Emmel 2015 CopticManuscripts Libre

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies
An Introduction
Edited by
Alessandro Bausi (General Editor)
Pier Giorgio Borbone
Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet
Paola Buzi
Jost Gippert
Caroline Mac
Marilena Maniaci
Zisis Melissakis
Laura E. Parodi
Witold Witakowski
Project editor
Eugenia Sokolinski
COMSt
2015
Copyright COMSt (Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies) 2015

COMSt Steering Committee 20092014:
Ewa Balicka-Witakowska (Sweden)
Alessandro Bausi (Germany)
Malachi Beit-Ari (Israel)
Pier Giorgio Borbone (Italy)
Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet (France)
=X]DQD*DiNRYi6ORYDNLD
Charles Genequand (Switzerland)
Antonia Giannouli (Cyprus)

Ingvild Gilhus (Norway)
Caroline Mac (Belgium)
Zisis Melissakis (Greece)
Stig Rasmussen (Denmark)
Jan Just Witkam (The Netherlands)
Review body: European Science Foundation, Standing Committee for the Humanities
Typesetting, layout, copy editing, and indexing: Eugenia Sokolinski
Contributors to the volume:
Felix Albrecht (FA)
Per Ambrosiani (PAm)
Tara Andrews (TA)
Patrick Andrist (PAn)
Ewa Balicka-Witakowska (EBW)
Alessandro Bausi (ABa)
Malachi Beit-Ari (MBA)
Daniele Bianconi (DB)
Andr Binggeli (ABi)
Pier Giorgio Borbone (PGB)
Claire Bosc-Tiess (CBT)
Franoise Briquel-Chatonnet (FBC)
Paola Buzi (PB)
Valentina Calzolari (VC)
Alberto Cantera (AC)
Laurent Capron (LCa)
Ralph M. Cleminson (RMC)
Marie Cornu (MCo)
Marie Cronier (MCr)
Lorenzo Cuppi (LCu)
Javier del Barco (JdB)
Johannes den Heijer (JdH)
Franois Droche (FD)
Alain Desreumaux (AD)
Arianna DOttone (ADO)

Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst (DDM)
Stephen Emmel (SE)
Edna Engel (EE)
=X]DQD*DiNRYi=*
Antonia Giannouli (AGi)
Jost Gippert (JG)
Alessandro Gori (AGo)
Oliver Hahn (OH)
Paul Hepworth (PH)
Stphane Ipert (SI)
Grigory Kessel (GK)
Dickran Kouymjian (DK)
Paolo La Spisa (PLS)
Isabelle de Lamberterie (IL)
Hugo Lundhaug (HL)
Caroline Mac (CM)
Marilena Maniaci (MMa)
Michael Marx (MMx)
Alessandro Mengozzi (AM)
Manfred Mayer (MMy)
Joseph Moukarzel (JM)
Sbastien Moureau (SM)
Mauro Nobili (MN)
Renate Nller (RN)

Denis Nosnitsin (DN)
Maria-Teresa Ortega Monasterio (MTO)
Bernard Outtier (BO)
Laura E. Parodi (LEP)
Tamara Pataridze (TP)
Irmeli Perho (IP)
Delio Vania Proverbio (DVP)
Ira Rabin (IR)
Arietta Revithi (AR)
Valentina Sagaria Rossi (VSR)
Nikolas Sarris (NS)
Karin Scheper (KS)
Andrea Schmidt (AS)
Denis Searby (DSe)
Lara Sels (LS)
David Sklare (DSk)
Wido van Peursen (WvP)
Annie Vernay-Nouri (AVN)
Franois Vinourd (FV)
Sever J. Voicu (SV)
Witold Witakowski (WW)
Jan Just Witkam (JJW)
Ugo Zanetti (UZ)
This book is published under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) (www.creativecommons.
org).
Printed by: Tredition, Hamburg

