TITLE :

Analysis of 2nd and 3rd order Band Reject Filters

Submitted by :
Yashaswa Jain IEC2013037
Vartul Sharma IEC2013096
Agrima Gurnani IEC2013098
Raghav Garg IEC2013101

INTRODUCTION :
It is sometimes desirable to have circuits capable of selectively filtering one frequency or range of
frequencies out of a mix of different frequencies in a circuit. A circuit designed to perform this frequency
selection is called a filter circuit, or simply a filter. A common need for filter circuits is in highperformance stereo systems, where certain ranges of audio frequencies need to be amplified or suppressed
for best sound quality and power efficiency. You may be familiar with equalizers, which allow the
amplitudes of several frequency ranges to be adjusted to suit the listener's taste and acoustic properties of
the listening area. You may also be familiar with crossover networks, which block certain ranges of
frequencies from reaching speakers. A tweeter (high-frequency speaker) is inefficient at reproducing lowfrequency signals such as drum beats, so a crossover circuit is connected between the tweeter and the
stereo's output terminals to block low-frequency signals, only passing high-frequency signals to the
speaker's connection terminals. This gives better audio system efficiency and thus better performance.
Both equalizers and crossover networks are examples of filters, designed to accomplish filtering of certain
frequencies.
Another practical application of filter circuits is in the conditioning of non-sinusoidal voltage
waveforms in power circuits. Some electronic devices are sensitive to the presence of harmonics in the
power supply voltage, and so require power conditioning for proper operation. If a distorted sine-wave
voltage behaves like a series of harmonic waveforms added to the fundamental frequency, then it should
be possible to construct a filter circuit that only allows the fundamental waveform frequency to pass
through, blocking all (higher-frequency) harmonics

TYPES OF FILTERS :

Notch / Band Reject filters : Crystal or Discrete component filter that passes all frequencies except
those in a stop band centered on a center frequency.
Band Pass Filters : Filter that passes a certain band of frequencies. It has two cutoff frequencies, a high
cutoff frequency and a low cutoff frequency.
High Pass Filters : Discrete component filter that passes high frequency but alternates frequencies lower
then the cut off frequency.
Low Pass Filters : Discrete component filter that passes low frequency signals but alternates signals
with frequencies higher then the cut off frequency.

FILTER DESIGNS :

Chebyshev : The transfer function of the filter is derived from a chebychev equal ripple function in the
passband only. These filters offer performance between that of Elliptic function filters and Butterworth
filters. For the majority of applications, this is the preferred filter type since they offer improved
selectivity, and the networks obtained by this approximation are the most easily realized.
Butterworth : The transfer function of the filter offers maximally flat amplitude. Selectivity is better then
Gaussian or Bessel filters, but at the expense of delay and phase linearity. For most bandpass designs, the
VSWR at center frequency is extremely good. Butterworth filters are usually the least sensitive to
changes in element values.
Bessel/Linear Phase : The transfer function of the filter is derivedfrom a Bessel polynomial. It produces
filter with a flat delay around center frequency. The more poles used, the wider the flat region extends.
The roll-off rate is poor. This type of filter is close to a Gaussian filter. It has poor VSWR and loses its
maximally flat delay properties at wider bandwidths.
Elliptic : The passband ripple is similar to the Chebyshev but with greatly improved stopband selectivity
due to the addition of finite attenuation peaks. The network complexity is increased over the Butterworth
or Chebyshev, but still yields practical realizations over nearly the entire operating region.
Gaussian : The transfer function of the filter is derived from a Gaussian function. The step and impulse
response of a Gaussian filter has zero overshoot. Rise times and delay are lowest of the traditional transfer
functions. These characteristics are obtained at the expensive of poor selectivity, high element sensitivity,
and a very wide spread of element values. Gaussian filter is very similar to the Bessel except that the
delay has a slight hump at center frequency and the rate of roll-off is slower. Because of the delay
response, the ringing characteristics are better then the Bessel. Realization restrictions also apply to these
filters.

THEORY AND DESCRIPTION :

The bandpass filter passes one set of frequencies while rejecting all others. The band-stop filter does just
the opposite. It rejects a band of frequencies, while passing all others. This is also called a band-reject or
band-elimination filter. Like bandpass filters, band-stop filters may also be classified as (i) wide-band and
(ii) narrow band reject filters.
The narrow band reject filter is also called a notch filter. Because of its higher Q, which exceeds 10, the
bandwidth of the narrow band reject filter is much smaller than that of a wide band reject filter.
(i)

Wide Band Reject Filters

A wide band-stop filter using a low-pass filter, a high-pass filter and a summing amplifier
is shown in figure. For a proper band reject response, the low cut-off frequency f L of high-

pass filter must be larger than the high cut-off frequency f H of the low-pass filter. In addition,
the passband gain of both the high-pass and low-pass sections must be equal.
(ii)

Narrow Band Reject Filters

This is also called a notch filter. It is commonly used for attenuation of a single frequency such as 60 Hz
power line frequency hum. The most widely used notch filter is the twin-T network illustrated in fig. (a).
This is a passive filter composed of two T-shaped networks. One T-network is made up of two resistors

and a capacitor, while the other is made of two capacitors and a resistor.One drawback of above notch
filter (passive twin-T network) is that it has relatively low figure of merit Q. However, Q of the network
can be increased significantly if it is used with the voltage follower, as illustrated in fig. (a). Here the
output of the voltage follower is supplied back to the junction of R/2 and 2 C. The frequency response of
the active notch filter is shown in fig (b).

Notch filters are most commonly used in communications and biomedical instruments for eliminating the
undesired frequencies.
A mathematical analysis of this circuit shows that it acts as a lead-lag circuit with a phase angle, shown
in fig. (b). Again, there is a frequency f c at which the phase shift is equal to 0. In fig. (c), the voltage gain
is equal to 1 at low and high frequencies. In between, there is a frequency f c at which voltage gain drops
to zero. Thus such a filter notches out, or blocks frequencies near f c. The frequency at which maximum
attenuation occurs is called the notch-out frequency given by

fn = Fc = 2RC
Notice that two upper capacitors are C while the capacitor in the centre of the network is 2 C. Similarly,
the two lower resistors are R but the resistor in the centre of the network is 1/2 R. This relationship must
always be maintained.

INTRODUCTION TO SPICE :
SPICE is a general purpose analog simulator which contains models for most circuit elements and can
handle complex nonlinear circuits. The simulator can calculate dc operating points, perform transient
analyses, locate poles and zeros for different kinds of transfer functions, find the small signal frequency
response, small signal transfer functions, small signal sensitivities, and perform Fourier, noise, and
distortion analyses.
PSpice is a PC version of SPICE. PSpice has analog and digital libraries of standard components (such as
NAND, NOR, flip-flops, and other digital gates, op amps, etc) which makes it a useful tool for a wide
range of analog and digital applications.
AIM-Spice is a new version of SPICE running under the Microsoft Windows and Linux operating
systems. AIM-Spice for Windows is capable of displaying graphically the results of a simulation in
progress, a feature that allows the operator to terminate a run based on an instant information on
intermediate simulation results. The development of AIM-Spice was motivated by the need of a more user
friendly interface, and as a vehicle for the new set of advanced device models for circuit simulation.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION :