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Experimental Fatigue
Overview: Here is a little of what you will find on this page.
Background information on general causes and recognition of material failures
The influence of different factors on material fatigue
A sample experiment that may be performed at home
Insight into experiments dealing with fatigue
Fatigue considerations in real life
Causes and Recognition of Fatigue Failures
General Causes of Material Failures:
Design deficiencies
Manufacturing deficiencies
Improper and insufficient maintenance
Operational overstressing
Environmental factors (i.e. heat, corrosion, etc.)
Secondary stresses not considered in the normal operating conditions
Fatigue failures
Improper and insufficient maintenance seems to be one of the most contributing factors influenced
by some improper designs such as areas that are hard to inspect and maintain and the need for
better maintenance procedures. In many circumstances the true load is difficult to predict resulting
in a structure being stressed beyond its normal capabilities and structural limitations. When a
structure is subject to cyclic loads, areas subject to fatigue failure must be accurately identified.
This is often very hard to analyze, especially in a highly composite structure for which analysis
has a high degree of uncertainty. Thus, in general, experimental structural fatigue testing is
frequently resorted to.
Recognition of Fatigue Failure
Two fatigue zones are evident when investigating a fracture surface due to fatigue, the fatigue
zone and the rupture zone. The fatigue zone is the area of the crack propagation. The area of final
failure is called the rupture or instantaneous zone. In investigation of a failed specimen, the
rupture zone yields the ductility of the material, the type of loading, and the direction of loading.
The relative size of the rupture zone compared with the fatigue zone relates the degree of
overstress applied to the structure. The amount of overstressing can be determined from the
fatigue zone as follows: highly overstressed if the area of the fatigue zone is very small compared
with the area of the rupture zone; medium overstress if the size or area of both zones are nearly
equal; low overstress if the area of rupture zone is very small. Figure 1 describes these relations
between the fatigue and rupture zones.

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Figure 1 Fracture appearances of fatigue failures in Bending by Dr. Charles Lipson,"Why

Machine Parts Fail," Machine Design, Penton, Cleveland 13, Ohio. From Metal Fatigue: Theory
and Design, ed. A.F. Madayag, pg. 5.
The fatigue zone can be described as follows: a smooth rubbed, and velvety appearance, the
presence of waves known as "clam-shells" or "oyster-shells", "stop marks" and "beach marks," and
the herringbone pattern or granular trace which shows the origin of the crack. In general, stop
marks indicate the variations in the rate of crack propagation due to variations in stress amplitude
in a cyclic application varying with time. Figure 2 is a schematic representation of the fatigue
zone.

Figure 2 Typical fatigue zone with identifying marks. From Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design,
ed. A.F. Madayag, pg. 3.
Design Considerations
Even if careful attention to good design practices is constantly the goal of design engineers,
fatigue problems are sometimes introduced into the structure. Fatigue failures are often the result
of geometrical or strain discontinuities, poor workmanship or improper manufacture techniques,
material defects, and the introduction of residual stresses that may add to existing service stresses.
Typical factors affecting fatigue include the following: Stress raisers, usually in the form of a

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notch or inclusion; most fatigue fractures may be attributed to notch effects, inclusion fatigue
specimens are rare. High strength materials are much more notch-sensitive than softer alloys.
Corrosion is another factor that affects fatigue. Corroded parts form pits that act like notches.
Corrosion also reduces the amount of material which effectively reduces the strength and increases
the actual stress. Decarburization, the loss of carbon from the surface of the material, is the next
factor. Due to bending and torsion, stresses are highest at the surface; decarburization weakens the
surface by making it softer. Finally, residual stresses which add to the design stress; the combined
effect may easily exceed the limit stress as imposed in the initial design.
Influence of Processing and Metallurgical Factors on Fatigue
A myriad of factors affect the behavior of a material under fatigue loading. Obvious factors
include the sign, magnitude, and frequency of loading, the geometry and material strength level of
the structure and the ambient service temperature. However, processing and metallurgical factors
are not often considered, but these factors determine the homogeneity of materials, the sign and
distribution of residual stresses, and the surface finish. Thus, processing and metallurgical factors
have an overriding influence on the performance of a structure.
Processing Factors
Stresses are normally highest at the surface of a structure, so it follows that fatigue usually initiates
at the surface. Stress raisers are more likely to be present as a result of surface irregularities
introduced by the design of the structure or produced in service or resulting from processing.
Processing factors can introduce a detrimental or beneficial effect into a structure, usually in the
form of effect on strength level or residual stress condition of the surface material. Therefore, the
effect of processing on the mechanical properties of a material, especially the surface of the
material, directly affects fatigue properties. Processing factors that influence the fatigue life of a
structure include the following: the process by which a part is formed, such as die casting; the heat
treatment of a material, such as quenching, which builds up residual stresses and annealing, which
relieves internal stress (see Figure 3); case hardening, such as carburization or nitriding, which
increases surface hardness and strength (see Figure 4); surface finish, such as polished smooth by
electropolishing; cold working, which increases strength; also, cladding, plating, chemical
conversion coatings, and anodizing.