ISBN 978-3-7323-1768-4 (Hardcover)
ISBN 978-3-7323-1770-7 (Paperback)
ISBN 978-3-7323-1769-1 (Ebook)
Table of Contents
Contributors ...................................................................................................................................................xi
Preface ........................................................................................................................................................ xiii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................................................xv
Notes to the reader .......................................................................................................................................xvi
Abbreviations ...............................................................................................................................................xvi
Tables, figures, and maps ............................................................................................................................xvii
Maps ..................................................................................................................................................xvii
Tables .................................................................................................................................................xvii
Figures ...............................................................................................................................................xvii
General introduction, edited by Alessandro Bausi and Jost Gippert ..............................................................1
1. Scope of COMSt (ABa) ............................................................................................................................1
1.1. The background of COMSt ..............................................................................................................1
1.2. The notion of oriental in the COMSt perspective ...........................................................................2
1.3. Oriental studies and the role of orientalism....................................................................................4
1.4. The comparative approach ...............................................................................................................9
1.5. Structure of the book .......................................................................................................................9
2. Digital and scientific approaches to oriental manuscript studies ............................................................12
2.1. Digital approaches to oriental manuscript studies (JG) ...................................................................12
2.2. Instrumental analysis in manuscript studies (IR) .............................................................................27
2.3. Methods in palimpsest research (FA) ..............................................................................................31
3. The manuscript traditions ......................................................................................................................34
3.1. Manuscripts in Arabic script (VSR) .................................................................................................34
3.2. Armenian manuscripts (DK) ............................................................................................................38
3.3. Avestan manuscripts (AC) ...............................................................................................................40
3.4. Caucasian Albanian manuscripts (JG) .............................................................................................43
3.5. Christo-Palestinian Aramaic manuscripts (AD) ...............................................................................43
3.6. Coptic manuscripts (SE) .................................................................................................................44
3.7. Ethiopic manuscripts (ABa) .............................................................................................................46
3.8. Georgian manuscripts (JG) .............................................................................................................49
3.9. Greek manuscripts (MMa) ...............................................................................................................51
3.10. Hebrew manuscripts (MBA) ...........................................................................................................54
3.11. Slavonic manuscripts (RMC) ..........................................................................................................55
3.12. Syriac manuscripts (PGBFBC) .......................................................................................................57
4. Ethical and legal aspects of manuscript research ...................................................................................60
4.1. Ethics in research and conservation of oriental manuscripts (SI) .....................................................60
4.2. Legal framework for manuscript protection (MCo) ..........................................................................61
4.3. Some recommendations on good practice (IL) ................................................................................66
Chapter 1. Codicology, edited by Marilena Maniaci ....................................................................................69
1. Introduction (MMa) ................................................................................................................................69
1.1. Materials and tools (MMaSEIROHRN) .........................................................................................71
1.2. Book forms (MMa) ..........................................................................................................................77
1.3. The making of the codex (MMa) ......................................................................................................78
1.4. The layout of the page (MMa) ..........................................................................................................82
1.5. Text structure and readability (MMa) ...............................................................................................84
1.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (MMa) ...............................................................85
1.7. Bookbinding (NSKS) ......................................................................................................................86
2. Arabic codicology (FDVSRAVN) ...........................................................................................................89
2.1. Materials and tools (FDVSR) ..........................................................................................................89
2.2. Book forms (FDLEP) ......................................................................................................................95
2.3. The making of the codex (FDVSR) .................................................................................................97
2.4. The layout of the page (VSR) ......................................................................................................... 101
2.5. Text structure and readability (VSRAVN) ....................................................................................... 104
2.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (VSR) .............................................................. 108
Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

