fidgeting.

Studies have shown that when you give people more choice about what they can
do (i.e. you manipulate context) they report greater happiness and less
depression, improved memory, greater activity levels and better physical health.
In addition, within aged care facilities, greater choice has even corresponded with
lower mortality rates!

Context has been shown to be powerful in determining the way people think, feel
and behave.

Week 4
Using Context

As such, in seeking to change the context associated with the dentist, one might
wish to view the experience as an opportunity to learn more about dentistry (a
new category) and begin to focus on things that help to build that knowledge
(new information). Not only might this infuse the experience with more interest,
it might also lead to improved oral hygiene and less filings in future.

An Act of Will
Changing the context that surrounds a situation is a mindful act. It requires an
individual to both (i) form new categories, and (ii) to pay attention to new
sources of information.

Aside from considerable good luck, Frankl believed this reinterpretation of his
experience helped maintain his will to live, something many other prisoners
seemed unable to do. His theory was published shortly after the war and
developed into a form of psychotherapy (Logotherapy).

Yet, he was also an astute observer of human behaviour and during his
incarceration he started to develop a psychological theory that emerged from his
care of fellow prisoners. Thus, faced with an almost unbearable burden, Frankl
was able to change the context by exercising choice over what his circumstances
would mean to him.

VIKTOR FRANKL

Suffering ceases to be suffering in some way at the moment it finds a meaning

During WWII an Austrian psychiatrist, Dr. Viktor Frankl, was forced to suffer the
brutality and deprivation of three years in Nazi concentration camps. Like all
prisoners, Frankl struggled to cope with the cruelty he encountered and at times
felt like giving up.

In the absence of someone else to change a context, we are faced with trying to
do it ourselves. Whilst many would find it difficult to imagine a dental checkup as
being anything other than a traumatic event, it is worth considering instances in
which people facing greater hardship have managed to alter context and improve
their experience.

Changing Context
Situations viewed in single-minded ways (as fixed and permanent) often result in a
perceived loss of control. Not surprisingly, when this happens people tend to
become increasingly passive and avoidant, tendencies well known to be
detrimental to both physical and psychological health.

Week 4 (continued)

372

ReMind@home:
Continue with your creative project (20 mins per day)
Read Langer chapter
Also:
Begin thinking about how you will describe your project at the exhibition
Complete the journal entry

Wine and cheese provided.

No awards or prizes will be given Incomplete works warmly embraced

An opportunity for exhibitors to show and discuss their work, this event will be a
celebration of the creative process only. As such, exhibitors will be encouraged to
describe, and reflect mindfully on, the development of their work.

You are hereby invited to an exhibition of creative works to be held on 18th

November 2004 at the University of Sydney.

Extraordinary Art Exhibition

Announcement

Using Context

ReMind@home - Week 4

What examples of mindlessness did I observe this week?

What examples of mindfulness did I observe this week?

Since starting ReMind, what have I noticed about the way I use my attention?

Questions I would like to ask at the next group meeting:

Which aspect of the exercises did I seem to do the best at?

How well am I arranging ReMind@home?

How successful was I this week in completing the ReMind exercises?

Week 4

Journal Entry

373

Week 4

You may wish to discuss of these experiences during next weeks group discussion.

An additional journal page to record your experiences, reflections and major

learnings from ReMind Week 4.

Journal Entry

When interpreting the actions of ourselves and others, we seem to forget that
there can be as many different views of an action as there are different observers.

These attributions are, by definition, mindless. This is because both explanations

are constructed from only a subset of the available information (i.e. personality or
situation). When we fall victim to this type of bias, our perspective becomes
narrow and may lead us to become unreasonably critical of others (as the
situation is ignored) and disinclined to accept responsibility for our actions
(ignoring the influence of our personality).

The AOE is most noticeable for behaviours perceived as undesirable. In these

situations, observers tend to be insensitive to the impact of circumstances. That is,
we see the things that other people do as accurately reflecting who they are. In
contrast, actors tend to become more sensitive to external factors. That is, we see
the things we do as being driven by what is happening around us.

Actor-Observer Effect
A tendency of observers to interpret the actions of others as resulting from an
internal disposition or trait, and for actors to interpret their own behaviour as
resulting from external, environmental factors

Examples like these illustrate a common mistake made by people in the social
world; a bias that social psychologists call the Actor-Observer Effect (AOE):

Most likely you would have thought that the shop assistant was very rude and
the other motorist an idiot, and then acted by either registering a complaint
with the shop manager or by blasting your horn. Either way, both these
interpretations ascribe an internal cause for their behaviour, anchoring it to an
aspect of the other persons personality.

Now remember a time when a shop assistant was rude to you, or you were cutoff by somebody while driving. How did you interpret that behaviour? What sort
of things did you think to yourself (or say)?

Think of a time when you where rude to someone on the phone, or cut in front
of another motorist on the motorway. How did you explain your behaviour?
Most probably you would not have explained it in terms of your personality, but
rather, according to some external factor(s) present at the time (e.g. time pressure,
heavy traffic).

Week 5
Developing Perspectives

374

Irresponsible

Initial
Interpretation
Carefree, fun loving
Time in lieu, career dissatisfaction

Alternatives?

The more we can do this, the better able we are to catch our automatic
responses and replace them with a response drawn from a greater range of
possible alternatives. In short, we are likely to become more flexible, display more
empathy and develop a greater understanding of others.

Thus, being more mindful requires us to develop an awareness of multiple

perspectives, an awareness that can only develop when we acknowledge that our
usual view of events is only one view and not an indubitable truth. Seeing events
from multiple perspectives requires us to be more open to alternative courses of
information (e.g. the situation) and to pay attention to things that may invalidate
our perceptions.

Just because we wouldnt do something does not necessarily mean that the action
is risky, inconsiderate or foolhardy. Yet many of our evaluations are constructed
in precisely this way, without a mindful awareness that others may (quite
reasonably) see matters differently.

Of course, seeking alternative explanations for undesirable behaviour will not

necessarily make them fully acceptable to you. It may not even change your
response. What it will help to do, however, is help to reduce any blind spots
that may exist in your interpretation of other peoples behaviour.

Steve Irwin taking his baby son

into a crocodile enclosure

Faking a sick day in order to go

fishing
An adolescent spraying graffiti
on your local schools front wall

Behaviour of Others

Group task (in pairs)

For each of the following examples, (i) record your initial interpretation of the
behaviour and then (ii) change your perspective in order to generate alternative
interpretations.

Building Awareness of Perspectives

When seeking to develop more mindful interpretations of other peoples
behaviour, it helps to remember that people may have very good reasons for
behaving in ways we consider negative or unhelpful.

Week 5 (continued)

ReMind@home - Week 5

ReMind@home:
Continue with your creative project (20 mins per day)
Week 5 journaling exercise
Also:
Identify three things that you have learnt whilst you have been engaged in your
Creative Project (to be discussed at the exhibition)

Step 4.
After uncovering some alternative explanations, make a note of anything that you
have noticed. How do you feel now about the behaviour? What are you thinking
about the person in question?

In completing Step 3, try to look beyond the behaviour and search for the positive
intent. Consider questions like: What else might account for their actions? What need
might they be trying to meet?

Step 3.
Place yourself in the shoes of the actor (the person whose behaviour you are
considering) and seek alternative explanations for the behaviour.

Step 2.
Record your initial (mindless) interpretation of that behaviour.

Step 1.
Every day for the next week, be on the look out for examples of other peoples odd
or disagreeable behaviour. Choose one and make a note of it in the journal (next
page).

Exercise
This weeks exercise involves observing the behaviour of other people and viewing a
series of events from more than one perspective.

Developing Perspectives

375

Thursday

Wednesday

Tuesday

Monday

Sunday

Saturday

Friday

Event

Week 5

Initial Interpretation

Journal Entry
Alternative

You may wish to discuss of these experiences during next weeks group discussion.

An additional journal page to record your experiences, reflections and major

learnings from ReMind Week 5.

Week 5

Journal Entry

376

The amount of effort required to switch between these modes will be different for
different individuals. This is because certain personality traits are more closely
aligned with mindfulness than others. Regardless of these individual differences,
every passing moment presents as an opportunity to be more or less mindful, and
as such, staying mindful is an ongoing challenge for everyone.

ELLEN LANGER

What may take more effort is the switch from a mindless to a mindful
mode, just as in physics effort is required to change the course of a
moving body, and energy is required to put a still body into motion

Whilst this view of mindfulness does emphasise the importance of active thought,
it does not necessarily take more effort to be alert and open to new perspectives
and experience. What may take more effort is the change required to become less
mindless and more mindful.

According to this model, mindfulness emerges when individuals are active in the
way they think about the world. In this mode of expanded awareness our
thoughts, beliefs, emotional reactions and behavioural patterns are all made
available and can be updated as necessary.

In doing so, the following components have been emphasised as important

contributors to mindful states:

Process vs. Outcome: Directing attention towards what is happening in the

present, rather than a preoccupation with future or past outcomes

Creating New Categories: Replacing rigid mental models (categories) with

models that acknowledge the influence of context (situation)

Openness To New Experience: Continually and actively scanning the

environment for what is different and novel

Using Context: Understanding that activities are not inherently good or bad,
but that the context we bring to an activity gives it those qualities

Developing Perspectives: Being open to different points of view

acknowledges that it is possible to have at least as many interpretations of
events as there are observers

This course has explored a model of mindfulness that promotes the importance of
engaging life with a limber state of mind, one in which individuals allow
themselves to absorb multiple sources of information for the purpose of refreshing
individual perceptions of reality.

Week 6
Staying Mindful

Thus, creative activities present us with opportunities to regularly exercise the skills
that can produce a more limber state or mind, whilst also making a significant
contribution to our general sense of well-being.

It is in these moments of full absorption, or flow, that time stops, our worries
disappear and we experience some of our best and most happy moments. In
order to obtain these experiences on a regular basis however, a small investment
of time, energy and attention is required.

In allowing ourselves to be creative we do much more than just produce novel

and interesting things. These pursuits (provided they are freely chosen) also give us
more regular access to moments when our attention can become fully engaged
and we are fully utilizing our strengths.

This is not to suggest that other aspects of life (e.g. work, family) do not offer
similar opportunities, they do. But like any skill that is being developed, the
privacy of creative activity can provide us with the best conditions for refining
mindfulness skills. That is, we gain a space for ourselves within which we can be
bold and experiment.

As such, creative activities like painting, playing music and cooking can be likened
to a gymnasium for your attention and might also be thought of as a way of
training attention.

One of the principle reasons creative pursuits are so useful is that they help to
exercise our attentional system. That is, when working creatively we have the
opportunity to:

Focus our attention on what we are doing (in the present moment)

Approach our work in novel and interesting ways, by challenging

conventional methods

Seek out novelty and difference as we work

Use context and different perspectives to our creative advantage

One way to maintain high levels of mindfulness is to engage regularly in activities

that exercise core mindfulness skills. One class of activity that seems particularly
well suited to developing and maintaining mindfulness are creative pursuits.

Staying Mindful
Awareness is an important feature of mindful states and it is also an important
part of staying mindful. This is, maintaining a high level of mindfulness over time
also requires that a person maintain a constant awareness that every situation
encountered can be approached either mindfully or mindlessly.

Week 6 (continued)

377

ReMind@home:
Select another creative project and begin (20 mins per day)

Enjoy!

Again, like the project your have just completed, use this experience as a way of
reminding yourself about the important components of mindfulness and also, look
for any moments of flow that you might experience along the way.

Your final task is to select another project, one of your own choosing and begin
working on it. Once again, plan to work on this one for another 6-week period, or
start a series of smaller projects that will run for 6-weeks.

Exercise
Your creative project is finished. Congratulations!

Staying Mindful

ReMind@home - Week 6

An additional journal page to record your experiences, reflections and major

learnings from ReMind Week 6.

Week 6

Journal Entry

Appendix E
Other sample materials from Study 3 (Chapter 6)

Goal setting booklet used to capture personal goals and goal attainment ratings.

Audio file used for Attention Training exercises

*** See inside back cover for CD ***

378

Goal setting booklet (Study 3)

Tell us what you are typically trying to do!

What do we mean?
Whether you are conscious of it or not, you will have particular goals that youre working on
from one minute to the next. Were interested to know a little about some of those goals.
However, people describe their goals very differently. For some goals are expressed in very
general terms (e.g. Becoming closer to God), for others their descriptions are very specific
(e.g. Spend 15-minutes reading the bible, four times a week).
Of course, it is often the case that several specific goals (e.g. bible reading, church attendance,
good deeds, charitable donations, etc) exist to meet the more general goal of Becoming closer
to God.
Such an arrangement might look something like this:

To become
closer to God

Perform more acts

of kindness

More good
deeds

Increase $
to charities

Specific goal:
Volunteer to do 2 Mealson-Wheels shifts every
month

Develop
spirituality

Read bible
more often

Attend bible
study group

Specific goal:
Spend 15-mins reading
New Testament, 4 times
a week

Increase religious
observance

Fast during
Lent

Go to
church more

Specific goal:
Attend Church 3 times
every month

Note:
Whilst many people might share the general goal To become closer to God, the specific
actions people take to get there is different from person to person.

379

Goal setting booklet (Study 3)

What you are typically trying to do!

In order to help you describe one important aspect of your life, here is a list of some
common general goals.
Please use this scale to indicate how strongly you agree with each statement.
Rate both the importance of the goal and your past success in meeting the goal.
USE ANY NUMBER FROM 0 TO 100
None
0

Low
25

Moderate
50

High
75

Typically I am trying to

Very High
100

Importance

Past Success

Maintain a good level of physical fitness

Do as much reading as I can

Maintain a good relationship with my workmates

Stay informed about the world

Keep to a budget (and/or save money)

Get closer to God (develop spiritually)

Maintain balance in my life

Be a good parent (or role model)

Exercise my artistic talents on a regular basis

Learn as many new things (and/or skills) as I can

Create positive environments for others

Show good leadership

Help others in whatever way I can

Secure my (our) financial future

From the options above, please select the three (3) general goals that have tended to be
the most difficult for you in the past and write them here:
1.
2.
3.

What now?
380

Goal setting booklet (Study 3)

Give yourself a little time to think about the three general goals (just stated above) by
considering the following questions:

What things havent you tried before that might help you to better achieve these
goals?

