Introduction[edit]

MRI has a wide range of applications in medical diagnosis and there are estimated to be over
25,000 scanners in use worldwide.[1] MRI has an impact on diagnosis and treatment in many
specialties although the effect on improved health outcomes is uncertain. [2] Since MRI does not use
any ionizing radiation its use is recommended in preference to CT when either modality could yield
the same information.[3] MRI is in general a safe technique but the number of incidents causing
patient harm have risen.[4]Contraindications to MRI include most cochlear implants and cardiac
pacemakers, shrapnel and metallic foreign bodies in the orbits. A very nasty and un expected
severity may rise in MRI, if the patient who undergo the examination does not wear proper dress,
cotton dress is ideal for MRI, the dress with artificial fibers may cause the patient to feel warm inside
the scanner, and especially in Kerala the dress of both men and women may have metallic stripe
work at the edge as kasavu in golden color or silver color, this may cause blisters in patient body
when they are in the scanner,so it is always better to change to hospital gown as these things may
easily be missed by both hospital staffs as well as the patients. The safety of MRI during the first
trimester of pregnancy is uncertain, but it may be preferable to alternative options. [5] The sustained
increase in demand for MRI within the healthcare industry has led to concerns about cost
effectiveness and overdiagnosis.[6][7]

Neuroimaging[edit]
Main article: MRI of brain and brain stem

MRI image of white matter tracts.

MRI is the investigative tool of choice for neurological cancers as it is more sensitive than CT for
small tumors and offers better visualization of the posterior fossa. The contrast provided
between grey and white matter makes it the optimal choice for many conditions of the central
nervous system including demyelinating diseases, dementia, cerebrovascular disease, infectious
diseases and epilepsy.[8]MRI is also used in MRI-guided stereotactic surgery and radiosurgery for

treatment of intracranial tumors, arteriovenous malformations and other surgically treatable

conditions using a device known as the N-localizer.[9][10][11][12]

Cardiovascular[edit]
Main article: Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging

MR angiogram in congenital heart disease

Cardiac MRI is complementary to other imaging techniques, such as echocardiography, cardiac

CT and nuclear medicine. Its applications include assessment of myocardial ischemia and
viability, cardiomyopathies, myocarditis, iron overload, vascular diseases and congenital heart
disease.[13]

Musculoskeletal[edit]
Applications in the musculoskeletal system include spinal imaging, assessment of joint disease
and soft tissue tumors.[14]

Liver and gastrointestinal MRI[edit]

Hepatobiliary MR is used to detect and characterize lesions of the liver, pancreas and bile ducts.
Focal or diffuse disorders of the liver may be evaluated using diffusion-weighted, opposed-phase
imaging and dynamic contrast enhancement sequences. Extracellular contrast agents are widely
used in liver MRI and newer hepatobiliary contrast agents also provide the opportunity to perform
functional biliary imaging. Anatomical imaging of the bile ducts is achieved by using a heavily T2weighted sequence in magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP). Functional imaging
of the pancreas is performed following administration of secretin. MR enterography provides noninvasive assessment of inflammatory bowel disease and small bowel tumors. MR-colonography can
play a role in the detection of large polyps in patients at increased risk of colorectal cancer.[15][16][17][18]

Functional MRI[edit]
Main article: Functional magnetic resonance imaging
Functional MRI (fMRI) is used to understand how different parts of the brain respond to
external stimuli. Blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) fMRI measures the hemodynamic
response to transient neural activity resulting from a change in the ratio
of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin. Statistical methods are used to construct a 3Dparametric

map of the brain indicating those regions of the cortex which demonstrate a significant change in
activity in response to the task. FMRI has applications in behavioraland cognitive research as well as
in planning neurosurgery of eloquent brain areas.[19][20]

Oncology[edit]
MRI is the investigation of choice in the preoperative staging of rectal and prostate cancer, and has
a role in the diagnosis, staging, and follow-up of other tumors.[21]

How MRI works[edit]

Main article: Physics of magnetic resonance imaging

Medical MRI scanner

To perform a study, the patient is positioned within an MRI scanner which forms a
strong magnetic field around the area to be imaged. In most medical applications, protons
(hydrogen atoms) in tissues containing water molecules are used to create a signal that is processed
to form an image of the body. First, energy from an oscillating magnetic field is temporarily applied to
the patient at the appropriateresonant frequency. The excited hydrogen atoms emit a radio
frequency signal which is measured by a receiver coil. The radio signal can be made to encode
position information by varying the main magnetic field using gradient coils. As these coils are rapidly
switched on and off they create the characteristic repetitive noises of an MRI scan. The contrast
between different tissues is determined by the rate at which excited atoms return to the equilibrium
state. Exogenous contrast agents may be given intravenously, orally or intra-articularly.[22]
MRI requires a magnetic field that is both strong and uniform. The field strength of the magnet is
measured in tesla and while the majority of systems operate at 1.5T, commercial systems are
available between 0.2T7T. Most clinical magnets are superconductingwhich requires liquid helium.
The lower field strengths can be achieved with permanent magnets, which are often used in "open"
MRI scanners for claustrophobic patients.[23]

Contrast in MRI[edit]

Effects of TR and TE on MR signal.