COMSt 2015 ISBN (Hardcover) 978-3-7323-1768-4
vi
2.7. Bookbinding (FD) ......................................................................................................................... 113
3. Armenian codicology (DK)................................................................................................................... 116
3.1. Materials and tools ...................................................................................................................... 116
3.2. Book forms .................................................................................................................................. 120
3.3. The making of the codex .............................................................................................................. 121
3.4. The layout of the page ................................................................................................................. 123
3.5. Text structure and readability ....................................................................................................... 124
3.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work ...................................................................... 127
3.7. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................ 128
4. Christian Palestinian Aramaic manuscripts (AD) .................................................................................. 132
4.4. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................ 136
5. Coptic codicology (PBSE) ................................................................................................................... 137
5.1. Materials and tools (PB) ............................................................................................................... 137
5.2. Book forms (SE) ........................................................................................................................... 140
5.3. The making of the codex (SEPB) ................................................................................................. 141
5.4. The layout of the page (PB) .......................................................................................................... 147
5.5. Text structure and readability (PB) ................................................................................................ 147
5.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (SEPB) .......................................................... 150
5.7. Bookbinding (SE) ......................................................................................................................... 151
6. Ethiopic codicology (EBWABaDNCBT) ............................................................................................... 154
6.2. Book forms .................................................................................................................................. 158
6.6. The scribe and the painter at work ............................................................................................... 168
6.7. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................ 171
7. Georgian codicology (JG) .................................................................................................................... 175
7.2. Book forms .................................................................................................................................. 178
7.7. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................ 185
8. Greek codicology (MMa) ...................................................................................................................... 187
8.2. Book forms .................................................................................................................................. 193
8.7. Bookbinding ................................................................................................................................ 206
9. Hebrew codicology (MBA) ................................................................................................................... 208
9.2. Book forms .................................................................................................................................. 213
10. Slavonic codicology (RMC) ................................................................................................................ 235
10.1. Materials and tools..................................................................................................................... 235
10.2. Book forms ................................................................................................................................ 239
10.3. The making of the codex ............................................................................................................ 241

vii
10.4. The layout of the page ............................................................................................................... 242
10.5. Text structure and readability ..................................................................................................... 243
10.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work.....................................................................247
10.7. Bookbinding .............................................................................................................................. 250
11. Syriac codicology (PGBFBCEBW) ...................................................................................................... 252
11.1. Materials and tools (PGBFBC) ..................................................................................................... 252
11.2. Book forms (PGBFBC) ................................................................................................................ 255
11.3. The making of the codex (PGBFBC) ............................................................................................ 255
11.4. The layout of the page (PGBFBC) ................................................................................................ 258
11.5. Text structure and readability (PGBFBCEBW) .............................................................................. 258
11.6. The scribe, the painter and the illuminator at work (PGBFBC) ..................................................... 262
11.7. Bookbinding (EBW)..................................................................................................................... 265
Chapter 2. Palaeography, edited by Paola Buzi and Marilena Maniaci ..................................................... 267
1. Introduction (DB) ................................................................................................................................. 267
2. Arabic palaeography (ADO) .................................................................................................................. 271
3. Armenian palaeography (DK) ............................................................................................................... 277
4. Coptic palaeography (PB) .................................................................................................................... 283
5. Ethiopic palaeography (ABaDN) .......................................................................................................... 287
6. Georgian palaeography (TP) ................................................................................................................. 292
7. Greek palaeography (DB) ..................................................................................................................... 297
8. (Mediaeval) Hebrew palaeography (EE) ............................................................................................... 306
9. Slavonic palaeography (RMC) .............................................................................................................. 310
10. Syriac palaeography (AS) ................................................................................................................... 316
Chapter 3. Textual criticism and text editing, edited by Caroline Mac et alii ......................................... 321
1. Introduction (AMCMABaJGLS) ........................................................................................................... 321
1.1. Textual criticism and oriental languages ...................................................................................... 321
1.2. Structure and scope of the chapter ............................................................................................... 323
1.3. Bibliographical orientation .......................................................................................................... 324
2. Steps towards an edition (CMMCrTAJdHPLSAGiSMLS)...................................................................... 328
2.1. Heuristics of manuscripts and witnesses (MCr) ............................................................................. 328
2.2. Collation (CMTA) ......................................................................................................................... 331
2.3. Witness classification and history of the text (CM)........................................................................ 336
2.4. Establishing and presenting a scholarly text edition (CMAGiPLSTASMLS) .................................. 341
2.5. Apparatuses (CMSMAGi) .............................................................................................................. 347
2.6. Philological introduction, translation, commentary, indexes and appendices (JdHCM) .................. 357
3. Case studies ........................................................................................................................................ 363
3.1. The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa. Digital critical edition of an Armenian
historiographical text (TA) .............................................................................................................. 364
3.2. The Aksumite Collection. Ethiopic multiple text manuscripts (ABa) .............................................. 367
3.3. Private production of mediaeval Hebrew manuscripts (MBA) ........................................................ 371
3.4. Christian Apocrypha in Armenian (VC) ......................................................................................... 373
3.5. The Zoroastrian long liturgy. The transmission of the Avesta (AC) ................................................ 377
3.6. Greek literary papyri (LCa) ........................................................................................................... 382
3.7. A Byzantine recension of Dioscorides. Historical analysis of manuscripts and text editing (MCr) ..... 384
3.8. The Septuagint, its Vorlage and its translations (LCu) ................................................................... 388
3.9. The Turfan fragments (DDM)......................................................................................................... 392
3.10. Arabic epics (ZG) ........................................................................................................................ 397
3.11. Palimpsests of Caucasian provenance. Reflections on diplomatic editing (JG) ............................ 403
3.12. Syriac monastic miscellanies (GK) .............................................................................................. 411
3.13. Middle Arabic texts. How to account for linguistic features (PLS) ............................................... 415
3.14. The Nag Hammadi Codices. Textual fluidity in Coptic (HL) ....................................................... 419
3.15. Gregory of Nazianzus Homilies. An over-abundant manuscript tradition in Greek and in
translation (CM) .............................................................................................................................. 424
0DQXVFULSW/RQGRQ%/2UDQGWKHWUDQVPLVVLRQRIWKH4XUQMMx) ............................. 430
3.17. Past and present trends in the edition of Classical Syriac texts (AM) ........................................... 435