What are some of the things that typically prevent you from making progress
towards these goals?

What things just havent worked in the past? (And, therefore, could be changed)

What things have really helped in the past? (And, therefore, are worth persisting
with)

Now, its time to get a little more specific about one of these goals.

Remember this?
To become
closer to God

Perform more acts

of kindness

More good
deeds

Increase $
to charities

Specific goal:
Volunteer to do 2 Mealson-Wheels shifts every
month

Develop
spirituality

Read bible
more often

Attend bible
study group

Specific goal:
Spend 15-mins reading
New Testament, 4 times
a week

Increase religious
observance

Fast during
Lent

Go to
church more

Specific goal:
Attend Church 3 times
every month

From the 3 goals you have identified on the previous page, select the one you most wish
you could make progress on.
Youre about to get more specific about this goal...

381

Goal setting booklet (Study 3)

Write the general goal here

Step 1

On the scale below, 10 represents where you would like to be in relation to the goal you have
written above.
Please circle where you feel you are right now with this goal.
1

10

What are three things you could do that would help move you towards this goal?

No. 2

No. 1

No. 3

Now, give a specific example for each one of these (i.e. what would you actually do?)
Refer to the chart on Page 3 if needed.
No. 1

No. 2

No. 3

Step 2
Now, please rate each of these goals according to Difficulty and Past Attainment:
(i) How difficult does it seem?
1 = very easy, 2 = easy, 3 = difficult, 4 = very difficult
(ii) How successful have you been in attaining this goal over the past 12-months?
0% = no attainment to 100% = total attainment
Difficulty

/4

Difficulty

/4

Difficulty

/4

Success

Success

Success

382

Appendix F
Example of a creative project completed by a participant in Study 3

383

Example of a creative project (Study 3)

Note: This participant decided to spend no money in completing this project. He used only
materials that were freely available to him (e.g. the frame was constructed from timber offcuts; the canvas from a old bed sheet)
384

Appendix G
Sample materials from Study 4: Health Coaching Evaluation (Chapter 8)

GAS exercise used to prepare participants for GAS interviews.

Excerpt from study handbooks, including (i) goal monitoring sheets, (ii) coaching session
note sheets (used in two coaching conditions only), and (iii) health and fitness fact sheets.

385

GAS exercise used as preparation for Study 4

Putting Together THE Plan:

15-minutes of Workshop Preparation
As mentioned at the information evening, a sensible health and fitness plan needs to be
tailored to individual interests, preferences and capabilities. That requires your input. So,
over the next week you will spend some time thinking about and discussing your health
and fitness goals and, in particular, any goals that you would especially like to focus on
over the 8-weeks of this study.
As the goals that you set yourself will be a major focus of this research, we need you to
tell us about them. Just as importantly, we need you to do that in a particularly way a
way that allows us to gather the data we need to answer questions of interest.
The process of gathering these goals together BEGINS with this worksheet and
ENDS next week at the workshop.
As such, after completing this worksheet you will be ready for the workshop! Whilst the
worksheet itself will take only about 15 minutes to complete, you may need to spend a
little bit of time thinking about your objectives before you begin.

Please bring this worksheet with you to next weeks workshop!

386

GAS exercise used as preparation for Study 4

Step 1:
Identifying what needs work
Most people know that if they want to develop and maintain good physical health both
inputs (nutrition) and outputs (exercise) need to be considered. Do you need to work on
both or one more than the other? The following questions will help you to clarify what
needs to be worked on:
How well have you done with your nutrition and exercise over the past month?
Nutrition (e.g. dietary habits, hydration, meal planning)

(out of 10)

Exercise (e.g. frequency, intensity, duration)

(out of 10)

Step 2:
What sort of OUTCOMES are you looking for?
The table below lists an array of general health and fitness outcomes that are likely to
reflect some of the outcomes you are seeking. Tick the outcomes that best reflect what
youd like to achieve (tick as many as you like):

Nutrition

Tick

Exercise

Drink more water

Lose weight

Consume less alcohol

Build muscle

Decrease cholesterol

Swim faster (run longer distances, etc)

Eat more fruit & veggies

Get more sleep

Reduce caffeine intake

Reduce (or stop) smoking

Establish better eating patterns

Become more flexible

Eat less processed foods

Maintain rehab. exercises

Any others?

Any others?

Tick

387

GAS exercise used as preparation for Study 4

Step 2: Identify a short-list
Having identified some areas in which youd like to see some progress, select the 3
outcomes that seem most important to you:
Outcome
1.
2.
3.

Step 3
Moving from Outcomes to Goals
A critical part of any health and fitness plan is knowing exactly what you are going to do
and how you are going to do it. As easy as it sounds, many people never get beyond
identifying their desired outcome (e.g. To lose weight) or, if they do, only make halfhearted attempts at setting the goals that are needed to achieve those outcomes.

Step 3 is about identifying what needs to happen to make the outcomes reality. Using the
outcomes you identified in Step 2, work through the following series of tables to draw out
some more information about where you are at currently, and what you believe needs to
happen next.
This step is illustrated in the example that follows.
Please note that perfection is not required just answer the questions as best you can.
Help will be available at the workshop if you need it.

388

GAS exercise used as preparation for Study 4

(Example) Outcome: Lose weight

What things can you do that will make an impact on this outcome?

Start walking & swimming again, drink more water & less coffee, continue
eating fruit, watch less TV, stop eating out so much
How much of the above are you doing right now?

Eating 2-3 pieces of fruit a day, one 30 minute walk a week, 4-5 coffees a day, 34 hours of TV a night, eating out 3 times a week
What arent you doing that would make a difference?

Swimming, drinking enough water, going for a walk as soon as I get home
(rather than switching on the TV), some meal planning

How much could you do (realistically) each week for the next 8-weeks?

An extra 30 minute walk a week, start swimming again (2 swims a week),

reduce coffee intake by 2 cups a day
Outcome 1:
What things can you do that will make an impact on this outcome?

How much of the above are you doing right now?

What arent you doing that would make a difference?

How much could you do (realistically) each week for the next 8-weeks?

389

GAS exercise used as preparation for Study 4

Outcome 2:
What things can you do that will make an impact on this outcome?

How much of the above are you doing right now?

What arent you doing that would make a difference?

How much could you do (realistically) each week for the next 8-weeks?

Outcome 3:
What things can you do that will make an impact on this outcome?

How much of the above are you doing right now?

What arent you doing that would make a difference?

How much could you do (realistically) each week for the next 8-weeks?

Dont forget to bring this worksheet along to the workshops next week.

390

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

GAS Chart

Name: XXXXX

Health Goal Chart

Goal 1:
Increase exercise

Goal 2:
Snack free
evenings

Goal 3:
Home cooked
meals

4hrs exercise
per week

7 snack
free evenings

>5 x healthy home

cooked meals per
week

More than expected

outcome

3.5hrs exercise
per week

6 snack
free evenings

5 x healthy home
cooked meals per
week

Expected outcome

3hrs exercise
per week

5 snack
free evenings

4 x healthy home
cooked meals per
week

Less than expected

outcome

2hrs exercise
per week

3 snack
free evenings (C)

2-3 healthy home

cooked meals per
week

Worst expected
outcome

1hrs exercise
per week (C)

No snack
free evenings

<2 healthy home

cooked meals per
week (C)

Outcome Levels

Best expected outcome

(C) = Current Level

391

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

17th 23rd October

Week 1 GAS

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday

Week 1 Totals:

At the end of Week 1:

Refer to page 3 and compare what you did during the week against the scale.

How did you do?

-2

-1

+1

+2

Worst
Expected
Outcome

Less Than
Expected
Outcome

Expected
Outcome

More Than
Expected
Outcome

Best
Expected
Outcome

GAS rating (e.g. +1)

392

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

24th 30th October

Week 2 GAS

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday

Week 1 Totals:

At the end of Week 2:

Refer to page 3 and compare what you did during the week against the scale.

How did you do?

-2

-1

+1

+2

Worst
Expected
Outcome

Less Than
Expected
Outcome

Expected
Outcome

More Than
Expected
Outcome

Best
Expected
Outcome

GAS rating (e.g. +1)

393

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

31st 6th November

Week 3 GAS

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday

Week 1 Totals:

At the end of Week 3:

Refer to page 3 and compare what you did during the week against the scale.

How did you do?

-2

-1

+1

+2

Worst
Expected
Outcome

Less Than
Expected
Outcome

Expected
Outcome

More Than
Expected
Outcome

Best
Expected
Outcome

GAS rating (e.g. +1)

394

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

7th 13th November

Week 4 GAS

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday

Week 1 Totals:

At the end of Week 4:

Refer to page 3 and compare what you did during the week against the scale.

How did you do?

-2

-1

+1

+2

Worst
Expected
Outcome

Less Than
Expected
Outcome

Expected
Outcome

More Than
Expected
Outcome

Best
Expected
Outcome

GAS rating (e.g. +1)

395

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

End of Mindfulness Training phase

Coaching phase begins

Please continue to monitor your progress

during Weeks 5-8 by using the sheets provided

396

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Coaching note sheets
Date:

Week 5 Session Notes

Preparing for the coaching session:

How am I feeling today? How has the past week been?

What action have I taken since last session? What wins did I have?

What issues / challenges need to be explored?

What would be the most useful thing to focus on this session?

Session Notes:

Confidence Rating (out of 10):

1

10

397

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

Week 5 GAS

14th 20th November

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday

Week 1 Totals:

At the end of Week 5:

Refer to page 3 and compare what you did during the week against the scale.

How did you do?

-2

-1

+1

+2

Worst
Expected
Outcome

Less Than
Expected
Outcome

Expected
Outcome

More Than
Expected
Outcome

Best
Expected
Outcome

GAS rating (e.g. +1)

398

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Coaching note sheets
Date:

Week 6 Session Notes

Preparing for the coaching session:

How am I feeling today? How has the past week been?

What action have I taken since last session? What wins did I have?

What issues / challenges need to be explored?

What would be the most useful thing to focus on this session?

Session Notes:

Confidence Rating (out of 10):

1

10

399

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

Week 6 GAS

21st 27th November

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday

Week 1 Totals:

At the end of Week 6:

Refer to page 3 and compare what you did during the week against the scale.

How did you do?

-2

-1

+1

+2

Worst
Expected
Outcome

Less Than
Expected
Outcome

Expected
Outcome

More Than
Expected
Outcome

Best
Expected
Outcome

GAS rating (e.g. +1)

400

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Coaching note sheets
Date:

Week 7 Session Notes

Preparing for the coaching session:

How am I feeling today? How has the past week been?

What action have I taken since last session? What wins did I have?

What issues / challenges need to be explored?

What would be the most useful thing to focus on this session?

Session Notes:

Confidence Rating (out of 10):

1

10

401

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

28th 4th December

Week 7 GAS

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday

Week 1 Totals:

At the end of Week 7:

Refer to page 3 and compare what you did during the week against the scale.

How did you do?

-2

-1

+1

+2

Worst
Expected
Outcome

Less Than
Expected
Outcome

Expected
Outcome

More Than
Expected
Outcome

Best
Expected
Outcome

GAS rating (e.g. +1)

402

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Coaching note sheets
Date:

Week 8 Session Notes

Preparing for the coaching session:

How am I feeling today? How has the past week been?

What action have I taken since last session? What wins did I have?

What issues / challenges need to be explored?

What would be the most useful thing to focus on this session?

Session Notes:

Confidence Rating (out of 10):

1

10

403

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

5th 11th December

Week 8 GAS

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday

Week 1 Totals:

At the end of Week 8:

Refer to page 3 and compare what you did during the week against the scale.

How did you do?

-2

-1

+1

+2

Worst
Expected
Outcome

Less Than
Expected
Outcome

Expected
Outcome

More Than
Expected
Outcome

Best
Expected
Outcome

GAS rating (e.g. +1)

404

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Goal Monitoring Sheet

GAS Summary To be completed at the end of Week 8

Goal 1:

Goal 2:

Goal 3:

Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Week 7
Week 8

Total GAS Ratings

To obtain the Overall GAS Rating for each goal,

divide the total GAS Ratings by 8
(e.g. 10 \ 8 = 1.25)

Overall GAS Rating

405

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Health and Fitness fact sheets

Fact Sheet
Before & After Exercise
Warming Up
& Stretching

One very common mistake is stretching before muscles are

warmed-up. It is important to stretch after your muscles are warm
(after blood has circulated through them). Never stretch a cold
muscle - you need to warm up first.
A warm-up should be done for at least 5-10 minutes at a low
intensity. Usually, the warm-up is done by doing the same activity
as the cardiovascular workout but at an intensity of 50-60% of
maximum heart rate (max HR).
After you've warmed-up for 5-10 minutes at a relatively low
intensity, your muscles should be warm.
To prevent injury and to improve your performance, you should
stretch the primary muscles used in the warm up before
proceeding to the cardiovascular exercise.

Warming
Down

The cool down is similar to the warm-up in that it should last 5-10
minutes and be done at a low intensity (50-60% of max HR).
After you have completed your cardiovascular exercise and
cooled-down properly, it is now important that you stretch the
primary muscles being used.
Warming-up, stretching, and cooling-down are very important to
every exercise session. They not only help your performance levels
and produce better results, they also drastically decrease your risk
of injury.

406

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Health and Fitness fact sheets

Fact Sheet
3 Important Principles of Exercise
Frequency

The first principle of cardiovascular exercise is frequency of the

exercise, which refers to the number of exercise sessions per week.
To improve both cardiovascular fitness and to decrease body fat
or maintain body fat at optimum levels, you should exercise
(cardio-vascularly) at least three days a week. The American
College of Sports Medicine recommends three to five days a week
for most cardiovascular programs.
Those of you who are very out of shape and/or who are
overweight and doing weight-bearing cardiovascular exercise such
as an aerobics class or jogging, might want to have at least 36 to
48 hours of rest between workouts to prevent an injury and to
promote adequate bone and joint stress recovery.

Duration

The second principle of cardiovascular exercise is the duration,

which refers to the time you've spent exercising. The
cardiovascular session, not including the warm-up and cool-down,
should vary from 20-60 minutes to gain significant
cardiorespiratory and fat burning-benefits.
Each time you do your cardiovascular exercise, try to do at least
20 minutes or more. Of course, the longer you go, the more
calories and fat you'll "burn" and the better you'll condition your
cardiovascular system.
All beginners, especially those who are out of shape, should take a
very conservative approach and train at relatively low intensities
(50-70% max HR) for 10-25 minutes. As you get in better shape,
you can gradually increase the duration of time you exercise.