Examples of T1 weighted, T2 weighted and PD weighted MRI scans.

Image contrast may be weighted to demonstrate different anatomical structures or pathologies. Each
tissue returns to its equilibrium state after excitation by the independent processes of T1 (spinlattice) and T2 (spin-spin) relaxation.
Main article: Spinlattice relaxation
To create a T1-weighted image more magnetization is allowed to recover before measuring the MR
signal by changing the repetition time (TR). This image weighting is useful for assessing the cerebral
cortex, identifying fatty tissue, characterizing focal liver lesions and for post-contrast imaging.
Main article: Spin-spin relaxation time
To create a T2-weighted image more magnetization is allowed to decay before measuring the MR
signal by changing the echo time (TE). This image weighting is useful for detecting edema,
revealing white matter lesions and assessing zonal anatomy in the prostate anduterus.

History[edit]
Magnetic resonance imaging was invented by Paul C. Lauterbur in September 1971; he published
the theory behind it in March 1973.[24][25] The factors leading to image contrast (differences in tissue
relaxation time values) had been described nearly 20 years earlier by Erik Odeblad (physician and
scientist).[26]
In 1952, Herman Carr produced a one-dimensional NMR spectrum as reported in his Harvard PhD
thesis.[27][28][29] In the Soviet Union, Vladislav Ivanov filed (in 1960) a document with the USSR State
Committee for Inventions and Discovery at Leningrad for a Magnetic Resonance Imaging device,
[30]

although this was not approved until the 1970s.[31]

Raymond Damadian's "Apparatus and method for detecting cancer in tissue."

In a 1971 paper in the journal Science,[32] Raymond Damadian, an American physician and professor
at the Downstate Medical CenterState University of New York (SUNY), reported that tumors and
normal tissue can be distinguished in vivo by nuclear magnetic resonance ("NMR"). He suggested
that these differences could be used to diagnose cancer, though later research would find that these
differences, while real, are too variable for diagnostic purposes. Damadian's initial methods were
flawed for practical use,[33] relying on a point-by-point scan of the entire body and using relaxation
rates, which turned out not to be an effective indicator of cancerous tissue. [34] While researching the
analytical properties of magnetic resonance, Damadian created a hypothetical magnetic resonance
cancer-detecting machine in 1972. He filed the first patent for such a machine, U.S. patent
#3,789,832 on March 17, 1972, which was later issued to him on February 5, 1974. [35]
The National Science Foundation notes "The patent included the idea of using NMR to 'scan' the
human body to locate cancerous tissue."[36] However, it did not describe a method for generating
pictures from such a scan or precisely how such a scan might be done. [37][38] Meanwhile, Paul
Lauterbur at Stony Brook University expanded on Carr's technique and developed a way to generate
the first MRI images, in 2D and 3D, using gradients. In 1973, Lauterbur published the first nuclear
magnetic resonance image[24][39] and the first cross-sectional image of a living mouse in January 1974.
[40]

In the late 1970s, Peter Mansfield, a physicist and professor at the University of

Nottingham, England, developed a mathematical technique that would allow scans to take seconds
rather than hours and produce clearer images than Lauterbur had. Damadian, along with Larry
Minkoff and Michael Goldsmith, performed the first MRI body scan of a human being on July 3,
1977,[41][42] studies which they published in 1977.[43][44] In 1979, Richard S. Likes filed a patent on kspace *4,307,343.
During the 1970s a team led by Scottish professor John Mallard built the first full body MRI scanner
at the University of Aberdeen.[45] On 28 August 1980 they used this machine to obtain the first
clinically useful image of a patients internal tissues using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI),
which identified a primary tumour in the patient's chest, an abnormal liver, and secondary cancer in
his bones.[46] This machine was later used at St Bartholomews Hospital, in London, from 1983 to
1993. Mallard and his team are credited for technological advances that led to the widespread
introduction of MRI.[47]