viii
3.18. Pseudo-Avicennas De anima. The Latin translation of a lost Arabic original (SM) ..................... 440
3.19. Greek collections of wise and witty sayings (DSe) ...................................................................... 443
3.20. The Vidin Miscellany: translated hagiography in Slavonic (LS) ................................................... 448
3.21. Sacred texts in Hebrew and related languages. Dealing with linguistic features (WvP) ................ 453
3.22. The HistoryRI%D\KDTHGLWRULDOSUDFWLFHVIRU(DUO\1HZ3HUVLDQWH[WVJJW) ............................ 459
3.23. Christian liturgical manuscripts (UZSV) ..................................................................................... 462
Chapter 4. Cataloguing, edited by Paola Buzi and Witold Witakowski ....................................................... 467
1. What a catalogue is and the emergence of scientific cataloguing (PB) .................................................. 467
2. A summary history of cataloguing ....................................................................................................... 471
2.1. Catalogues of Arabic manuscripts (IP) .......................................................................................... 471
2.1.1. Catalogues of Arabic manuscripts from Africa (MNAGo) ........................................................... 473
2.2. Catalogues of Armenian manuscripts (AS) .................................................................................... 476
2.3. Catalogues of Coptic manuscripts (PB) ......................................................................................... 481
2.4. Catalogues of Ethiopic manuscripts (WW) .................................................................................... 484
2.5. Catalogues of Georgian manuscripts (JGBO) ................................................................................ 487
2.6. Catalogues of Greek manuscripts (ABi) ......................................................................................... 489
2.7. Catalogues of manuscripts in Hebrew characters (DSk) ................................................................. 492
2.7.1 Types of catalogues of Hebrew manuscripts (JdBMTO) ............................................................... 496
2.8. Catalogues of Persian manuscripts (IP) ......................................................................................... 499
2.9. Catalogues of Slavonic manuscripts (PAm) .................................................................................... 500
2.10. Catalogues of Syriac manuscripts (ABi) ...................................................................................... 502
2.11. Catalogues of Turkish manuscripts (DVP) ................................................................................... 504
3. Types and kinds of catalogues ............................................................................................................. 506
3.1. Types of catalogues: checklists, summary catalogues, analytical catalogues,
special catalogues (PB) ................................................................................................................. 506
3.2. Catalogues of decorated manuscripts (EBW) ................................................................................. 507
4. Syntactical description of manuscripts (PAn) ........................................................................................ 511
4.1. Most manuscript books are complex objects ................................................................................ 511
4.2. The importance of the awareness of the strata of the manuscripts ................................................ 513
4.3. Recognizing the major historical strata: the physical language of the codex ................................. 513
4.4. Rendering the complexity of the described codex: syntactical types of descriptions ..................... 515
4.5. Illustrated Inventory of Medieval Manuscripts ............................................................................. 519
4.6. Misconceptions about syntactical descriptions ............................................................................. 519
4.7. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................... 520
5. The physical description (PAn) ............................................................................................................. 521
5.1. Page / folium numbers ................................................................................................................. 522
5.2. Number of folia ........................................................................................................................... 522
5.3. Writing support ............................................................................................................................ 523
5.4. Quire structure ............................................................................................................................. 523
5.5. Ordering systems ......................................................................................................................... 524
5.6. Ruling (and pricking) ................................................................................................................... 525
5.7. Layout (besides ruling) ................................................................................................................ 526
5.8. Sample page (for the ruling pattern and the layout) ...................................................................... 526
5.9. Script. .......................................................................................................................................... 527
5.10. Decoration ................................................................................................................................. 528
5.11. Bindings .................................................................................................................................... 528
5.12. State of preservation .................................................................................................................. 529
5.13. Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 529
6. Catalogues and cataloguing of oriental manuscripts in the digital age (JG) .......................................... 531
6.1. Database schemes and structures ................................................................................................. 531
6.2. Electronic catalogues and their potentials .................................................................................... 532
6.3. Challenges and problems of electronic catalogues ....................................................................... 534
Chapter 5. Conservation and preservation, edited by Laura E. Parodi .................................................... 539
,QWURGXFWLRQDQGGHQLWLRQVKS) ............................................................................................................ 539
1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 539
1.2. Definitions ................................................................................................................................... 540