407

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Health and Fitness fact sheets

Fact Sheet
3 Important Principles of Exercise
Intensity

The third principle of cardiovascular exercise is intensity, which

refers to how hard you exercise. A common mistake for people
beginning exercise programs is to go too hard early. This leads to
injuries and dropouts.
It is important that you gradually increase the duration before you
increase the intensity.
That is, when beginning a walking program for example, be more
concerned with increasing the number of minutes of the exercise
session before you increase the intensity (by increasing your speed
or by walking hilly terrain).

408

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Health and Fitness fact sheets

Fact Sheet
Frequently Asked Questions
What happens
to my heart
when I
exercise?

When you exercise, your heart has to pump more blood to

supply oxygen to your muscles. The volume of blood that your
heart pumps in a minute depends on the heart rate (the number
of beats per minute) and the stroke volume (the blood volume
pumped by each ventricle of your heart with each beat).
When you exercise, your heart beats faster and contracts more
forcefully, pushing out more blood and increasing its stroke
volume.
During vigorous exercise, the return of blood from your veins
to your heart increases, causing the ventricles of your heart to
fill more fully with blood, stretching them a bit.
Like other muscles, the heart contracts more forcefully if it is
stretched a little before contraction. So the increase in returning
blood also adds to the stoke volume by increasing the volume
of blood in each ventricle and by causing the heart to beat more
forcefully.
So what?
By training aerobically on a regular basis, you gradually increase
the volume of blood that your heart can pump in a minute. This
change results from an increase in your heart's stroke volume,
since the maximum heart rate isn't changed by training.

409

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Health and Fitness fact sheets

Fact Sheet
Frequently Asked Questions
Why do my
muscles
sometimes
burn when
Im exercising?

The "burn" comes from the build-up of lactic acid, which forms
as a by-product of energy production by muscle fibres.
As the fibres convert glycogen to ATP, some of the reactions take
place without oxygen. In this process, a compound called pyruvate
is produced.
Some of the pyruvate is absorbed into the muscle cell's
mitochondria and converted into useful energy. But during
strenuous exercise, the mitochondria can't handle all the pyruvate
that's produced.
So what?
The excess pyruvate becomes lactic acid, a dead end as far as
energy production is concerned.
As the concentration of lactic acid in the muscle fibre increases,
the acidity of the cell changes, causing muscle fatigue and the alltoo-familiar "burn."
The best way to relieve lactic-acid-induced soreness is to continue
to move around, but at a slower pace and without strain or with
massage. Both stimulate blood circulation, which cleans out the
built-up lactic acid from the muscles.

410

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Health and Fitness fact sheets

Fact Sheet
Frequently Asked Questions
Why do I feel
sore the day
after I exercise?

The soreness comes from inflammation of the muscles. If you

over-exercise or exercise improperly, you can make small tears in
the muscle fibers.
Various proteins and other material from inside the cell can then
leak out. Your body's immune system sees the leaking material and
tries to destroy it, creating a mild inflammation, which you feel as
next-day soreness (that's why taking anti-inflammatory drugs, like
Advil, helps ease the pain.)
So what?
With training, your muscles get more resistant to exercise-induced
stress and become less likely to tear or otherwise be damaged.
According to Dr. Stephen Seiler, an exercise physiologist at the
Institute of Sport and Health at Agder College in Kristiansand,
Norway, "For the regular exerciser, next-day soreness is a sign of
over-stress and definitely should not happen every day or even
very often."

411

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Health and Fitness fact sheets

Fact Sheet
8 Health & Fitness Myths
Myth #1
The "No Pain, No
Gain" approach to
fitness

Myth #2
If you stop
exercising your
muscles will turn
to fat

Myth #3
You burn more fat
by exercising
longer at a lower
intensity

Pain is your bodys way of telling you somethings wrong. So, take some time
to listen to it. Exercise doesnt have to hurt to be good for you. If it hurts,
youre probably doing something wrong.
People new to exercise may feel some muscle soreness called delayed onset
muscle soreness which usually subsides after a few workouts. But, the key to
a successful exercise program is to make sure you give your muscles time to
adapt, otherwise youll be risking injury.
Actually, fat and muscle are two different types of tissue. One does not
convert to the other. What usually happens is that muscles atrophy.
If you maintain the same caloric intake and reduce the amount of exercise,
youll increase body fat and lose muscle mass.
Not really. You do burn a higher percentage of fat as a fuel source when
working at lower intensities, but the most important factor to overall fat
utilization is the number of calories that you burn over the course of the day.
Exercising at higher intensities allows you to burn more calories during each
given session and thus a higher caloric expenditure at the end of the day.
However, if you are new to exercise, it is recommended that for safety you
start out at a lower intensity and allow your body time to adapt to the highintensity workouts.

Myth #4

You can eat

anything you want
as long as you
exercise

Wish it were truesadly, thats not the case. Exercise and a poor diet is
definitely far better than no exercise and a poor diet, but the best
combination for health is eating a well-balance, healthy diet and getting
regular exercise.
You will get more from your exercise sessions by fueling your body with high
quality food and you will feel better overall.

412

Excerpt from coaching handbooks used in Study 4

Health and Fitness fact sheets

Fact Sheet
Health & Fitness Myths
Myth #5

To build muscles
you need to eat
high-protein foods

There is no scientific evidence supporting the popular belief that developing

muscle size requires massive amounts of protein. In fact, most of the excess
protein that is taken in to your body is often flushed out.
So, if you are buying those high price protein shakes in the hopes of getting
bigger, chances are you have expensive urine. The best approach you can take
for increasing muscle strength and size is to follow a well-designed weight
training program and eat a healthy diet.

Myth #6

True, having a consistent exercise program and a healthy diet will go a long
way in the prevention of many of the lifestyle-related diseases that plague our
health. But, there are times when exercise can be contraindicated for certain
health conditions. Its always best to speak with your physician prior to
beginning any exercise program.

Myth #7

This is one of most common myths and it couldnt be farther from the truth.
In fact, weight training is often the easiest and quickest way to look leaner,
sculpted and more toned.

You can fix all of

your problems
with exercise

Weight training
will bulk you up

Chances are youll have to be taking steroids to achieve the "bulked-up" look
that most body builders have, so dont be afraid of weights. Incorporating
strength training twice a week into your exercise program will help protect
you from injury, tone your muscles, help prevent osteoporosis and burn
excess body fateven when you are resting.
You can exercise too much. Many people fall into the belief that if some
The more exercise, exercise is good, more is better. However, too much exercise can lead to
injury and illness. In fact, your body doesnt actually experience muscle
the better
growth when youre in the weight room. Its only during your rest periods
that your body can respond to the exercise. So, make sure you give yourself
enough time to recover from a workout.

Myth #8

Source: Department of Recreational Sports, University of California, Berkeley

413

Appendix H
Mindfulness Training kits used in Study 4

Photographs of a mindfulness training kit, showing MP3 player, vinyl carry case and 4week program manual.

Copy of the training manual.

Audio files used for mindfulness training exercises

*** See inside back cover for CD ***

414

Photographs of Mindfulness Training Kits

415

416

Coaching Psychology Unit

University of Sydney

Health Coaching Evaluation

Program Manual and Training Kit

Mindfulness Training
The MP3 Player
The Collection of Data

What to Expect & Handy Hints

Data Sheets

Page 5
Page 6
Page 7-9
Page 10-14

As the kit will be used by other research participants, it must be

returned at the end of the 4-week training period.

Important Note
Throughout the duration of the research, this kit remains the property
of the Coaching Psychology Unit.

Rationale: Why Mindfulness Training?

Page 3-4

Contents

Mindfulness Training manual used in Study 4

417

To overcome this problem we need to find a way to reduce

high levels of negative self-focused attention. This can be
achieved by practicing a technique called mindfulness
training.

Often times these thoughts and feelings are negative (e.g.

Im embarrassed about my body) and when we focus on
them too much they tend to get stronger. When this
happens many people start to become avoidant (e.g. Im
too busy too exercise) and often give up.

In other words, mindfulness training is like gym equipment

for your attention.

Developing better control over your attention can enhance

your ability to deal more effectively with negative thoughts
and feelings, and allow you to become more focused on the
things you need to do to become fitter and healthier.

Like all muscles, our attention tends to get weak if we dont

exercise it. Mindfulness Training is a way of strengthening
this muscle and giving you more control over it.

As you prepare to begin the Mindfulness Training Program,

think of your attention as being like a muscle.

People who are successful at maintaining health and fitness

programs tend to be good at controlling what they focus
their attention on and choose to think about.

These abilities are useful because making changes to our

health-related behaviours tends to activate all sorts of
thoughts, feelings and beliefs about exercise, eating and
ourselves.

Rational: Why Mindfulness Training?

Rationale: Why Mindfulness Training?

Mindfulness Training manual used in Study 4

418

Quick &
easy

The MP3 player is easy to use. However,

should you experience any difficulties please
refer to the manual provided with the kit.

The MP3 player is powered by one AAA

battery (already installed), which should be
sufficient to last the duration of the program. A
replacement battery has been included,
however, just in case it is needed.

Both the manual and MP3 files are copyrighted.

Any unauthorised reproduction of these
materials is not permitted.

Manual

Batteries

Copyright

Accuracy

Weekly
Tally

Purpose

An MP3 player is a device that stores and plays

digital audio files (such as music, sound and
voice recordings). They are compact, easy to
carry and used with headphones (so they are
not intrusive).

Description

The MP3 Player

Good quality research relies upon accurate

information. Please be as honest and accurate
as possible.

At the end of each week, please tally the total

number of exercises completed.

Completing the data sheets should only take a

few seconds. Simply tick the relevant box
whenever you complete an exercise.

Included in this manual are 4 data sheets (one

for each week of the program). These sheets are
an important part of the research, as they will
capture information about your completion of
the daily training exercises.

The Collection of Data

Mindfulness Training manual used in Study 4

419

Slowing
Down is
Hard

People have many different reactions to the

mindfulness training exercises that you will be
practicing in this program.

So much of our focus tends to directed towards

the future or the past that we lose our ability to
focus on what is happening in the present
(which both Buddhists and psychologists agree
is a bad thing!)

Stilling the mind and body is difficult because it

generally cuts across what most people have
conditioned themselves to do.

In simple terms, Mindfulness Training is about

sitting still, being quiet and paying attention to
what is happening moment-by-moment. Whilst
this might seem an easy thing to do, its actually
harder than it sounds.

What to Expect

Your
Mindset

Reactions

To get the most out of the program, we

recommend you approach the exercises with
an open mind and a spirit of experiment and
enquiry.

However, not everyone will experience the

exercises in this way. Many people have found the
exercises to be relaxing, centring and calming.

Should you experience any negative thoughts

about the exercises, it will be important to
remember that these are only thoughts and that
the exercises can still be helpful.

Like others, it is possible that you may experience

these exercises as either: unusual, uncomfortable,
irritating, pointless or confusing.

What to Expect: Reactions

Mindfulness Training manual used in Study 4

420

DONT

DO

be discouraged if you have some difficulty with

the exercises at first. Whilst you will certainly
improve with practice, the most important thing
is that you at least attempt the exercise.

worry if your mind wanders during practice,

just gently bring it back to the task.

practice when interruptions are likely (e.g. at

work) or when it isnt realistic (e.g. on a train).

fill out the data sheets immediately after

finishing an exercise, so you dont lose track.

get adequate rest. You wont get the most out

of the exercises if you drop off to sleep every time
you sit down for a moment.

practice when you are generally at your most

relaxed (e.g. early morning)

Handy Hints

Total

Tuesday

Monday

Sunday

Saturday

Friday

Thursday

Wednesday

Week 1

AT2

AT3

(all 3 exercises per day)

AT1

Mindfulness Training manual used in Study 4

421

AT2

AT3
MM2

MM3

Thursday
Friday
Saturday
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Total

Friday

Saturday

Sunday

Monday

Tuesday

Total

Week 3

Thursday

(one exercise per day)

MM1

Wednesday

(all 3 exercises per day)

AT1

Wednesday

Week 2

AT2

AT3

(all 3 exercises per day)

AT1

Mindfulness Training manual used in Study 4

MM2

MM3

(one exercise per day)

MM1

422

Total

Tuesday

Monday

Sunday

Saturday

Friday

Thursday

Wednesday

Week 4

AT2

AT3

(all 3 exercises per day)

AT1
MM2

MM3

(one exercise per day)

MM1

Thank you for your participation.

gordons@psych.usyd.edu.au

the training kit as soon as possible.

Please email Gordon Spence and arrange to return

End of the Mindfulness Training phase

Mindfulness Training manual used in Study 4

Appendix I
Chapters published or accepted for publication in the peer-reviewed press

Spence G.B., Cavanagh, M.J., & Grant, A.M. (2006). Duty of care in an unregulated industry:
Initial findings on the diversity and practices of Australian coaches. International
Coaching Psychology Review, 1(1), 71-85.
Spence, G.B., & Grant, A.M. (in press). Professional and peer life coaching and the
enhancement of goal striving and wellbeing: An exploratory study. Journal of Positive
Psychology. Accepted for publication 2nd November, 2006.