In 1980 Paul Bottomley joined the GE Research Center in Schenectady, NY, and his team ordered
the highest field-strength magnet then available a 1.5T system and built the first high-field and
overcame problems of coil design, RF penetration and signal-to-noise ratio to build the first wholebody MRI/MRS scanner.[48] The results translated into the highly successful 1.5T MRI product-line,
with over 20,000 systems in use today. In 1982, Bottomley performed the first localized MRS in the
human heart and brain. After starting a collaboration on heart applications with Robert Weiss at
Johns Hopkins, Bottomley returned to the university in 1994 as Russell Morgan Professor and
director of the MR Research Division.[49] Although MRI is most commonly performed at 1.5 T, higher
fields such as 3T are gaining more popularity because of their increased sensitivity and resolution. In
research laboratories, human studies have been performed at up to 9.4 T[50] and animal studies have
been performed at up to 21.1T.[51]

2003 Nobel Prize[edit]

Reflecting the fundamental importance and applicability of MRI in medicine, Paul Lauterbur of
the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Sir Peter Mansfield of theUniversity of
Nottingham were awarded the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their "discoveries
concerning magnetic resonance imaging". The Nobel citation acknowledged Lauterbur's insight of
using magnetic field gradients to determine spatial localization, a discovery that allowed rapid
acquisition of 2D images. Mansfield was credited with introducing the mathematical formalism and
developing techniques for efficient gradient utilization and fast imaging. The actual research that won
the prize was done almost 30 years before while Paul Lauterbur was a professor in the Department
of Chemistry at Stony Brook University in New York.[24]

Safety of MRI[edit]
Implants[edit]

MR-Safe sign

MR-Conditional sign

MR-Unsafe sign

All patients are reviewed for contraindications prior to MRI scanning. Medical devices and implants
are categorized as MR Safe, MR Conditional or MR Unsafe: [52]

MR-Safe The device or implant is completely non-magnetic, non-electrically conductive,

and non-RF reactive, eliminating all of the primary potential threats during an MRI procedure.

MR-Conditional A device or implant that may contain magnetic, electrically conductive or

RF-reactive components that is safe for operations in proximity to the MRI, provided the
conditions for safe operation are defined and observed (such as 'tested safe to 1.5 teslas' or
'safe in magnetic fields below 500 gauss in strength').

MR-Unsafe Objects that are significantly ferromagnetic and pose a clear and direct threat
to persons and equipment within the magnet room.

The MRI environment may cause harm in patients with MR-Unsafe devices such as cochlear
implants and most permanent pacemakers. Several deaths have been reported in patients with
pacemakers who have undergone MRI scanning without appropriate precautions. [53] Many implants
can be safely scanned if the appropriate conditions are adhered to and these are available online
(see www.MRIsafety.com). MR Conditional pacemakers are increasingly available for selected
patients. [54]
Ferromagnetic foreign bodies such as shell fragments, or metallic implants such as surgical
prostheses and ferromagnetic aneurysm clips are also potential risks. Interaction of the magnetic
and radio frequency fields with such objects can lead to heating or torque of the object during an
MRI.[55]
Titanium and its alloys are safe from attraction and torque forces produced by the magnetic field,
though there may be some risks associated with Lenz effect forces acting on titanium implants in
sensitive areas within the subject, such as stapes implants in the inner ear.

Projectile risk[edit]
The very high strength of the magnetic field can cause projectile effect (or "missile-effect") accidents,
where ferromagnetic objects are attracted to the center of the magnet.Pennsylvania reported 27
cases of objects becoming projectiles in the MRI environment between 2004 and 2008. [56] There

have been incidents of injury and death.[57][58] In one tragic case, a 6-year-old boy died after an MRI
exam, after a metal oxygen tank was pulled across the room and crushed the child's head. [59]
To reduce the risk of projectile accidents, ferromagnetic objects and devices are typically prohibited
in the proximity of the MRI scanner and patients undergoing MRI examinations are required to
remove all metallic objects, often by changing into a gown or scrubs, and ferromagnetic detection
devices are used at some sites.[60][61]

EEG Cup Electrodes[edit]

EEG (electroencephalography) cup electrodes or are categorized as medical accessories and the
same MR Safe, MR Conditional and MR Unsafe terminology applies. With the growth of the use of
MR technology, the U.S. Food & Drug Administration [FDA] recognized the need for a consensus on
standards of practice, and the FDA sought out ASTM International [ASTM] to achieve them. Working
with key stakeholders, Committee F04[62] of ASTM developed F2503, Standard Practice for Marking
Medical Devices and Other Items for Safety in the Magnetic Resonance Environment. [63]