ix
2. Core principles of conservation (KS) .................................................................................................... 541
2.1. Reversibility ................................................................................................................................ 541
2.2. Integrity of the object .................................................................................................................. 541
2.3. Retraceability .............................................................................................................................. 541
2.4. Compatibility ............................................................................................................................... 542
2.5. A holistic approach ...................................................................................................................... 542
2.6. Book archaeology ........................................................................................................................ 542
3. Defining the need for conservation (PH) .............................................................................................. 544
4. Types of decay in manuscripts (PH) ..................................................................................................... 545
4.1. Manuscript damage caused by natural ageing .............................................................................. 545
4.2. Manuscript damage caused by human agency .............................................................................. 545
4.3. Manuscript damage caused by biological factors ......................................................................... 546
4.4. Manuscript damage caused by chemical factors ........................................................................... 547
4.5. Manuscript damage caused by environmental factors ................................................................... 547
4.6. Manuscript damage caused by disaster ......................................................................................... 550
4.7. Damage control ........................................................................................................................... 550
5. Preservation: a comparative overview (ARFV) ..................................................................................... 551
5.1. Preservation from environmental factors ...................................................................................... 551
5.2. Preservation from superficial dirt and pollution ........................................................................... 554
5.3. Prevention of damage from biological factors .............................................................................. 555
5.4. Monitoring conditions.................................................................................................................. 555
5.5. Storage ........................................................................................................................................ 555
5.6. Exhibitions .................................................................................................................................. 557
5.7. Documentation ............................................................................................................................ 558
5.8. Transport ..................................................................................................................................... 560
5.9. Security ....................................................................................................................................... 560
5.10. Disaster planning ....................................................................................................................... 561
5.11. Training and human resources .................................................................................................... 562
6. Conservation: main contemporary techniques and practices (NS) ......................................................... 564
6.1. Basic principles ........................................................................................................................... 564
6.2. Conservation of text blocks ......................................................................................................... 565
6.3. Sewing ......................................................................................................................................... 568
6.4. Binding ........................................................................................................................................ 568
7. Digitization for access and preservation (MMyJMEBW) ....................................................................... 570
7.1. Introduction (MMy) ....................................................................................................................... 570
7.2. Digitization for preservation (MMy) .............................................................................................. 570
7.3. Preparing for digitization (MMy) ................................................................................................... 570
7.4. Digitization: handling and equipment (MMy) ................................................................................ 573
7.5. Data format, storage and conservation challenges (JM) ................................................................. 574
7.6. Recording manuscripts in the field (EBW) ..................................................................................... 576
8. Conclusions (LEP) ................................................................................................................................ 581
References .................................................................................................................................................. 583
Indexes ........................................................................................................................................................ 655
Languages and traditions .................................................................................................................... 655
Place names ........................................................................................................................................ 656
Persons and works .............................................................................................................................. 659
Institutions and projects ...................................................................................................................... 664
Collections and manuscripts ............................................................................................................... 665
Papyri ................................................................................................................................................. 672
General index ..................................................................................................................................... 672