423

Duty of care in an unregulated industry:

Initial findings on the diversity and
practices of Australian coaches
Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant
Little has been reported about the skills, experience and training of coaches in the Australian context, yet
these are critical factors in the ethical practice of coaching. Previous research and experience suggests that
formal coach training varies considerably in terms of curricula and quality. At the same time, data is
emerging that suggests a significant number of coaching clients may be using coaching as a sociallyacceptable form of meeting therapeutic needs. This raises questions about the duty of care coaches owe to
their clients in safeguarding their mental health and well-being. Similarly, it raises questions about the
degree to which current industry training assists coaches discharge that duty of care. In order to explore
these issues empirically, a total of 148 Australian coaches answered a questionnaire covering three areas:
(i) current coaching practice; (ii) background experience and coach training (iii) ethics and professional
affiliations. A minority of respondents reported a background in psychology or counselling, yet more than
10 per cent of respondents indicated that they regularly coached clients in relation to issues commonly
associated with serious psychological distress (e.g. fears about personal loss, life crises, social isolation and
self esteem). The preliminary data presented here indicate that there is need to identify the range and depth
of issues presented in coaching, the training needed for coaches to effectively identify and refer clients with
mental health issues, and the limits and responsibilities of our duty of care as coaches.
LTHOUGH COACHING HAS BEEN
described as a boom industry
(Naughton, 2002), very little is
known about the composition of the
coaching industry in Australia. Whilst the
unregulated nature of coaching has
prompted recommendations relating to the
formal preparation of coaches (Garman,
Whiston & Zlatoper, 2000) and the need for
standards of competence (Brotman, Liberi
& Wasylyshyn, 1998), acting on these recommendations becomes difficult whilst the
characteristics of the industry remain
hidden. As such, this paper has two principle
aims. The first is to begin building a profile
of the Australian coaching industry by
reporting the findings from a survey into the
characteristics and practices of Australian
coaches, in particular the breadth of skills,
experience and training that currently exists
among practicing coaches. Second, we will
discuss the implications of these findings
and question the degree to which coaches

are adequately equipped to address mental

health issues when they happen to emerge in
coaching engagements.

Two strands of coaching research

Profiling the Australian coaching industry.
The current study was designed to investigate characteristics of Australian coaching
practitioners. Whilst we expect the findings
from this study to complement earlier findings by Clegg, Rhodes and Kornberger
(2003), the present study extends the scope
of the research by asking respondents to
outline the particulars of their experience,
education and training, ethical practices and
professional affiliations.
Such information has importance for the
professionalisation of the industry. For
example, if the march towards professionalism is to include some degree of standardisation in coach education (as has been
suggested by Grant, 2003), then it will be
necessary to accurately assess the areas in

International Coaching Psychology Review Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006

The British Psychological Society 2006 ISSN: 1750-2764

424

71

Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

which knowledge gaps most obviously exist.
In this paper, mental health issues will be
presented as one such area.
Mental health issues and coaching
This discussion is prompted by two recent
coaching studies (Green, Oades & Grant,
2005; Spence & Grant, 2005) that suggest life
coaching may be attracting individuals who
wish to address an array of mental health
issues (e.g. depression, social anxiety)
without the stigma often associated with
therapy and counselling. This raises the
possibility that life coaching may be publicly
perceived as a socially acceptable form of
therapy (Cavanagh, 2005) and, if so, it is
pertinent to ask: How well equipped are
Australian coaches for dealing with the
mental health issues that may emerge in
coaching? Whilst anecdotal evidence
suggests that depression, anxiety, personality
disorders and suicidality are all the most
common mental health issues found in
coaching, open discussion of such matters is
rare within the industry.
Given that there are no barriers to
entering the industry, it may be that few
coaches possess the requisite skills or confidence to deal with such issues. If so, then
coaching engagements have the potential to
be counterproductive for clients when
mental health issues are salient to the goals
of coaching (Berglas, 2002; Cavanagh,
2005). For the unwary or uninformed coach,
such a situation may have legal ramifications.
It is not the intention of this article to
create undue anxiety about what might
happen in coaching, or even to suggest that
a majority of coaches currently act unethically. Indeed we are unaware of any cases in
which an Australian coach has been sued for
negligence arising from a coaching relationship. Rather, this article seeks to raise awareness about the obligations of coaching
practitioners, by exploring the potential
links between coaching, mental health issues
and the law. Given that litigation is currently
on the rise in Australia (Betts, 2004) this
issue appears to be ripe for discussion.
72

Specifically, we will examine what legal obligations exist for coaching practitioners in an
unregulated industry, before questioning
the degree to which existing ethical frameworks assist coaches discharge their legal
duty of care.

The Australian coaching industry:

What we know and what we dont know
Although little is known about the profile of
the Australian coaching industry, anecdotal
evidence suggests that it is populated by a
diverse range of practitioners whose stock in
trade is the experience derived from a wide
variety of professional and non-professional
backgrounds. Beyond that, however, little
can be said with certainty, as research on the
Australian industry appears to be limited to a
solitary working paper focused specifically
on business coaching (Clegg, Rhodes &
Kornberger, 2003).
In this study, Clegg and colleagues
assessed the structure and characteristics of
the Australian business coaching industry by
surveying 42 coaching firms. They sought to
ascertain: (i) the basic contours of the
business coaching industry; (ii) the characteristics that distinguish one firm from
another; and (iii) perceptions of the competitive environment. Based on their data they
drew three conclusions. First, business
coaching firms in Australia tend to be young
and small (p.8), with 65 per cent of firms in
business for less than five years, 86 per cent
employing less than five people and more
than 50 per cent of businesses working out of
home offices.
Second, most firms appeared to see themselves as generalists, with only 12 per cent
dedicated to business coaching, whilst 51 per
cent of firms offered business coaching and
at least two other types of coaching related
service (either executive coaching, life
coaching, consulting, training or coach
training). Lastly, firms in the industry appear
to have a poor appreciation of the competitive environment in which they work, with
over half the respondents unable to identify a
single competitor by name.

International Coaching Psychology Review

4252006
Vol. 1 No. 1 April

Duty of care and coaching

Whilst this study provides some useful
initial insights into the Australian industry,
particularly in respect of its maturity, there
are many areas of interest that have yet to be
explored. For example, little is known about
the diversity of coaching-related skills,
training and experience amongst Australian
coaches. Given that coaching has rapidly
emerged in the past decade (Naughton,
2002), two questions can be posed about the
industry. Firstly, what experience do coaches
draw upon in coaching, and secondly, what
specific coach training have they had?
In addition, the unregulated nature of
the industry invariably prompts questions
about ethical standards and practices within
the industry. For example, do coaches
discuss ethical issues with their clients? If so,
how do they do this? What are the boundaries of confidentiality and disclosure within
the coaching relationship? What professional affiliations do coaches hold? What
evidentiary bases do coaches draw on to
support their claims of efficacy?
This study seeks to examine some of
these questions, by presenting the findings
from a survey of practicing coaches and
discussing the implications of these for
future research and training needs.

Survey of Australian Life Coaches and

Executive Coaches
The survey was conducted during the First
International Coach Federation Australasian
Conference held in Sydney during August
2002. It should be noted that the results
reported here represent initial findings only
and a three-year follow-up is planned, for the
purpose of detecting change across the
industry during the research timeframe.
Method
Instrument. To ensure the highest possible
response rate, it was decided that the questionnaire should be brief and easy to
complete. For this reason, the survey
consisted primarily of forced choice items,
with respondents selecting from a range of
possible responses (e.g. How many hours a
International Coaching Psychology Review

week do you coach? (i) <5 hours; (ii) 510

hours; (iii) 1120 hours; (iv) >20 hours). In
addition, in order to gain more detailed
information, a small number of free
response items were included (e.g. In your
experience, what are the three most
common issues that lead clients to seek
coaching?).
The final questionnaire consisted of 25
items arranged in three areas of general
interest: (i) current coaching practice; (ii)
background experience and coach training;
and (iii) ethics and professional affiliations.
Items were designed to assess the following
information: general demographic data (e.g.
age, sex), coaching status, modes of
coaching, niche specialisation, industry
background, coach specific training,
coaching related experience, professional
affiliation and endorsement of a recognised
ethical code.
Procedure. The questionnaire was printed on
one (double-sided) A4 page and included a
short participant information statement and
consent clause. Conference delegates were
introduced to the surveys via a series of
announcements made throughout the
conference. To assist, conference organisers
agreed to include the questionnaires in
approximately 400 conference information
satchels, with respondents asked to complete
the questionnaires and place them in a
sealed collection box located in the conference foyer. The survey took between five to
10 minutes to complete.
Participants
Respondents were Australian coaches who
were practicing at the time of the survey.
From the initial pool of 155 respondents,
seven surveys were excluded on the basis that
they were not practicing coaches. Thus, the
final sample became 148, representing a
response rate of 37 per cent.
The sample consisted of 110 females (74
per cent) and 38 males (26 per cent), with a
mean age of 43.5 years (females = 42.7 years,
males = 46 years). Not surprisingly, 88 per

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Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

cent of the respondents were located on
Australias eastern sea board (New South
Wales 55 per cent, Queensland 10 per cent,
and Victoria 23 per cent) however, as this
survey was conducted in Sydney, the result
should not be viewed as an accurate reflection of the geographical distribution of
coaches in Australia.
Results
Current coaching practice
Here practitioners were asked about the
depth of their coaching experience, where
and how they did their coaching, most
commonly encountered coaching issues,
and niche specialisation (if any).

proportion of the respondents appear to be

early-career coaches, with 38 per cent of
coaches having coached fewer than 10
clients, 22 per cent reporting less than 50
hours total coaching experience and 41 per
cent reporting that they coach less than five
hours per week.
This data also suggests that the industry
may include a core of highly experienced
coaches, as 26 per cent of respondents have
coached a total of more than 50 clients and
38 per cent report that their total coaching
experience amounts to greater than 200
hours. Finally, 70 per cent of coaches
reported that they coach for less than 10
hours per week.

Coaching status. First, to assess the current

level of engagement in coaching practice,
practitioners indicated whether coaching was
a full-time or part-time occupation. As seen in
Table 1, over half the sample confirmed that
coaching was their main occupation (58 per
cent) and, of these, 69 per cent indicated it
had been their main occupation for less than
two years. Only 12 per cent reported greater
than five years experience. When considered
regardless of occupation status, approximately a third of the sample (31 per cent)
reported total coaching experience of less
than one year, with more than half the total
sample possessing less than two years experience (55 per cent).
In addition, respondents were asked to
quantify their coaching experience (in terms
of total clients and numbers of hours
coached) and indicate their weekly activity
levels. As shown in Figure 1, a sizeable

Modes of coaching. Next, respondents were

asked to indicate: (i) where they conducted
most of their coaching sessions; and (ii) what
percentage of the time was spent coaching
using face-to-face, e-mail or telephonic
means. Over half the respondents (56 per
cent) reported conducting most of their
sessions from home, while 16 per cent
coached at work, 13 per cent from a rented
office and 15 per cent coached from the
clients office.
In addition, face-to-face coaching was
reported as more usual than technology
assisted coaching (i.e. telephone, e-mail, online chat). As can be seen in Figure 2, 36 per
cent of respondents reported that their
coaching was always conducted face-to-face
(with 27 per cent reporting mostly), whilst
only 12 per cent always coached by telephone (with 10 per cent reporting mostly).
In addition, 73 per cent reported on use of

Table 1: Coaching status and experience.

Response item

<1 year

12 years

25 years

>5 years

How long has coaching

been your main
occupation?

87

41%

28%

19%

12%

How long have you

been coaching?

148

31%

24%

25%

20%

74

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Duty of care and coaching

Figure 1: Total coaching experience and activity levels.

Total Coaching Clients
(N=148)

Total Coaching Hours

(N=148)

40

40

30

30

% 20

% 20

10

10

Hours per Week

(N=148)
50
40
30
%
20

<10

1125 2650
Clients

10
0

>50

<50

50100 101200
Hours

>200

<5

510
1120
Hours

>20

Figure 2: Predominant modes of coaching delivery.

80
60
% 40
20
0
Never
E-mail

Rarely

Sometimes

Face-to-face

Always

Phone

e-mail in their coaching (with only 27 per

cent reporting rarely). Only one respondent
indicated that they sometimes used on-line
chat to conduct coaching sessions.
Niche specialisation. Over half the coaches
surveyed (55 per cent) confirmed that they
had some sort of a niche specialisation. Of
those, 71 per cent reported an interest in
executive/corporate coaching, with the
remainder (29 per cent) reflecting more of a
life/personal coaching orientation. Whilst
these proportions are not surprising given a
coaching literature dominated by executive
and workplace coaching (e.g. Brotman et al.,
1998; Garman et al., 2000; Kampa-Kokesch &
Anderson, 2001), it should be noted that 45
per cent of all respondents did not name a
specialisation. This suggests that a significant
portion of the coaching community perceive
themselves as generalists and are willing to
coach in multiple domains and, presumably,
across a broad range of issues.

International Coaching Psychology Review

Mostly

Common coaching issues. Respondents indicated that the three most common issues
they
encounter
in
coaching
are
career/business related issues, relationships/interpersonal skills, and direction/
goal setting issues (see Table 2 overleaf).
When considered along with data just
reviewed on niche specialisations, these
results are not overly surprising although
financial and health/fitness issues may have
been expected to feature more prominently
in the results. Interestingly, the data also
revealed the presence of several issues that
may indicate clinical or sub-clinical mental
health concerns. For example, approximately 10 per cent of the coaches surveyed
indicated that they commonly coach clients
in relation to issues that include self-esteem,
self-worth, personal loss, life crises, social
isolation and distress.
While such issues do not with certainty
indicate the presence of mental health
issues, our experience suggests such a link,
particularly in cases where distress is great

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Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

Table 2: Most common coaching issues.

Coaching Issue

Description

Career/Business

Includes career management and transitions, business generation,

time management, professional development and strategic
development issues

43

Relationships/
Interpersonal

Includes leadership and interpersonal skills development,

team building and conflict management

40

Life Direction/
Goal Setting

Includes need to find direction, life purpose, goal clarification,

resolving ambivalence, exploring options and assistance
setting goals

40

Work/Life Balance

Includes developing stress reduction strategies, more family time,

exploring new interests, finding hobbies and reduced hours
in office

25

Mental Health

Includes issues related to developing self-esteem, negative life

events, social isolation and distress

15

Financial

Includes debt reduction, increasing savings, financial and

retirement planning

12

Health & Fitness

Includes increasing exercise levels, improved dietary habits,

more sleep, weight reduction and more holiday time

11

enough to motivate clients to seek assistance.