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Figure 3 Effect of hardness on the fatigue life of threads rolled before and after heat treatment.
From Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design, ed. A.F. Madayag, pg. 82.

Figure 4 Bending fatigue test results on sections from crankshafts: endurance limit versus surface
treatment. From Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design, ed. A.F. Madayag, pg. 70.

Metallurgical Factors
Metallurgical factors refers to areas within the material, wither on the surface or in the core, which
adversely affect fatigue properties. These areas may arise from melting practices or primary or
secondary working of the material or may be characteristic of a particular alloy system. In
virtually all instances the detriment to fatigue properties results from a local stress-raising effect.
Therefore, metallurgical factors affecting fatigue include the following: surface defects,
sub-surface and core defects, inhomogeneity, anisotropy, improper heat treatment, localized
overheating, corrosion fatigue, and fretting corrosion.

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Experimental Analysis of Fatigue

Fatigue Life Curves
Failure due to repeated loading is known as fatigue. A small crack, a scratch, or some other such
minor defect causes localized deformation. This deformation leads to a small crack if one was not
initially present. After cyclic loading, that is, loading in the same way multiple times, the crack
grows, and eventually the material fails. A fatigue life curve is a graphical representation of the
cyclic loading. Simply, a fatigue life curve, also known as an S-N curve is a plot of the stress
amplitude versus the number of cycles the material goes through before it fails. That is, for a
certain stress, the material will fail within a certain number of cycles. Figure 5 is an example of a
typical fatigue life curve.

Figure 5 Typical Fatigue Life Curve. From Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory,
Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 8-3.
To help understand the concept of fatigue life curves, an experiment that may be performed easily
by anyone is presented here.
Fatigue Life Curves Experiment
What you need:
4 Jumbo Paper Clips
A Copy of Figure 6
What to do:
1. Bend four paper clips at each of the four bending angles indicated in Figure 6 until each
fails, counting the number of times the paper clip is bent. For instance, bend a paper clip 45,
then bend it to -45, then back to zero. This is one cycle.
2. Record the data in Table 1.
3. Using a spreadsheet program, plot the number of cycles versus the angle. The angle
represents the stress amplitude.

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Figure 6 Bending angle guide. Place paper clip in a vertical plate and bend in the middle using
this guide to judge the angles. From Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory, Prepared by
Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 8-6.

Table 1: Table For Experimental Data

Cycles to Failure

Angle,

90

45

20

10

An example of this experiment:

Table 2: Experimental Data

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Cycles to Failure

Angle,

1.5

90

45

29

20

79

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Fatigue Crack Growth

If an engineering component contains a crack, and if a cyclic or repeated load is applied, the crack
is likely to grow slowly with increasing number of load cycles. This process is known as fatigue
crack growth. In a fatigue crack growth experiment, the progress of a crack growing under a cyclic
load is measured, and the results are plotted as a fatigue crack growth rate curve, da/dN versus K
(that is, change in crack length divided by change in number of cycles to failure versus change in
fracture toughness). A typical fatigue crack growth curve is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Crack growth rates obtained from adjacent pairs of a vs. N data points. From [Dowling

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93] p. 465; 1993 by Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. From Mechanical Behavior of
Materials Laboratory, Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Virginia
Polytechnic Institute, pg. 9-3.
In the simplest form of a fatigue crack growth rate test, a cyclic load is applied that has fixed
maximum and minimum loading levels. The test specimen is usually a plate of material in which a
crack has already been started at the end of a V-bottom machined slot. In a typical fatigue crack
growth experiment, the sample is loaded in a closed-loop servohydraulic testing machine and data
for crack length, number of cycles to failure, and fracture toughness is recorded. From this data the
mechanical behavior for a certain material can be described under fatigue crack growth loading by
the fatigue crack growth rate curve. This sort of experiment is useful for materials that would
undergo high cyclic loading stresses such as an airplane wing or a helicopter rotor.
Low Cycle Fatigue
Low cycle fatigue is the repeated cyclic loadings that cause significant plastic deformation in a
material and may cause fatigue cracking after a relatively small number of cycles-hundreds or
thousands. Low cycle fatigue typically occurs as a result of repeated localized yielding near stress
raisers, such as holes, fillets, and notches, despite the elastic deformation occurring over the bulk
of the component. Uniaxial testing is performed on several smooth (unnotched) specimens under
different cyclic deformation levels in a typical low cycle fatigue test. Each specimen follows a
given constant stress amplitude, completely reversed, cyclic strain. That is, the mode of testing is
strain control instead of stress control. Stress response is monitored during cyclic loading, and the
number of cycles to failure is recorded for these tests. The results from several tests are necessary
to determine the cyclic stress-strain curve and the strain life curve for the material. A schematic
representation of a completely reversed controlled strain test is shown in Figure 8.