44
General introduction
consider here Bruce Metzger (1977), and the on-going project Marc multilingue (<http://www.safran.be/
marcmultilingue/>) directed by Christian Amphoux and Jean-Claude Haelewyck (the Christo-Palestinian
versions do not yet appear, pending the integration of the manuscripts from the Sinai New Finds).
The Christo-Palestinian script, written from right to left, was based on the Syriac HVUDQJO script,
in the style of biblical Greek uncial.
Judging by the known inscriptions, the distribution area of the Christo-Palestinian Aramaic documents is limited: Egypt, Sinai, Israel, Palestine, Jordan. The archaeological work of the Samra team
(Humbert Desreumaux 1998) and the remarkable historical analysis by Sydney Griffith (1997) brought
the communities of Christo-Palestinian Aramaic speakers onto the scene of Late Antiquity in the Byzantine provinces of Palestine and Arabia (today Jordan). The centres of manuscript production were only a
few: Jerusalem, Castellion (Hyrcania) in Khirbet Mird (Judaean desert), Abud (Samaria), St Catherines
Monastery on Mount Sinai and probably Antioch (see the map for Syriac below). A palimpsest inscription
(under a Coptic painting) was found in the monastery inside the temple at Edfu in Upper Egypt. Manuscripts and inscriptions show that the language was used in common life as a lingua franca, in monuments
as a public language (churches, monasteries, cemeteries), for liturgical readings as a translation language
and as a language of theological works, always within the Chalcedonian communities of the Patriarchs of
Jerusalem and Antioch.
References
Adler 1780; Albert et al. 1993; Bar-Asher 1977; Delavault et al. 2010; Desreumaux 1979; Desreumaux
6FKPLGW*ULIILWK>6@+XPEHUW'HVUHXPDX[/DJUDQJH0HUN0HW]JHU
1977; Mller-Kessler Sokoloff 1996a, 1996b, 1997, 1999; Schulthess 1924; Vaganay 1934. Web sources: <http://www.safran.be/marcmultilingue>, last access May 2014.
3.6. Coptic manuscripts (SE)

The language called Coptic is the latest stage in the long history of the native Egyptian language, which
was originally written using the Egyptian hieroglyphs, a large set of signspartly alphabetic, partly syllabic, partly logographicthat was used also in cursive forms in the Egyptian Hieratic and Demotic writing systems. The writing system of the Coptic period was distinct from the earlier Egyptian systems in that
it made use of the Greek alphabet, supplemented from out of the latest indigenous system (Demotic) by
a selection of characters representing sounds that were foreign to Greek, there being usually six or seven
supplemental characters, depending on dialect (see also Ch. 2 4).
What survives of Coptic literature is almost entirely religious in character and predominantly Christian
by a wide margin. Along with the Greek alphabet, the Copts also took over the Greek scribal practices as
well as the book forms that were typical of Christian Late Antique (J\SWUVWDQGIRUHPRVWWKHpapyrus
codex. Almost without exception, Egypt is the provenance of Coptic manuscripts. Unfortunately, the extant remains of &RSWLFOLWHUDWXUH>DUH@TXLWHZLWKRXWSDUDOOHODPRQJWKHOLWHUDWXUHVRIWKH&KULVWLDQHDVWLQ
their fragmentariness and dilapidation (Crum 1905b, xxixxii; see further Emmel 2007). The number of
&RSWLFPDQXVFULSWVWKDWFDQEHGDWHGZLWKFRQGHQFHWREHIRUHWKHQLQWKFHQWXU\LVQRWYHU\ODUJHEXWWKHUH
are codices of both papyrus and parchment that very likely date from the fourth to sixth centuries, some
SHUKDSVIURPDVHDUO\DVWKHWKLUGFHQWXU\,WLVGLIFXOWWRHVWLPDWHWKHSUHFLVHQXPEHUVEXWZHPD\VD\
that there are at least 4,000 manuscripts and manuscript fragments dating from between the fourth and the
HOHYHQWKFHQWXULHVSRVVLEO\HYHQDVLJQLFDQWO\ODUJHUQXPEHUDFRPSOHWHFHQVXVUHPDLQVDGHVLGHUDWXP
The Coptic alphabet developed out of a history of attempts to write the Egyptian language using the
Greek alphabet, beginning soon after Alexander the Greats conquest of Egypt toward the end of the fourth
century BCE. Thereafter, Egypt became a bilingual country, with Greek becoming the dominant language
in politics and educated culture. The hieroglyph-based writing systems fell into disuse during the Roman
period (which began with Augustuss conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE), and it is fair to say that after about
50 CE there was for most Egyptians only one means of recording things in writing: Greek For two centuries or so, until the middle of the third century, Egypt witnessed the striking phenomenon of a majority
population with no way of recording anything in its own language in writing (Bagnall 1996, 235236).
The beginning of the history of Coptic literature is marked by the widespread use of a fully developed and more or less standardized writing system employing the supplemented Greek alphabet for the