As we shall soon show, recent evidence
suggests that serious mental health issues are
being taken into coaching engagements.
However, given that few coach training
programmes offer any formal training in the
recognition or referral of mental health
issues, it is unlikely that practitioners are
adequately equipped to deal with such situations (Grant & Zackon, 2004).
Background experience and coach training
In this section, participants were asked to
indicate: (i) which industry they spent most
time working in prior to becoming a coach;
(ii) what sort of coach specific training they
had received; and (iii) what forms of
coaching-related experience they had
acquired.
Industry background. As can be seen in Table
3, the industry group most well represented
in this sample was consulting. Whilst this was
not unexpected, the disparity between
76

Freq.
(N=136)

consulting and other corporate sector

groups (particularly human resources and
trainers) was surprising, as was the small
number of human service professionals (e.g.
counsellors, psychologists, social workers)
who, when taken together, accounted for
only 20 per cent of the sample. Other
industry groups accounted for seven per
cent of responses and included the armed
services, information technology, sport and
recreation, tourism and the dramatic arts. Of
course, caution should be exercised in interpreting these results, as the location for the
survey (the ICFA conference) most likely did
not attract a representative sample of practitioners from the broader coaching community, rather a disproportionate number of
coaches affiliated to the ICFA.
Coach specific training. Over 90 per cent of
coaches in this sample reported having
completed some form of training. These
included training within a coach training
school (62 per cent), tertiary study in a

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Duty of care and coaching

coaching related field (such as psychology or
social work) (20 per cent) or training in a
helping-related methodology (e.g. in-house
workshops) or Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) (13 per cent). Of this training,
68 per cent of qualifications were obtained
within the last five years, with 84 per cent
obtained within the last 10 years. Encouragingly, only five per cent of respondents
reported having no coach-specific training at
all and only two per cent had received some
form of short in-house training or intensive
workshop.
Coaching-related experience. Finally, respondents reported on background experience
that could broadly be defined as coaching
because these experiences either developed
or broadened core coaching skills. Most
popular amongst these were training (57 per
cent), consulting (41 per cent), counselling
(48 per cent) and natural therapies (33 per
cent). Less frequently reported experience
included psychology (31 per cent), meditation (10 per cent), social work (nine per
cent), youth work and sport (both eight per
cent). Interestingly, while 31 per cent of
respondents claim an experiential background in psychology, less than 20 per cent
indicated any formal tertiary level study in
behavioural science. This may indicate a lack
of clarity over the boundaries between
practice in psychology and other forms of
helping relationship.

Ethics and professional affiliations

Participants were also asked to confirm how
they informed their clients about ethical standards in coaching practice. In this regard, 89
per cent of the coaches confirmed that they
provided their clients with some form of
ethical instruction, whilst 11 per cent did not.
Of those that did, 40 per cent gave a verbal
explanation, 11 per cent provided a written
hand-out and 49 per cent provided both.
Only 23 per cent of respondents
reported no professional affiliations. Of the
remainder, many of the coaches held
multiple affiliations, with the International
Coach Federation (ICF; 57 per cent) most
strongly represented. Coaches also reported
affiliations with Coachville (30 per cent), the
Australian Psychological Society (12 per
cent), the Psychologists Registration Board
(10 per cent) and a number of other institutions (13 per cent) such as the Australian
Institute of Management and the Australian
Association of Career Counsellors.

Discussion of survey results

As reported earlier, there has been at least
one other attempt to sketch the contours of
the Australian coaching industry, albeit one
segment of the industry: business coaching
firms (Clegg et al., 2003). In contrast, the
current study has been broader in its scope,
focusing on individual practitioners (rather
than firms) and without segmenting the
industry according to niche specialisations

Table 3: Background experience and coach training.

Industry Sector

Type of Coach Training

Consulting
Human Resources
Counselling/Psychology
Training
Education
Marketing
Finance
Social Work
Others

24
14
14
13
11
8
5
4
7

Coach Training School

Tertiary Institution
Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP)
No formal training
Other

62
20
11
5
2

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Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

(e.g. business coaching). Whilst these studies
might appear to be qualitatively different, we
would argue these differences are only
superficial and that these two studies are
entirely complementary.
For example, although the Clegg study
focused on business coaching firms, the
majority of these entities operated with less
than two people (of which 48 per cent were
one-person practices) and only 12 per cent
of respondents reported an exclusive focus
on business coaching. Indeed, data from
both studies suggests that the Australian
coaching industry is not yet mature enough
to allow meaningful segmentations of the
industry. That is, the Clegg study found that
51 per cent of respondents reported offering
at least two other types of coaching service,
whilst no niche specialisation was reported
by 45 per cent of coaches in our sample.
A diverse industry. Apart from validating many
of Clegg et al.s (2003) earlier findings, this
study also extends them. Most notably, the
findings have shown the great diversity that
exists within the Australian coaching
industry. Despite the existence of a small
core of highly experienced practitioners, the
vast majority of coaches appear to have little
coaching experience and report a great
diversity in skills and experience.
There are at least two reasons why the
industry might reflect such diversity. First,
coaching is a feel good industry and rightly
promoted as a dynamic, future-focused and
strengths-based form of human helping. As
such, it has obvious and wide-ranging
appeal. After all, what could be more satisfying than assisting another to scale the selfactualised heights of their Maslovian
pyramid? Increasingly, coaching appears to
be attracting the attention of people in
established occupations who seek either a
more meaningful career (e.g. a management
consultant who wants to become an executive coach) or an expanded practice (e.g.
clinical psychologist and life coach).
Second, the diversity of the coaching
industry may reflect the lack of barriers to
78

entry. It is not difficult to become a coach.

The Australian coaching industry is free
from any form of regulation. One has only to
decide that they will become a coach and
secure their first client to begin coaching.
Just as significantly, getting started requires
only a small investment of capital and has
few overheads. Hence, with no barriers to
entry and little financial outlay, a career in
coaching may appear very accessible, financially viable and immediate.
For some, diversity might be perceived as
a major strength of the coaching industry,
with consumers able to choose from a
greater range of practitioners and
approaches than would be available if the
industry were regulated. Of course, this
presupposes that consumers know what they
are looking for in coaching services and are
thus capable of making informed decisions.
Yet, as evidence we are about to present will
suggest, the general public may not understand the nature of coaching or the coaching
industry and, if so, they are likely to find the
industry difficult to navigate.
Of greater significance to the present
discussion, however, is the observation that
relatively few respondents (20 per cent)
reported any formal training in psychology
or the helping professions (e.g. counselling,
social work, nursing). Given that these
professions dedicate themselves to the
mental and physical health needs of individuals, this result was somewhat surprising.
Even more surprising was the finding that a
much larger proportion of respondents (31
per cent) claimed an experiential background in psychology. The precise nature of
this psychological experience is unclear.
However, it seems that for a significant
proportion of respondents, experience in
psychology is not linked with formal
training. This may reflect a very broad definition of psychology, such as used in the
personal development/self-help genre, or it
may indicate a bias toward using personal
development efforts as a basis for credentialing. At any rate, it is an issue that warrants
further investigation, and suggests psycholo-

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Duty of care and coaching

gists need to have a stronger presence in
coaching.
Indeed, the call for psychologists to
become more involved in coaching has
existed for sometime (Brotman et al., 1998;
Garman et al., 2000; Kampa-Kokesch &
Anderson, 2001) and there is increasing
evidence that these calls have not gone
unheeded (Cavanagh, Grant & Kemp, 2005;
Green et al., 2005; Spence & Grant, 2005).
Nevertheless, a lack of clarity around psychological services in the minds of coaches is
worrying given the findings of two recent
studies in the area of life coaching (Green et
al., 2005; Spence & Grant, 2005).
These studies examined the efficacy of
individuals and group-based life coaching
programs. Given the distinction that is regularly made between coaching and
psychotherapy (i.e. coaching is not
therapy), these studies both screened the
initial pool of participants for high levels of
psychopathology using a mental health
screening tool, the Brief Symptoms Inventory (BSI, Derogatis, 1993). Interestingly,
this screening procedure detected the presence of unexpectedly high levels of psychological distress in both samples. With the BSI
criterion set at two standard deviations above
the mean, both studies reported that 52 per
cent and 24 per cent of their initial samples
met (or exceeded) these levels. In both cases
these participants were excluded from
further participation and offered a clinical
referral. These findings are important as
they say something about the likelihood that
clinical concerns will emerge in coaching
engagements.
Whilst it is tempting to suggest that the
results of Green et al. (2005) and Spence and
Grant (2005) reflect a publicly held perception of coaching as socially acceptable
therapy, it should be acknowledged that the
studies in question were offering free life
coaching and may have attracted participants for many different reasons. However,
these initial participants must also have
perceived coaching to be a plausible option
for addressing their deeper psychological
International Coaching Psychology Review

concerns, which may invalidate the free

coaching explanation. For these reasons,
our claims can only be advanced tentatively
(as these studies did not set out to directly
investigate the public perception of
coaching), however, it does seem plausible
that coaching may be attracting a subset of
people with clinical concerns (e.g. depression) who wish to avoid the stigma attached
to therapy or counselling.

Mental health issues in coaching:

Importance and impact
While coaching seeks to assist people to
enact change, it is often carried out under
the assumption that one is dealing with individuals who are not suffering from clinical
levels of distress. This assumption justifies
coaches in taking a direct and robust and
challenging approach with clients. Hence,
the presence of significant levels of distress
and/or psychopathology may be of major
importance to well-being of the coachee and
success of the coaching project. For
example, a person suffering from unrecognised depression may willingly and eagerly
identify stretching goals in the hope that
their attainment may help make things
better. Unfortunately, the impact of depression on energy and motivation may mean
that the person is unable to rise to, or maintain the goal-directed behaviour required by
such a challenging coaching process
(Cavanagh, 2005). What ensues may be a
pattern of regular non-completion of set
coaching actions, followed by (at best) disengagement from the coaching process. More
likely, however, for such a person, coaching
may be experienced as yet another in a series
of failures, i.e. yet more evidence that they
are unable to measure up to what they see as
the legitimate demands of life. This negative
ruminative cycle is likely to worsen a depressive episode and may even give rise to potentially dangerous levels of hopelessness and
suicidal ideation.
Despite the considerable diversity that
exists in the coaching industry, most coaches
appear to unite around at least one common

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Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

understanding: coaching is not therapy.
Indeed, most coaching engagements are
usually prefaced by an explanation that
coaching is not concerned with treating deep
personal problems (the aim of therapy and
counselling), but rather to assist healthy
people unlock more of their potential and
become more effective (Cavanagh & Grant,
2004; Peltier, 2001; Williams, 2004).
Given this focus, it might be expected that
a large number of coaches have little or no
training or experience in dealing with mental
health issues. The preliminary findings of our
study are consistent with this expectation.
Less than 20 per cent of the sample indicated
a background in the helping professions
(such as psychology, counselling or social
work). At least superficially, there would
appear to be a significant lack of mental
health specific knowledge and training. As a
result, it is doubtful whether many coaches
are well equipped to effectively recognise
mental health issues in their clients, or to
assess their own capacity to assist clients whose
psychological status (e.g. mental health issues,
personality styles) make them challenging
individuals to coach (Cavanagh, 2005).
This is concerning given the earlier
reviewed evidence that suggests coaches are
almost certain to encounter significant
mental health issues at some point in their
coaching practice. Indeed, as Table 2 indicates, over 10 per cent of coaches indicate
that they regularly deal with issues often associated with mental health problems. As such,
it seems appropriate that further research
address two important questions:
Question 1: What guidance do coaches receive in the
appropriate handling of mental health issues?
A recent review of courses offered by coach
training providers revealed that mental health
training is not currently represented in the
vast majority of course descriptions (Grant &
Zackon, 2004). The majority of the coaches
(62 per cent) reported here received their
training from a coach training school. One
must conclude that most coaches are left to
develop their own approach to addressing
80

mental health issues with minimal guidance

(if they do so at all).
One form of guidance freely available to
practicing coaches are the ethical guidelines
of industry bodies. According to the data
presented earlier, 57 per cent of respondents were members of the ICF and 89 per
cent of the total sample provided their
clients with some form of ethical instruction.
As such, it would appear that a large number
of Australian coaches are bound by the
ethical guidelines and standards of conduct
advanced by that organisation.
However, a review of the ICF Code of
Ethics (ICF, 2005) reveals no mention of
mental health issues and only vague references to scenarios where mental health issues
might be inferred. For example, whilst provisions 18, 19, 20 and 21 (see Table 4) are
designed to ensure that coaches act in the
best interests of clients, there was little or no
readily available information regarding
referral procedures at the time of writing (e.g.
types of alternative assistance, how to
approach a referral conversation, or building
a referral network). Encouragingly, we note
that some mental health related guidelines
have been developed elsewhere by the ICF
(i.e. Top Ten Indicators to Refer to a Mental
Health Professional). While a welcome development, these guidelines may encourage an
overly simplistic approach to mental health
issues as they only list of the common symptoms of major depression. There is no
mention of anxiety disorders, personality
disorders, or any other forms of mental disturbance likely to be seen in coaching.
In sum, it appears that the majority of
coaches may have little knowledge, experience or guidance for dealing with mental
health issues that may arise during the
course of a coaching engagement.
Question 2: In an unregulated industry, what duty
of care does a coach owe their client? The ICF is
one of the few coaching organisations to have
articulated a framework for ethical practice.
Anecdotal reports suggest that these principles have also been adopted by many coaches

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Table 4: ICF standards for professional conduct with clients.

Standard

Description

# 18

I will respect the clients right to terminate coaching at any point during the process.
I will be alert to indications that the client is no longer benefiting from our
coaching relationship.

# 19

If I believe the client would be better served by another coach, or by another resource,
I will encourage the client to make a change.

# 20

I will suggest that my clients seek the services of other professionals when deemed
necessary.