Figure 8 Completely reversed controlled strain test and two possible stress responses, namely
cycle-dependent hardening and softening. From [Landgraf 70]; ASTM. From Mechanical
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Behavior of Materials Laboratory, Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 10-2.
If a sufficiently high strain level is reached, yielding may occur before the maximum strain is
reached on each cycle of loading. Stress amplitude usually varies; if it increases, the material is
said to cyclically harden, if it decreases, the material is said to cyclically soften. However, this
behavior tends to stabilize such that the variation in the stress amplitude is small after an initial
period of transient hardening or softening. Once the behavior is stabilized, a closed stress-strain
hysteresis loop is formed during each strain cycle. This hysteresis loop typically looks like Figure
9. The area inside the hysteresis loop is the energy absorbed per unit volume of the material. This
energy mostly dissipates as heat. Fatigue failure results under repeated cycling and the life is
measured by the number of strain cycles to failure. A strain life curve may be plotted from the data
contained in the hysteresis loop as is shown in Figure 10. This sort of experiment is useful in
analysis of parts where the material is strong enough to withstand the cyclic loading it may go
through, but fails due to fracture at a bolt hole or other such stress raiser. An example of this is a
structural member bolted to another structural member which fails due to a crack originating from
the bolt hole.

Figure 9 Stable stress-strain hysteresis loop. From Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory,
Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 10-2.

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Figure 10 Elastic, plastic, and total strain vs. Life curves. Adapted from [Landgraf 70]; ASTM.
From Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory, Prepared by Staff of Engineering Science
and Mechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, pg. 10-5.

Real Life-Design and Manufacturing Considerations

The following describes a relationship between factors that shape the S-N curves as they are
influenced by design and manufacturing conditions and the effects of such conditions on the
fatigue properties of materials, components, and structures.
Recommendations for Designs to Avoid Fatigue Failures
A designer can help to minimize the possibility of fatigue failure by proper design of structural
components. Many fatigue failures may be attributed to lack of sufficient consideration of design
details or a lack of appreciation of engineering principles. These principles, which are an integral
part of good design of structures subject to fatigue are well reported in literature, but this
information has been scattered throughout sources and may be inaccessible to a designer who
needs to understand and utilize the principles. It is good design practice to seek out sources of this
information and to utilize the principles before, during and after the design process.
Fatigue Considerations in Helicopter Design and Service
The helicopter is subject to many fatigue considerations that fixed wing aircraft are not, such as
the significant oscillatory loads due to the harmonic content of aerodynamic loads from the
combined rotational and translation blade motion through the air, also the cyclic loading of the
rotor start-stop cycles, transient maneuver loads, gust loads, coriolis loads, and torque loads. These
are just a small example of the many unique fatigue loading considerations in helicopter design.
Thus one may realize the complexity of helicopter design and service. The helicopter is one of
many vehicles and structures which undergo unique fatigue loading, therefore, fatigue
considerations are an important part of the design process.

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Figure 11 A tension fatigue failure of a helicopter rotor blade flapping link. Fatigue crack
originated at arrow B, propagated to arrows. From "Metal Fatigue and Its Recognition," Civil
Aeronautics Board, Bureau of Safety, Bulletin No. 63-I, April 1963, by Frank R. Stone, Jr. From
Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design, ed. A.F. Madayag, pg. 10.
Summary
In summary, fatigue plays an important role in all areas of the engineering process, from design to
manufacture to service during the life of a product or structure. All engineers must carefully study
the effects and the many types of fatigue, no matter what field of engineering and what part of the
engineering process.
References
Metal Fatigue: Theory and Design. ed. A.F. Madayag, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1969.
Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction. 3rd Edition, William D. Callister, Jr., John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
Mechanical Behavior of Materials Laboratory. N.E. Dowling and R.A. Simonds, University
Printing Service, 1995.

Table of Contents
Submitted by Chris Meyer
Virginia Tech Materials Science and Engineering
http://www.eng.vt.edu/eng/materials/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/97ClassProj/exper/meyer/www/meyer.html
Last updated: 5/6/97

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