3. The manuscript traditions
45
purpose of writing Egyptian. The term Coptic used for designating the language of this literature is a
word that derives from ancient Greek aigyptios Egyptian, which passed through Coptic itself (as gyptios,
or kuptios) into Egyptian Arabic and from there into the European languages (copto, copte, koptisch etc.).
The oldest surviving examples of Coptic writing show clearly that the creators (or standardizers) of the
Coptic writing system were thoroughly familiar with the conventions of Greek literary scribal practice,
but also appropriately sensitive to features of Coptic that distinguished it sharply from Greek, especially
in phonology and syllable structures. By means that are not entirely clear, the Coptic languageespecially the literary languagecame to borrow a very large number of words from Greek, for the most part
adapting the loanwords to Coptic syntax (and sometimes adapting them also orthographically and even
morphologically). Thus someone who can read Greek (in the uncial scripts typical of Late Antique literary
manuscripts) will be able to sound out a good deal of any Coptic text and will even come across many
easily recognizable (Greek) words, without being able to understand even the most basic clauses, for lack
of knowledge of Coptic vocabulary and grammar.
Learning to read widely in Coptic literature entails learning multiple dialects, which are distinct from
one another not so much in terms of the writing system as such, which remained fairly constant from one
dialect region to another, and also through the centuries from Late Antiquity into the Middle Ages, but
rather in phonology (especially different vocalizations of identical or closely related words), somewhat
less often in morphology, sometimes also in syntax. The greatest number of dialects is attested in manuscripts of the earliest period of Coptics history, from the fourth (or late third) century up until the time
of the Arab Conquest of Egypt in the middle of the seventh century. But even in this early period, one
relatively neutral dialect, called Sahidic, emerged as a kind of standard Coptic and eventually came to
replace the other dialects in the written record of Middle and Upper (southern) Egypt. In Lower (northern)
Egypt, two other dialectsFayyumic and Bohairicbecame the standard literary dialects, but by this
time the Egyptian populace was (for reasons not entirely clear) beginning to give up speaking Coptic in
favour of Arabic.
After the fourteenth century, by which time Arabic had replaced Coptic as the medium of spoken
communication for nearly all purposesexcept in parts of the liturgy of the Coptic ChurchCoptic
manuscripts were almost always written in the Bohairic dialect, most often with an accompanying Arabic
translation. In the present context, Coptic manuscripts are manuscripts that contain, if not exclusively,
then at least in large measure, text written in the Coptic language (even if accompanied by texts in
Greek or Arabic or any other language). Beginning not long after the turn of the first millennium, Copts
had already begun translating selected parts of their ancestral literature into Arabic and composing new
theological, pastoral and liturgical texts also in that language. But for the most part, the large number of
Copto-Arabic (or Egyptian Christian Arabic) manuscripts of the twelfth and later centuries are not
treated here, while Coptic-Arabic bilingual manuscripts have been considered as a part of the Coptic
manuscript tradition proper.
On the whole, the Coptic-Arabic bilinguals served liturgical or devotional purposes, and so such
books continued to be produced even after Coptic had lost almost all chance of ever again being a language of ordinary daily life anywhere. Although printing Coptic with movable type became possible
in Europe (specifically in Rome) in 1629, by which time type fonts for Arabic also existed, the Coptic
Church in Egypt did not begin printing its bilingual liturgical and devotional books until late in the nineteenth century, at which time the Coptic manuscript tradition proper came to an end.
Surviving Coptic manuscripts from the Middle Ages with a known provenance were mostly preserved
in a small number of ancient monasteries, especially those in the :GDO1DUQQRUWKZHVWRI&DLUR
the Monastery of St Antony on the Red Sea and the Monastery of St Shenoute in Upper Egypt. Not infrequently, the older manuscripts in these repositories survived only as the remains of dismembered books
that had long since been discarded and treated as waste paper (or waste parchment). Significant numbers
of such manuscripts and fragments were acquired, one way or another, by western missionaries and travelling antiquaries and scholars, beginning in the sixteenth century. Most of the major European national museums and libraries, as well as a number of universities, own at least some Coptic manuscripts. Very large
collections outside of Egypt are in Naples (Biblioteca Nazionale), Rome/Vatican (Biblioteca Apostolica
Vaticana), Vienna (sterreichische Nationalbibliothek), Paris (Bibliothque nationale de France), London
(British Library) and New York City (Pierpont Morgan Library and Museum); in Egypt, the most salient