# 21

I will take all reasonable steps to notify the appropriate authorities in the event
a client discloses an intention to endanger self or others.

not affiliated with the ICF. Whilst this is

undoubtedly a good thing, one wonders
whether these guidelines are adequate for
discharging the legal and moral obligations
coaches have towards their clients.
From a legal standpoint, the absence of
any Australian case law means that legal determinations have not yet been passed down for
the guidance of coaching practitioners.
Whilst it is possible that such determinations
may never be made, it seems more likely
(given that Australia is becoming increasingly
litigious see Betts, 2004) that the activities of
the coaching industry may be subject to legal
scrutiny at some point in the future. As such it
is worth briefly considering what conditions
would contribute to a determination of negligence in a coaching engagement.
According to Katter (1999), any claim of
negligence must first prove the existence of
a duty of care between two persons. For this, it
would be necessary to show that: (i) a coach
could reasonably foresee that the coachee
would be harmed by action or inaction on
their part; (ii) a close, causal relationship
existed (proximity); and (iii) it is fair, just
and reasonable for the law to impose that
duty on a coach (Katter, 1999). Given this set
of conditions, it is quite conceivable that a
legal duty of care could be demonstrated to
exist in a coaching relationship. The
following hypothetical case study outlines a
set of circumstances in which such a determination might be made:
International Coaching Psychology Review

A client with a history of depression

presents for career coaching. After
agreeing the desired coaching outcome
(e.g. career transition), the client and
coach set some intermediate (sub) goals
and plan a course of action. Before too
long, however, the client begins to
experience difficulties, fails to meet
agreed targets and starts to feel
inadequate. Despite the coachs best
attempts to support the client with
encouragement and revised goals, the
client continues to under-perform,
begins missing sessions and finally
discontinues coaching amid feelings of
worthlessness. The coach, whilst puzzled
by the clients behaviour, has no
knowledge of the clients clinical history
and does not offer a clinical referral.
Meanwhile, the client experiences a
depressive episode and attempts to
commit suicide. Upon recovering the
client files a motion and sues for
negligence, arguing that the coach had a
duty to investigate the clients history of
mental health and to refer to an
appropriate mental health professional.
In this scenario, according to Katters
criteria, it might be argued that a coach, as a
paid expert in human behaviour, is obligated to take action to determine what is
reasonably foreseeable (the first requirement)
in a coaching engagement (including asking
about any history of mental illness), and that

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Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

the personal nature of a coaching setting
amply provides for such enquiries. In addition, the client might argue that coaching
relationships, with its focus on personal
accountability for inaction, helped to cause
the depressive episode that led to the selfharm (the second requirement). If (i) and
(ii) are successfully argued then, according
to Katters guidelines, it may be considered
fair, just and reasonable (the third requirement) to impose a duty of care on the coach.
Although somewhat simplistic, we believe
that this example demonstrates how a legal
duty of care might be determined, and that
existing frameworks of ethical coaching
practice do not adequately guide practitioners in how to discharge such duties.

Limitations of the present study

This paper set out to draw together two
strands of coaching research. On one hand it
considered survey data indicating a considerable degree of diversity of skills, experience and training within the Australian
coaching industry, and on the other, empirical data suggesting that coaching is
attracting individuals who may wish to
address an array of mental health issues
without the stigma often associated with
therapy or counselling. In doing so, we have
sought to promote discussion about the
emergence of mental health issues in
coaching, outlined the legal duty of care
owed by a coach to a client, and questioned
whether coaches possess the requisite knowledge and skills to adequately discharge these
responsibilities.
Whilst the synthesis of these research
findings has been an important step in
addressing questions of importance for the
professionalisation of the coaching industry,
it would be premature to draw any firm
conclusions from the data given certain limitations of these studies. For example, we are
not able to report a response rate for our
survey. Whilst we do know that 148 out of
400 delegates (37 per cent) did complete the
survey, we know nothing about the characteristics of the non-respondents, including
82

their reasons for not responding. More

importantly, in distributing the survey at an
industry conference, it is highly likely that
sample was biased and non-representative of
the broader coaching community. As such, it
is difficult to make generalisations about the
Australian coaching industry from the available data.
In addition, some items in the survey
questionnaire may have been too open to
interpretation and not permitted an accurate assessment of individual characteristics.
For example, whilst the item: What forms of
coaching-related experience have you had?
was designed to tap into experiences that
either developed or broadened core
coaching skills (e.g. counselling), it may be
that respondents were biased towards
reporting greater levels of experience by
incorporating experience only tangentially
related to coaching (e.g. interactions with
children).
Finally, whilst the life coaching data
presented in this paper has been presented
as evidence for a public misperception of
coaching as socially acceptable therapy, this
cannot be firmly concluded as this was not
directly investigated by either Green et al.
(2005) or Spence and Grant (2005). As such,
the field would be enhanced by an investigation of publicly held perceptions, both about
the nature of coaching and attitudes towards
the coaching industry. Some further recommendations will now be made for the benefit
of future researchers.

Directions for future research

Whilst this paper has provided a first step in
developing a detailed profile of the
Australian coaching industry, several issues
are worthy of consideration by future
researchers. In our view, the issue of greatest
importance relates to the mental health
needs of clients and several questions are
posed to help guide future efforts.
When a mental health issue arises in coaching, how
does it emerge? While mental health issues may
be indicated by a range of obvious signs of

International Coaching Psychology Review

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Duty of care and coaching

distress or disorientation (e.g. crying), experience suggests that may clients with mental
health issues present at coaching in ways that
may mask the presence of mental health
issues, or at least make them more difficult to
detect. For example, the socially anxious
client may present with goals around
enhancing presentation skills rather than a
frank admission of debilitating anxiety in
social settings. Seriously depressed clients may
present seeking assistance with time management, procrastination, career change, or even
attaining unrealistic stretch goals.
While some research does exist linking
the type of personal goals adopted by individuals to the development of negative affect
and vulnerability to depression (Emmons,
1992; Street, 2002), there is no research to
date investigating the relationship between
goals and mental health in coaching clients.
As personal goals are the usual starting point
in any coaching relationship, one avenue for
future research would be to study the
presenting issues of coaching clients
(expressed as personal goals) and correlate
these with well-established measures of
psychopathology.
How do coaches define mental health issues?
Do they recognise them when they arise? Approximately 10 per cent of coaches in this survey
reported that self-esteem, negative life events,
social isolation and distress were all issues that
they commonly encountered in coaching.
Such issues may reflect deeper psychological
distress and, hence, may indicate the presence
of mental health concerns. The current
research does not indicate whether respondents make any substantial distinction
between issues such as improve my career
prospects and improve my self-esteem, nor
whether they are likely to investigate for potential mental health difficulties. Thus, another
avenue for research could be to assess
coaches perceptions of issues that are inappropriate for coaching, and to determine how
adept coaches are at recognising the presence
of underlying psychological issues and implementing appropriate referral procedures.
International Coaching Psychology Review

What mental health training does the industry

provide? Having identified mental health
issues as an area of importance to practicing
coaches, it would be useful to examine what
level of mental health training is currently
provided within the industry. As such, a
content analysis of the various curriculum
offered by coach training providers would be
helpful for both identifying whether a
training need exists in the preparation of
Australian coaches and for making recommendations about appropriate syllabus.
Some general comments. Ultimately the longevity
of the coaching industry will be governed by
its ability to deliver value in an ethical and
professional manner to individuals, groups,
organisations and the broader community.
Whilst Cavanagh and Grant (2004) have
suggested that this is best achieved by developing a widespread standard of practice that
incorporates theoretically guided and empirically tested models and techniques (p.13),
only a small amount of empirical work has yet
been conducted and little is known about the
theoretical perspectives that inform coaching
practice in Australia.
Aside from those important considerations, the ability of the coaching industry to
deliver value is tied to the ability of those
within the industry to uphold their duty of
care towards clients. We hope that the
current longitudinal study will assist the both
consumer of coaching services, coach
training providers and coaches by providing
a better understanding of profile of the
coaching community and identifying where
some critical training needs exist.

Conclusion
Whilst coaching is not therapy has become
a catch-cry throughout the coaching industry
(Cavanagh & Grant, 2004), evidence
suggests that coaching may be perceived
somewhat differently by potential consumers
(Green et al., 2005: Spence & Grant,2005). It
seems highly probable that, for a subset of
people with clinical issues (such as anxiety
and depression), coaching may be seen an

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Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

alternative to therapy or counselling, one
that is stripped of its social stigma and negative stereotypes.
This evidence suggests important mental
health issues are likely to arise in coaching.
In our view this presents coaches with a
number of challenges and opportunities.
Coaches face the challenges of making
judgements about the nature of the clients
issues and limits of their competence, and
then presenting their concerns to the client
and referring appropriately where necessary.
In this, coaches have to tread the fine line
between identifying when pathology needs
to be addressed and pathologising the client
(Maddux, 2002). This challenge introduces
added complexity to the coaching engagement for which coaches need to be trained.
Furthermore, the process of referral is
not an intrinsically attractive one. Many
coaches may fear clients will become
confused or angry when referral is
attempted. In addition, referring clients
away from coaching results in an immediate
loss of income. Whilst these difficulties are
undoubtedly trumped by a coachs duty of
care, they also present as opportunities for

coaches to demonstrate to clients that they

offer a sophisticated and differentiated
service to the market one which adds real
value to the client by ensuring the most
appropriate intervention is selected. Thus, in
developing an informed and professional
strategy for dealing with mental health
issues, coaches will be working towards
discharging both a legal and ethical duty of
care owed to their client, and moving the
coaching industry toward a more professional footing.

Correspondence
Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh &
Anthony M. Grant
Coaching Psychology Unit,
School of Psychology,
University of Sydney, Australia.
E-mail:
Gordon B.Spence:
gordons@psych.usyd.edu.au
Michael J. Cavanagh:
michaelc@psych.usyd.edu.au
Anthony M. Grant:
anthonyg@psych.usyd.edu.au

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Grant, A.M. (2003). Keeping up with the cheese! Research
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The Psychotherapy Networker, 42, July/August, 110.
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Street, H. (2002). Exploring relationships between
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The Journal of Positive Psychology, Month?? 2007; 2(2): 110

Professional and peer life coaching and the enhancement of goal striving
and well-being: An exploratory study

GORDON B. SPENCE & ANTHONY M. GRANT

University of Sydney, Australia

Abstract
10

15

Few studies have investigated the impact of life coaching on self-regulated behavior and well-being. A limitation of past
studies has been their reliance on peer rather than professional coaches. The present randomized controlled study compared
peer with professional life coaching over a 10-week period with 63 participants. Results indicated that, compared to peer
coachees and controls, coachees of professional coaches were more engaged in the coaching process, had greater goal
commitment and progression, and greater well-being in terms of environmental mastery; other facets of well-being did not
change. The results suggest that the presence of a supportive person may be a necessary but insufficient condition for
enhancing goal striving and highlight the importance of expertise in coaching. Recommendations are made for future
research and for using life coaching as a methodology for applied positive psychology.
Keywords: Personal goals, professional coaching, life coaching, peer coaching, goal striving, well-being, evidenced-based coaching

Introduction
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Personal goals exert a powerful influence over how

people behave and how they experience their lives
(for reviews see Deci & Ryan, 2001; Emmons, 1996).
Yet despite a growing body of evidence linking
personal goals to a range of self-regulatory processes
and psychological well-being (e.g., Brunstein, 1993;
Emmons, 1996; Omodei & Wearing, 1990; Ryan,
Sheldon, Kasser, & Deci, 1996), few researchers
have tested their theoretical models in real-world
contexts. As noted by Sheldon and colleagues
(2002), this is rather surprising given the promise
that personal goals appear to offer practitioners
in both clinical and non-clinical settings.
Life coaching is increasingly used by people who
want to attain important personal or professional
goals (Grant & Greene, 2001) and enhance their
well-being (Naughton, 2002). Given its goal-orientation, life coaching offers some promise to positive
psychologists interested in studying goal-directed
behavior and well-being. To date, however, psychologists have not played a major role in the development of this field. Rather, the public thirst for
personal development has typically been satisfied by
highly commercialized pop psychology approaches
that promise much in the way of results but lack

empirical validation or theoretical grounding (Grant,

2003a).

45

Having a goal and owning a goal are not the

same thing
Goal constructs have a prominent place in the history
of psychological research. A great deal is known
about the mechanics of goal setting and how
various attributes of goals (e.g., difficulty, specificity,
commitment, level of abstraction, temporal range)
impact on human motivation and performance
across multiple domains (for a comprehensive
review see Austin & Vancouver, 1996). More
recently, research attention has been directed
towards questions related to why people pursue
certain goals (Deci & Ryan, 2001) and how motivational orientations impact on self-regulated behavior
and psychological well-being (e.g., Ryan & Connell,
1989; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999). Despite mounting
evidence linking personal goals to personal growth
and psychological health, surprisingly few attempts
have been made to use goal setting as a means of
attaining these outcomes (Sheldon, Kasser, Smith, &
Share, 2002). More typically, goal setting has been
used as an organizational or therapeutic tool, such as
when line managers incorporate performance goals

Correspondence: Gordon B. Spence, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, Brennan MacCallum Building,
University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. Tel: 61 2 9036 9191. Fax: 61 2 9036 5223. E-mail: gordons@psych.usyd.edu.au
ISSN 1743-9760 print/ISSN 1743-9779 online/07/02000110 2007 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/17439760701228896

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into employee reviews (Locke, 1996), or when

cognitive-behavioral therapists use goal setting to
establish an exercise program with a depressed client
(Kirk, 1989).
While goal setting can be effective when used in
these ways, evidence suggests that personal goals are
also important because they vary in the degree to
which they lead a person towards adaptive functioning and psychological health. For example, Sheldon
and Elliot (1998) found that subjects reasons for
pursuing particular strivings predicted goal-directed
effort, goal attainment, and subjective well-being.
More specifically, they found that self-regulation and
well-being were greatest for those individuals who
pursed their goals more for the inherent interest and
enjoyment they afforded (i.e., autonomous reasons),
rather than for external rewards or because of
internal compulsions (i.e., controlled reasons).
Thus, they concluded that not all personal goals
are personal because goals are not always freely
chosen and do not always accurately represent
important aspects of the self (i.e., personal values
and interests).
Such findings have lead Sheldon et al. (2002) to
suggest that it may be useful for practitioners to place
personal goals at the center of their interventions,
citing other studies that have strongly suggested that it
is not merely having a goal that assists individuals to
do well and feel good (Lee, Sheldon, & Turban,
2003; Sheldon & Elliot, 1999), rather that one must
feel ownership of the goal, strongly identify with it, and
adopt it with a full sense of choice (Ryan et al., 1996).

develop and implement solutions to the ongoing

challenges faced during goal striving. Most importantly, emphasis is placed upon the role of the coach as
the facilitator (rather than the provider) of these
solutions, with solution-focused techniques widely
used as a means of assisting clients tap into their
personal strengths and resources (Berg & Szabo,
2005).
Finally, although clinical psychology has helped to
shape the development of various coaching practice
models (e.g., Berg & Szabo, 2005; Grant, 2003b),
coaching is less concerned with unraveling problems
and exploring past emotional pain than it is
with building solutions and promoting optimal
functioning. As such, it has a non-clinical orientation
and works best with clients who are capable of
engaging in (what are often) robust examinations of
personal and professional functioning (Cavanagh,
2005). This orientation is reflected in the catch-cry
of the life coaching industry: Coaching is not therapy
and does not deal with clinical issues (Cavanagh &
Grant, 2004). However, the boundaries between life
coaching, with non-clinical populations, and therapeutic interventions, which attempt to deal with
mental health issues, are not unambiguous. There is
concern that some people presenting for life coaching
may have mental health problems and may be looking
to life coaching as a means of alleviating depression or
anxiety (Green, Oades, & Grant, 2006). Thus it is
important that life-coaching clients are screened for
mental health problems and, if necessary, referred to
appropriate specialized help.

