Research Methods for Science

Michael P. Marder
Cambridge University Press, 27 Jan 2011
A unique introduction to the design, analysis, and presentation of scientific projects,
this is an essential textbook for undergraduate majors in science and mathematics.
The textbook gives an overview of the main methods used in scientific research,
including hypothesis testing, the measurement of functional relationships, and
observational research. It describes important features of experimental design, such
as the control of errors, instrument calibration, data analysis, laboratory safety, and
the treatment of human subjects. Important concepts in statistics are discussed,
focusing on standard error, the meaning of p values, and use of elementary
statistical tests. The textbook introduces some of the main ideas in mathematical
modeling, including order-of-magnitude analysis, function fitting, Fourier transforms,
recursion relations, and difference approximations to differential equations. It also
provides guidelines on accessing scientific literature, and preparing scientific papers
and presentations. An extensive instructor's manual containing sample lessons and
student papers is available at www.cambridge.org/Marder.

There are many types of research methods. Different methods are

used depending on the type of research being pursued. Research
methods in science are based on what is known as the scientific
method. The scientific method is the basic process that all
researchers follow when exploring a specific topic. These
methods are important since an individual's beliefs can influence
how she interprets certain phenomena. By using these specific
methods, researchers can reduce mistakes based on their own
biases or prejudices.

The Scientific Method

All research methods are based on the scientific method. The scientific
method has four primary components. The process begins with a basic
observation and description of a phenomenon. Observations lead
researchers to have questions about why certain phenomena occur.
Researchers then put forth a hypothesis, or prediction, of what will happen
or what the outcome of certain phenomena will be. Researchers then
conduct specific types of experiments meant to prove or disprove this
prediction.

Quantitative Methods
Quantitative research methods vary; however, they follow the scientific
method closely. Quantitative methods are concerned with conducting
experiments in the interest of investigating a specific hypothesis. A
hypothesis is a prediction about a phenomenon, which states how two
things are related. These are referred to as the independent and
dependent variables. Experiments look at the relationships between these
variables with the goal of discovering what the cause of the phenomena
is.

Qualitative Methods
Unlike quantitative methods, qualitative methods are not based on a
prediction between two variables. Rather, qualitative methods are used to
openly explore a specific topic. These methods are particularly useful for
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looking at topics about which not much is known and for understanding
subjective information, for instance, the experiences of individuals. Case
studies, participant observation, survey research and interviews are all
methods of qualitative research.

Considerations

Although many studies use just one method of investigation, there

are many ways to combine methods. For example, a mixed methods
design is a way to combine qualitative and quantitative research methods
to understand a phenomenon more thoroughly. These types of designs
use both a traditional scientific methodology, such as running an
experiment with more exploratory methods, such as a case study.
Although these designs can be costly and burdensome to the researcher,
they also can create a solid study by incorporating the strengths in both
methods.

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Introduction to the Scientific Method

Overview of the Scientific Method
The scientific method is a set of techniques used by the scientific community to investigate
natural phenomena by providing an objective framework in which to make scientific inquiry
and analyze the data to reach a conclusion about that inquiry.

Steps of the Scientific Method

The goals of the scientific method are uniform, but the method itself is not necessarily
formalized among all branches of science. It is most generally expressed as a series of
discrete steps, although the exact number and nature of the steps varies depending upon the
source. The scientific method is not a recipe, but rather an ongoing cycle that is meant to be
applied with intelligence, imagination, and creativity. Frequently, some of these steps will
take place simultaneously, in a different order, or be repeated as the experiment is refined, but
this is the most general and intuitive sequence. As expressed by
Shawn Lawrence Otto in Fool Me Twice: Fighting the Assault on Science in America :
There is no one "scientific method"; rather, there is a collection of strategies that have proven
effective in answering our questions about how things in nature really work.
Depending on the source, the exact steps will be described somewhat differently, but the
following are a good general guideline for how the scientific method is often applied.
1. Ask a question determine a natural phenomenon (or group of phenomena) that you
are curious about and would like to explain or learn more about, then ask a specific
question to focus your inquiry.
2. Research the topic this step involves learning as much about the phenomenon as
you can, including by studying the previous studies of others in the area.
3. Formulate a hypothesis using the knowledge you have gained, formulate a
hypothesis about a cause or effect of the phenomenon, or the relationship of the
phenomenon to some other phenomenon.
4. Test the hypothesis plan and carry out a procedure for testing the hypothesis (an
experiment) by gathering data.
5. Analyze the data use proper mathematical analysis to see if the results of the
experiment support or refute the hypothesis.
If the data does not support the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified and re-tested.
Frequently, the results of the experiment are compiled in the form of a lab report (for typical
classroom work) or a paper (in the case of publishable academic research). It is also common
for the results of the experiment to provide an opportunity for more questions about the same
phenomenon or related phenomena, which begins the process of inquiry over again with a
new question.

Key Elements of the Scientific Method

The goal of the scientific method is to get results that accurately represent the physical
processes taking place in the phenomenon. To that end, it emphasizes a number of traits to
insure that the results it gets are valid to the natural world.

objective the scientific method intends to remove personal and cultural biases by
focusing on objective testing procedures.

consistent the laws of reasoning should be used to make hypotheses that are
consistent with broader, currently known scientific laws; even in rare cases where the
hypothesis is that one of the broader laws is incorrect or incomplete, the hypothesis
should be composed to challenge only one such law at a time.

observable the hypothesis presented should allow for experiments with observable
and measurable results.

pertinent all steps of the process should be focused on describing and explaining
observed phenomena.

parsimonious only a limited number of assumptions and hypothetical entities

should be proposed in a given theory, as stated in Occam's Razor.

falsifiable the hypothesis should be something which can be proven incorrect by

observable data within the experiment, or else the experiment is not useful in
supporting the hypothesis. (This aspect was most prominently illuminated by the
philosopher of science Karl Popper.)

reproducible the test should be able to be reproduced by other observers with trials
that extend indefinitely into the future.

It is useful to keep these traits in mind when developing a hypothesis and testing procedure .

Conclusion
Hopefully this introduction to the scientific method has provided you with an idea of the
significant effort that scientists go to in order to make sure their work is free from bias,
inconsistencies, and unnecessary complications, as well as the paramount feat of creating a
theoretical structure that accurately describes the natural world. When doing your own work
in physics, it is useful to reflect regularly on the ways in which that work exemplifies the
principles of the scientific method.