46
General introduction
collections are in Cairo (Coptic Museum, Coptic Patriarchate, Institut

Franais dArchologie orientale).
Early mediaeval and also Late
Antique Coptic manuscripts, including the earliest surviving papyrus
and parchment codices, have been
discovered by means of excavation,
very often by treasure-hunters rather
than by trained archaeologists, for
which reason they are often without
provenance. Among the large quantities of papyri (sometimes including parchment)mostly in Greek
that have been excavated from Late
Antique and early mediaeval urban
sites in Egypt since the beginning
of scientific papyrology toward the
end of the nineteenth century, there
is a relatively small but nonetheless
significant amount of Coptic material, some of it literary rather than
documentary. Such finds are almost always fragmentary, a description that unfortunately applies in one
way or another to the remains of Coptic literature in general. For this reason, much of the study of Coptic
manuscriptswhether from the point of view of codicology and palaeography, philology and textual criticism, digitization, cataloguing or preservationis geared specifically to dealing with fragments, whether
they are torn scraps of codex leaves, or leaves deriving from dismemberedand perhaps not otherwise
extantcodices, or fragments of some authors otherwise lost work, or a work from an otherwise lost
corpus, and so on.
In order for the study of Coptic manuscripts to advance, there is a great need for scholars to organize
and to systematize the large quantity of data that has been published during more than two hundred years of
scholarship, and to increase the database in a systematic and methodologically informed manner. There is
still much basic research to be carried out (in some cases by revising and augmenting work done by previous generations of scholars), both in the form of cataloguing and describing manuscriptswhether in the
so often fragmentary condition in which they are now to be found in the many different collections, or as
partly notional codices reconstructed from fragments that might now be scattered among any number of
those collectionsand in the form of publishing the texts. There are Coptic manuscripts that have been in
Europe for up to four hundred years and more that have not yet been (properly) published. Editorial practice
in connexion with Coptic texts has more or less gone along with the practices of Greek papyrology, which
KDV EHHQ ERWK DGYDQWDJHRXV DQG GLVDGYDQWDJHRXV IRU WKH HOG RICoptic studies in general. In any case,
there is urgent need for clarifying what textually relevant information needs to be drawn from the Coptic
manuscripts and how that information should be recorded and presented. The application of digital technology to Coptic texts is partly keeping pace with work in other languages, and there are encouraging signs
both of an awareness of the need to coordinate the efforts of widely dispersed Coptologists, and of a willingness to try to do so. Given the amount of basic research and publication that has yet to be accomplished,
it should occasion little surprise that methodologically sophisticated textual criticism of Coptic sources,
carried out in a systematic and well founded manner, has scarcely begun.
Map 4 Area of Coptic
manuscript production
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Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies

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Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

3.6. Coptic manuscripts (SE)

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

3. The manuscript traditions

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

collections are in Cairo (Coptic Museum, Coptic Patriarchate, Institut

3.7. Ethiopic manuscripts (ABa)

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

A2 Technologies, <http://www.a2technologies.com/exoscan_handheld.html>, cached copy 2011; see <http://www.chem.agilent.com/enUS/products-services/Instruments-Systems/Molecular-Spectroscopy/4100-ExoScan-Series-FTIR-(handheld)/Pages/default.aspx>, last access

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

Durova, Aksinia (1997), : (Vvedenie v

Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies: An Introduction

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