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Life coaching: Accelerated personal growth?

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Life coaching is one intervention that focuses

explicitly on the personal goals and aspirations of
individuals. Definitions of life coaching vary
( Whitworth, Kimsey-House, & Sandahl, 1998;
Williams & Thomas, 2004). Life coaching can be
understood as a collaborative solution-focused,
results-oriented process in which the coach facilitates
the enhancement of life experience and goal attainment in the personal and or professional life of
normal, non-clinical clients (Grant, 2003a, p. 253).
Some key points of this definition require elaboration.
First, coaching describes a collaborative relationship formed between a coach and a client (the
coachee) for the purpose of attaining personal
development outcomes that are valued by the coachee.
The articulation and clarification of personal goals is,
therefore, central to the coaching process and these
goals are generally set to stretch an individuals current
capacities (Grant & Greene, 2001). Second, coaching
is dialogue based but action oriented. That is, it
involves both talking and doing. Coaches seek to
accelerate goal attainment by helping individuals

Life coaching: Applied positive psychology

To date, few attempts have been made to elevate life
coaching above its common perception of new age
self-indulgence, or as simple goal setting around the
mundane . . . aspects of private life (Cavanagh &
Grant, 2004, p. 8). As such, conceptual links
between life coaching and psychological theory
have yet to be developed and, for many, this
disconnection seriously undermines the credibility
of the life coaching industry. Simply put, lifecoaching practice has run well ahead of related
theory and research. Anecdotal reports suggest that
this, along with the high degree of commercialization
and hyperbole that surrounds the industry (Grant,
2003a), has created considerable ambivalence
towards the life coaching industry.
This ambivalence is unfortunate, however, as
evidenced-based life coaching seems uniquely
placed to make significant contributions to the
positive psychology agenda (see Seligman &
Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). That is, life coaching seeks
to optimize personal functioning across multiple

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Professional and peer life coaching

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domains of life via a personalized, professional

relationship focused on the personal goals of individuals. As such, coaches have a unique platform from
which to deliver user-friendly psychology in the
service of becoming, say, a better parent, a more
effective leader, or a more successful artist. In guiding
these important pursuits, life coaches help others get
the most out of themselves and their lives, by drawing
out and building upon individual strengths and
virtues. Viewed in this light, life coaching can rightly
claim to represent positive psychology in action.
However, as suggested earlier, questions related to
the efficacy and beneficial effects of life coaching have
yet to receive much attention and only a few studies
have yet been reported in the literature.
Early life coaching research

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While it has been widely claimed that life coaching

leads to greater personal goal attainment and
enhanced well-being (e.g., Fortgang, 1998), little
empirical evidence exists to support such claims
(Grant, 2003a; Green et al., 2006). Nonetheless, an
extensive body of research clearly indicates that wellbeing is positively impacted when individuals attain
goals that accurately reflect their core values and
developing interests (Deci & Ryan, 2001). Building
upon such research, Grant (2003a) conducted the
first formal study of life coaching with 20 postgraduate students who participated in a group lifecoaching program over a 10-week period. After
attending a 1-day workshop and setting themselves
three personal goals, participants attended a series of
peer-group coaching sessions facilitated by a coach
who provided support, encouragement, and basic
training in a variety of cognitive-behavioral, solutionfocused coaching (CB-SFC) techniques (such as
cognitive restructuring and self-monitoring). Results
indicated that participation in the program was
associated with significantly higher levels of goal
attainment, along with improvements in metacognitive processing (self-reflection and insight) and
mental health (lower depression, stress, and anxiety).
One notable finding from this study was that life
coaching appeared to induce a movement away from
ruminative patterns of self-reflection that might
impede goal progression and toward reflective
processes more supportive of goal attainment.
In a follow-up study, Green et al. (2006) tested the
same CB-SFC program, with the addition of a
community sample (n 56), a wait-list control
group, and a 12-month longitudinal design. After
setting one specific personal goal at an initial 1-day
workshop, participants attended 8 weekly coaching
sessions and worked in peer coaching dyads, guided
by a trained instructor and a variety of coaching aides.
Results indicated that coachees reported significantly

higher goal attainment, positive affect, hope, and

psychological well-being (including autonomy
and environmental mastery) and significantly lower
negative affect.

235

Peer coaching
Peer coaching has also been studied for its utility in
more specific domains, with somewhat mixed results.
For example, fortnightly peer coaching has been found
to be a useful framework for supporting the learning
and development of managers (Ladyshewsky & Varey,
2005). Using qualitative methods, peer coaching was
found to not only strengthen knowledge frameworks
and broaden individual perspectives, the experience of
coaching and being coached also seemed to enhance
self-reflection and help managers identify areas in
need of skills development (e.g., listening skills).
In contrast, Sue-Chan and Latham (2004)
reported that the effectiveness of managerial coaching appears to depend heavily on the expertise of the
coach. Over two studies it was found that peer
coaches were perceived to possess less expertise and
be less credible than an external coach, with coaching
satisfaction and performance outcomes lower for the
peer coachees. This finding suggests there may be
some key characteristics of coaches (such as training
or familiarity) that are highly influential in determining the success of life coaching. The purpose of this
study is to further examine this issue.

240

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250

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260

The current study

Life coaching is not typically conducted by peer-group
coaches. Rather, it is usually conducted by a professionally trained coach who meets (one-on-one) with a
client to engage in regular goal-focused conversations
(at weekly or fortnightly intervals). As such, the
present study was interested to investigate life coaching using a design and methods that would (as
accurately as possible) reflect the realities of real
world coaching practice. More specifically, we were
interested to determine whether professional life
coaching is more effective than peer-group coaching
for enhancing goal striving and well-being. Given this
unique feature of the research, the study was
exploratory in nature and interested in examining
two basic questions:
(1) Is professional coaching more effective than peer
coaching for enhancing goal striving (as measured by goal progression and goal
commitment)?
(2) Does life coaching enhance the subjective and
psychological well-being of individuals?
Answers to such questions are of importance to both
researchers and practitioners. Not only would they

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speak to general questions related to the efficacy of

life coaching per se, they would also be helpful for
deciding between alternative coaching formulations.
For example, although peer coaching might be a cost
effective alternative to one-on-one professional
coaching (and therefore more desirable), it may not
be as beneficial. If so, an important costimpact
trade-off may need to be considered when designing
and implementing coaching programs.
Method

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Participants
After responding to local media advertisements and
registering their interest in the life-coaching program,
84 respondents completed a packet of pre-program
questionnaires. To reduce the likelihood that clinical
issues might arise during coaching, mental health
screening was conducted using the Brief Symptoms
Inventory (BSI; Derogatis, 1993). The criterion for
exclusion was set at 2 standard deviations above the
mean on the Global Severity Index, or on any two
subscales (i.e., a score of 470). At this level,
21 people (25%) were deemed to be ineligible and
offered a clinical referral. Characteristics of the final
sample (n 63) are shown in Table I.

Procedure
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Upon completion of the pre-program screening,

participants were invited to attend an information
night, at which the first author outlined the program
and answered any questions. Once informed consent
had been provided, participants were directed to a
computer and asked to complete a set of precoaching (Time 1) questionnaires that had been
posted on a departmental Internet site. Due to a lack
of familiarity with computers, two participants
requested pencil and paper copies of the questionnaires. Immediately following the information night,
participants where randomly assigned to either the
professional coaching, peer coaching, or control
conditions. Notification of group allocation was
provided by e-mail or telephone, along with a
timetable of coaching session dates, times, and
venues for all participants in the two coaching
conditions. At the end of the coaching period

Table I. Characteristics of the final sample.

Female/male
Age
SD

Professional
(n 21)

Peer
(n 22)

Control
(n 20)

Totals
(N 63)

15/6
37.9
10.31

17/5
35.81
9.85

15/5
42.2
10.64

47/16
38.59
10.44

(Time 2), participants were asked to complete

another set of questionnaires (repeated Time 1
measures) via the same departmental Internet site.
This allowed participants to complete the questions
remotely, via their personal computers, with only one
participant requesting a pencil and paper copy.

330

Cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused coaching

The programs reported here are underpinned by
a cognitive-behavioral, solution-focused coaching
framework (CB-SFC; Grant, 2003b). According to
this approach, goal attainment is best facilitated by
understanding the reciprocal relationships that exist
between thoughts, feelings, behavior, and the environment, and structuring these in ways that best
support goal attainment. The inclusion of solutionfocused techniques into this cognitive-behavioral
framework helps orientate coaching towards personal
strengths and solution construction, rather than
problem analysis (Grant, 2003b).
Manualized CB-SF life coaching programs have
been developed by Grant and Greene (2001) and are
available from the authors of this paper upon request.
The approach assists individuals to enhance goal
striving by: (1) developing a future vision, (2) identifying desired outcomes, (3) establishing specific personal goals, (4) enhancing motivation by identifying
strengths and building self-efficacy, (5) identify
resources and formulating action plans, (6)
regularly monitoring and evaluating progress, and
(7) the modification of action plans (based on the
evaluation of progress). As shown in Figure 1, the
monitor-evaluate-modification steps of this process
constitute a cycle of self-regulated behaviors known
to be important for successful behavior change and
which form the basis of the coaching process (Grant,
2003a).
After goal setting, the role of the professional and
peer coaches was to help coachees move through this
self-regulatory cycle, by monitoring and evaluating
their goal progression each week, and developing
action plans for each coming week. To provide each
life coaching session with an underlying structure
and process, the Goal-Reality-Options-Wrap-up
model (GROW; Landsberg, 1997) was used to
provide structure for the coaching conversations for
both the professional and peer coaching programs.
Using the GROW model, the coaching sessions
began with setting a goal (for the session), then
moved on to explore current realities, before developing a range of options for action, and concluded
with a wrap-up of steps and actions to be undertaken
by the coachee. An outline of the GROW model is
presented in Table II.

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Professional coaching. Participants in the professional

conditions received 10 consecutive weeks of life
coaching (45 minutes per session) with a professional
coach trained in CB-SFC principles. All coaches
were tertiary qualified in the psychology of coaching
(at Masters level) and, to ensure fidelity to the
CB-SFC approach, attended fortnightly supervision
meetings facilitated by an experienced coach familiar
with the approach but not otherwise involved in the
study. In addition, coaches were also provided with a
GROW session notebook that included a selection of
recommended questions and core coaching models
(e.g., cycle of self-regulation) that could be used as
learning aides during the coaching process.

Peer coaching. Participants commenced this program

by attending a 1-day workshop based on the
manualized CB-SF coaching program used by
Grant (2003a) and Green et al. (2006). This workshop was designed to help participants clarify their
coaching goals and establish action plans for the
attainment of those goals (in line with the coaching
process described above). Upon completion of the
workshop, participants attended a series of 10 weekly
group-based peer coaching sessions (75 minutes
duration) consisting of open discussions about
issues related to successful goal striving (facilitated
by the first author) and 2
25 minute peer
co-coaching sessions. Conducted in dyads, these
peer sessions allowed each participant the opportunity to engage in a regular goal-focused conversation
with a peer. To assist, all participants were provided
with GROW note taking sheets, which included an
array of suggested coaching questions.
Wait-list control group. Participants in this condition
were informed their program would not commence
for 3 months and that no action was required during
this period.

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Measures
Goal striving. Participants were asked to generate
three personal strivings, defined as an objective that
you are typically trying to accomplish or attain
(Emmons, 1986, p. 1060). Goal progression and
goal commitment were rated for each striving using
a 5-point scale (1 not at all, 5 extremely) in
response to the following questions: In the last
3 months, how successful have you been in attaining
this goal? and How committed do you feel towards
this striving? At Time 2 these items were reworded
to In the past 10 weeks . . ., in order to reflect the
period of the coaching programs.
Figure 1. Generic model of self-regulation.

Table II. The GROW model.

Acronym

Description

Goal

Coachee is asked to clarify what they want to achieve from each

session. Determines the focus of coaching.

Reality

Raise awareness of present realities. Examine how current situation

is impacting coachees goals.

Options

Identify and assess available options. Encourage solution-focused

thinking and brainstorming.

Wrap-up

Assist the coachee determine next steps. Develop an action plan and
build motivation.

Example questions
What do you want to achieve this session?
How would you like to feel afterwards?
What would be the best use of this time?
How have things gone in the past week?
How have you handled any problems?
What worked? What didnt work?
What possible options do you have?
What has worked for you in the past?
What havent you tried yet that might work?
What is the most important thing to do next?
What might get in the way?
Who might be able to support you?
How will you feel when this is done?

Source: Landsberg (1997); Grant & Greene (2001).

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Subjective well-being. As subjective well-being (SWB)

is widely agreed to contain an affective and cognitive
component (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999),
two measures were included to assess SWB. First,
short-term affective states were measured using
scales containing both positive adjectives (happy,
joyful, enjoyment/fun, pleased, enthusiastic) and
negative adjectives (angry, depressed/blue, anxious,
frustrated, unhappy) with participants rating their
experience from 1 Not at all to 6 Extremely so
(Bradburn, 1969). Sample alphas were 0.87 (Positive
Affect) and 0.85 (Negative Affect).
Second, the cognitive component of SWB was
assessed with the 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale
(SWLS; Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985).
Items include: The conditions of my life are
excellent and So far I have gotten the important
things I want in life, with participants rating their
agreement on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly
agree) scale. One of the most widely used measures of
well-being, the SWLS has good psychometric properties (Diener et al., 1999). The sample alpha was 0.80.

Psychological well-being. A eudaimonic measure of

well-being was obtained by having participants

complete the 54-item Scales of Psychological

Well-Being (SPWB; Ryff, 1989). Scored on a
6-point scale (1 strongly disagree, 6 strongly
agree), the SPWB measures well-being on six subscales: Autonomy, environmental mastery, purpose
in life, personal growth, self-acceptance, and positive
relations with others. Internal consistency (alpha)
coefficients for the six scales range from 0.82 to 0.90
(Schmutte & Ryff, 1997). In this sample, subscale
alphas ranged from 0.72 to 0.89.

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Results

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Coaching attendance
To obtain an objective measure of program engagement, coaching attendance was recorded for both
coaching conditions. Mean attendance for the
professional coachees was 9.45 sessions and for
peer coachees 7.3 sessions (from a maximum of 10
sessions). An independent samples t-test found these
means to be significantly different, t(38) 5.75,
p50.001. Table III presents the means and standard
deviations for all dependent variables. It should be
noted that 4 participants (1 professional, 2 peer, 1
control) withdrew within the first half of the coaching

Table III. Means and standard deviations for goal striving and well-being variables.
Pre-coaching

Measure
Goal striving
GP

M
SD
GC
M
SD
Subjective well-being
SWL
M
SD
PA
M
SD
NA
M
SD
Psychological well-being
AU
M
SD
EM
M
SD
PR
M
SD
PL
M
SD
PG
M
SD
SA
M
SD

Professional
(n 20)

Peer
(n 20)

460

Post-coaching
Control
(n 17)

Professional
(n 20)
3.2a
1.0
4.2ab
0.9

Peer
(n 20)

Control
(n 17)

2.7
1.0
3.2a
1.2

2.3a
0.8
3.7b
0.7

2.3
0.9
4.1
0.8

2.3
1.2
4.3
0.5

2.2
0.6
4.3
0.5

23.7
5.3
23.9
4.2
20.2
4.6

24.3
5.7
25.0
3.2
21.4
4.5

20.6
6.3
22.7
4.1
18.3
5.5

25.9
5.4
24.1
4.1
20.6
5.3

25.8
5.2
24.6
3.2
22.5
4.5

20.9
6.8
22.8
3.9
19.9
5.2

41.1
6.0
36.9
7.1
44.1
7.3
43.7
5.8
47.3
3.4
41.1
7.1

40.0
7.2
39.5
6.7
43.8
5.0
43.3
6.1
47.3
4.1
40.0
5.8

36.1
5.4
37.3
7.0
43.1
8.3
39.8
5.7
46.4
5.2
36.9
6.3

41.9
5.9
1.3ab
7.1
43.9
7.6
44.4
5.7
48.2
4.4
41.6
6.8

40.1
5.5
39.9a
6.2
44.4
4.4
44.9
4.7
47.6
4.2
41.6
4.7

36.8
5.7
38.1b
6.7
42.8
8.2
40.4
4.8
44.9
4.3
37.7
6.5

GP goal progression, GC goal commitment, SWL satisfaction with life, AB affect balance, AU autonomy, EM environmental
mastery, PR positive relations with others, PL purpose in life, PG personal growth, SA self-acceptance.
Note: Post-coaching means with the same subscripts (a, b) denote statistically significant group x time interactions revealed in planned
comparisons ( p50.05).

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disappeared (at the 0.05 level) and was only marginally significant, p 0.06. This indicates that the goal
commitment of peer coachees was positively
impacted by regular attendance at coaching sessions.
However, the analysis of covariance did not show any
change from the initial findings for goal progression.

Coaching appeared to have minimal impact on the

mental health of participants. Although both coaching groups reported post-coaching increases for most
of the well-being variables, the only variable to show
differential change by condition was environmental
mastery. That is, significant group
time (pre-post)
interactions were found for professional versus peer,
F(1, 52) 7.04, p50.01, and professional versus
control, F(1, 52) 4.89, p50.05. The peer versus
control interaction was not significant.

This pilot study set out to investigate two general

questions:
(1) Is professional life coaching more effective than peer
life coaching in enhancing the goal progression and goal
commitment of coachees? The results of this study
suggest that professional coaching was indeed superior to peer coaching. Not only did the professionally
coached participants attend significantly more coaching sessions than peer coached participants (suggesting a greater level of engagement), this group also
reported significantly greater post-coaching goal
progression (compared to the control group) and
greater goal commitment than both the peer and
control conditions. In contrast, peer coachees did
not significantly differ from the control group on
post-coaching goal progression. In addition, their
level of goal commitment significantly decreased.
These results imply that merely engaging in
regular goal-focused conservations with a peer is
insufficient for successful goal striving. Somewhat
reflective of earlier findings highlighting the

Goal progression

Goal commitment
5
Pre

Pre

Post

Post

3
2
1

1
0

0
Professional

Peer

Control

Condition

530

535

Discussion

5
4

525

Well-being

Ratings

485

Ratings

480

period and 2 control participants were non-contactable at Time 2. As such, statistical analysis was
conducted on data from 57 participants.
Data was analysed using a 3
2 mixed design
analysis of variance (MANOVA) consisting of one
between-subjects factor (group) and one withinsubjects factor (time). Also, in order to explore
differential change by condition, a priori comparisons were conducted on (1) professional versus
peer, (2) professional versus control, and (3) peer
versus control, with an additional contrast comparing
(4) coaching (i.e., professional and peer) versus
control. A significance level of.05 was set for all tests.
Analysis of goal progression data revealed a
significant main effect of time, F(1, 54) 6.73,
p50.01, but not group or the group
time (prepost) interaction, although this did approach significance, p 0.07. The more specific contrast
analyses did, however, reveal a significant group time ( pre-post) interaction for professional versus
control, F(1, 54) 5.41, p50.05, indicating that
professional group made substantial progress
towards their goals during the coaching period
relative to the control group (as shown in
Figure 2). No such effect was observed for the
peer-coaching group.
When this analysis was repeated for goal commitment, a significant group
time interaction was
found, F(2, 54) 7.03, p50.01, along with a main
effect for time, F(1, 54) 15.21, p50.001, but not
group. Contrast analyses revealed a significant group time (pre-post) interactions were found for both
professional versus peer, F(1, 54) 13.93, p50.001,
and professional versus control, F(1, 54) 4.45,
p50.05. This indicates that professional coaching
was more effective in helping coachees maintain their
level of goal commitment over time, relative to peer
and control participants whose commitment
decreased across the coaching period.
Finally, in order to control for the influence of
coaching session attendance on goal striving, these
analyses were repeated using the number of sessions
attended as a covariate. After controlling for this
difference, the goal commitment interaction effect

Professional

Peer

Control

Condition

Figure 2. Pre-post coaching means for goal striving variables.

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importance of perceived expertise to coach credibility

(Sue-Chan & Latham, 2004), our data suggests the
coaching process is greatly enhanced when it is
directed by a professional who is trained in the
principles of behavior change and possessing the
skills required to build an effective coaching relationship. In contrast, peer coaching relationships may
not be adequate for successfully handling the many
obstacles and challenges that are encountered by
individuals when striving towards a goal (e.g.,
ambivalence, negative self-talk, perceived lack of
resources). If so, peer coachees may find it more
difficult to maintain their motivation and become
less engaged in the coaching process over time. This
interpretation is supported by the goal commitment
and coaching attendance data.
(2) Does life coaching enhance the subjective and
psychological well-being of individuals? In contrast to
the results reported by Grant (2003a) and Green
et al. (2006), life coaching had a minimal impact on
the well-being of participants in this study. Although
both coaching conditions reported Time 2 increases
for several subjective and psychological well-being
variables, the only significant result was observed
for environmental mastery, with the professional
coachees reporting significant increases compared to
both the peer coaching and control groups. This
result makes sense as environmental mastery is a
dimension of psychological well-being that reflects
the perception that one is resourceful and able to
effectively manage ones surrounding world (Ryff,
1989). As such, increases in this variable should
correspond with increases in goal progression (as
reported earlier), as feeling more competent is
known to translate into more effective action
(Maddux, 2002).
While the minimal impact of life coaching on wellbeing was surprising, it may be partly be explained by
the design of the study. First, the current intervention was goal-focused rather than targeted at enhancing well-being, and other coaching interventions
specifically targeted at increasing well-being may
have an effect where this intervention did not.
Second, by screening for mental health problems
and excluding individuals with elevated levels of
psychopathology from participation, this sample is
likely to have been a relatively happy group. If so,
participants may have been unable to reflect
increases in well-being, as their already elevated
scores could have created a ceiling effect.
Mental health screening

615

There is good reason to recommend the continued

use of mental health screening in life coaching
research, despite the possibility that such screening
may reduce the chances of detecting statistically

significant effects. Although life coaching seeks to

assist individuals move towards optimal levels of
personal functioning, evidence from both this study
and Green et al. (2006) suggests that life coaching
may be attracting individuals with serious mental
health concerns. In the present study, 25% of the
initial pool of volunteers reported elevated levels of
psychopathology (as measured by the BSI), whereas
Green and colleagues (2006) reported that over half
of their volunteers (52%) fell into this category. Such
findings are important because they suggest that life
coaching is being perceived as a socially acceptable
form of therapy, less tainted by the stigma of therapy
or counseling.
According to Spence, Cavanagh, and Grant
(2006), this possibility is alarming because the
robustness of a life coaching approach might only
serve to exacerbate pre-existing clinical symptomatology in individuals seeking relief from such conditions (e.g., depression). Given that most commercial
coach training schools devote little (if any) attention
to the identification and referral of mental health
issues in coaching (Grant & OHara, 2006), it is
doubtful whether coaches are adequately prepared
for discharging their duty of care obligations towards
clients (Spence et al., 2006). Thus, caution should be
exercised when conducting research into life coaching programs. We recommend that researchers:
(1) use a valid and reliable clinical instrument
(such as the BSI) to screen participants prior to the
commencement of coaching, (2) develop a referral
procedure for individuals requiring clinical assistance, and (3) only use coaches who understand the
potential for mental health issues to emerge in
coaching and have training in the identification of
such issues.

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Limitations of the study

There were several limitations to the current study.
First, although professional coaching appears to have
been the more effective coaching intervention, the
data only permits us to speculate on why this might
have been the case. That is, we cannot say for certain
that the differences between the coaching groups
occurred because, say, the professional coaching
sessions facilitated better planning or were more
adept at dealing with unhelpful cognitions, or
because the peer coachees generally felt more
dissatisfaction with their peer coaching arrangements
(e.g., their assigned peer coach). As such, future
research would be enhanced by capturing data on the
experience of coachees during coaching, along with
identifying factors that impact upon important
variables (such as coaching attendance). Indeed, it
is likely that questions related to how coaching
has its positive effects and the factors that effect it

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(i.e., process research) will be of greater long term

interest than studies merely demonstrating that
coaching does have positive effects (i.e., outcome
research) (Hersen, Michelson, & Bellack, 1984).
Second, as the goal progression data in this study
was obtained using a self-report measure, it is
possible that demand characteristics may have
biased the results. That is, if inclusion in this study
created an expectation amongst coachees that they
ought to have made progress towards their goals, then
this expectation might have resulted in over estimated post-coaching progression ratings. In order to
remove this potential source of bias from future
studies, more objective measures of goal striving
would be required. One possible methodology, Goal
Attainment Scaling (for a review see Kiresuk, Smith,
& Cardillo, 1994), achieves greater objectivity by
getting both the client and helper to agree on the
clients level of goal attainment and specific goalattainment benchmarks prior to the commencement
of coaching. In so doing, clients are often encouraged
to substantiate attainment ratings by referring to
diaries or other monitoring systems (Schlosser,
2004), an approach that could easily be adapted to
a coaching context.
Finally, the CB-SF coaching methodology used in
this study is more complex and lengthy compared to
the standards of conventional social psychological
research. For example, coachees were encouraged to
set the agenda and their own goals for each coaching
session. While this approach allowed coaches to
spontaneously respond to the needs of each coachee,
this feature of the design may make the study difficult
to replicate because the intervention was not
standardized (and there are likely to have been
subtle variations in how coaches worked with
coachees). More importantly, any claims made
about the efficacy of CB-SF coaching from this
study must be tempered, as it is not known how
faithfully coaches adhered to that coaching model.
For this reason, future researchers may wish to
concentrate on developing more structured coaching
programs that can be manualized and delivered in
either an individual or group-based format. Such
a program might be focused around a manual that
outlines the CB-SFC approach, be introduced in a
workshop format (similar to the one used in this
study), followed by a series of weekly sessions that
are themed (e.g., Week 2: Dealing with negative
thoughts) to allow coaching conversations to
remain connected to the essential elements of the
CB-SF coaching.
However, we argue that this limitation can also be
considered to be relative strength of the study. First,
the present study has brought a measure of realism to
counter the frequently over-enthusiastic claims of
efficacy from the life coaching industry, and has

shown that while life coaching can be effective in

some areas of goal striving and well-being, it is no
panacea. Second, the design of this study was chosen
to accurately reflect a real world coaching engagement and as such was delivered to a community
sample and conducted across a realistic timeframe
(10 weeks). While we acknowledge that some
standardization and simplification of these programs
may be advantageous, we argue that there is a danger
in taking coaching further into the laboratory.
That is, the quest for greater scientific rigor may lead
coaching research to become overly sanitized,
yielding little of practical value to the field. As such,
future researchers will need to carefully consider the
often-competing demands of coaching research and
practice.

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Conclusion
Interest in the development of evidence-based
coaching practice is increasing and has recently
been identified as important for the long-term
sustainability of professional life coaching practice
(Cavanagh, Grant, & Kemp, 2005). Not surprisingly
this has been accompanied by calls for research. This
exploratory study represents an early attempt to
answer this call.
Consistent with previous findings (Grant, 2003a;
Green et al., 2006), our results suggest that engaging
with others in regular goal-directed conversations is
a useful thing to do. This paper extends upon
previous finding and has found that coaching outcomes appear to be enhanced when coaching is
provided by professional coaches. More specifically,
we found that the coachees of professional coaches
attended more coaching sessions than peer coachees,
reported greater goal progression and environmental
mastery, and maintained commitment to their goals
across the coaching period (compared to peer-group
coachees and a control group). As such, it appears
that the presence of a supportive person may be a
necessary but insufficient condition for facilitating
goal attainment, and that expertise is required to
successfully guide the coaching process.
We propose that life coaching is indeed an
appropriate area for scientific enquiry. With a solid
theoretical and evidence-base, life coaching can
emerge from the often sensationalistic shadow of
the pop psychology movement and into the more
considered realm of behavioral science. In time,
evidence-based life coaching may well prove to be an
effective means of facilitating personal goal attainment and enhancing well-being, helping make
manifest the promise of an applied positive
psychology.

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