Aci 207.1R-96

AC1 207.
1 R-96
Mass Concrete
Reported by AC1 Committee 207
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207.1 R-96
Mass Concrete
Reported by AC1 Committee 207
Gary R. Mass
Chairman
Edward A. Abdun-Nur*
Fred A. Anderson*
Richard A. Bradshaw, Jr.*
Edward G. W. Bush
Robert W. Cannon
Roy W. Carlson
James L. Cope*
James R Graham*
Woodnnv L. Burgess*
Chairman,Task Group
David Groner
Kenneth D. Hansen
GordonKidd
M.
W. Douglas
McEwen
Patricia
Roberts
J.
James E.Oliverson*
Walter H. Price*?
Ernest
Polivka
Milos
Roger
Jerome M. Raphael*
John
K;SchradeP
L.Sprouse
H.Stout
Carl R.Wilder
Members ofCommittee 207 who voted on the 1996 revisions:

John M. Scanlon
Chairman
Dan A. Bonikowsky
Robert W. Cannon
Ahmed F. chraibi
J a m e s L.Cope
Luis H. Diaz
T o t h y P. Dolen
John R Hess
Chairman, Task Group
Michael I. Hammons
Meng
Kenneth D. Hansen
James K.Hinds
Allen J. Hulschizer
Synopsis
Mats concrete is any volwne of concrete with dimensions large enough
to
of heatfmm hydrarequire that measures taken
be to cope with generarion
tion of the cemnt and attendant volume change to minimize cracking.
The design of mass concrete structures is generally based on durabiIity,
econoq, and thermal action, with strength ofien being a secondary conis exothermicby nature, the tempercern Since the cement-water reaction
ature rise within a large concretemass, where the heat is not dissipated
can be quite high.Signifiant tensile stressesmay developf m m the volume
change OsSDciated with the increase and &cmae of temperature within
the mass. Measures should be taken where crackingdue to thermal behavior may cause loss of structuml integrity and monoIithic action, or may
ACI committee reports, guides, standard practices, design

handbooks, and commentaries are intended for guidance in
planning, designing, executing, and inspecting construction.
This document is intended for the use of individuals whoare
competent to evaluate thesignificance and limitations of its
content and recommendationsand who will accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains. The
American Concrete Institute d i s c l a i m s any and all responsiThe
bility for the application of the stated principles. Institute
shall not be liable forany loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract
documents. If items found in t h i s document are desired by
the ArchitectEngineer to be a part of the contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory languagefor incorporation by the ArchitectlEngineer.
cause excessive seepageand shortening of the service life of the st-,

or may be esthetically objectionable. Manyof the principles in mass concrete practice can also be appliedto genera concrete work whereby certain
economic and other benefis may be realized
This report contains history
a
of the abelopment of m s concrete practice
and discussion of materials and concrete mir proportioning, pmperties.
constructionmethods and equipment, and thermal behavior:it covers tmditionally placedand consoliahted mass concrete, and does not cover mllercompacted concrete. Mass concrete practices were largely developedf i m
concrete dam construction, where temperature-rekued cracking wat first
identifid Temperature-related crackinghas also been experiencedin other
thick-sectionconcretestructures,including maf foundations, pile caps,
bridge piers, thick walls, and tunnel linings.
Keywords: admixtures; aggregategradation; aggregate size; aggregates; air

entrainment;archdams;batching;bridgepiers;cements;compressive
ams:cooling; cracking (fracturstrength; concrete construction; concrete d
ing); creep; curing;dihsivity; durability; fly ash; formwork (construction);
gravity dams; heat generation; heat of hydration; history; instrumentation:
mass concrefe; mix propoaioning; mixing: modulus of elasticity; permeability;placing;Poissonsratio;pozzolans;
shear properties;shrinkage:
strains: stresses; temperature control; temperature rise (in concrete); thermalexpansion; thermal gradient;thermalproperties;vibration;
volume
change.
AC1 207.1R-96became effective November21.1996. This document replaces AC1
207.11-87.
Copyright @ 1997,American Concrete Instimte.
Au rights rescryed including rights of rrproductim and use in any form or by m y
including the making of copies by any photo process, or by eltaronic or
mechanical devia. print4 wrimn, or
or recording for sound oc visual rcproduction or for usc in any knowledge or renieval system or device, u n k s s permission in
writing is obtaiaed from the copyright proprietors.
mcans.
207.1W1
K. Schrader
Glenn S. Tarbox
Stephen B. Taao
K.Ernest
Lee
Gary R Mass
Robert F. Oury
oral.
AC1 COMMITIEE REPORT
207.1 R-2
CONTENTS
Chapter l-lntroduction and historical
developments, p. 207.1 R-2
1.1-scope
1.2-History
1.3-Temperature control
1.4--Long-term strength design
Chapter 2"Materials and mix proportioning, p.
207.1 R-6
2. &General
2.2"cements
2.3-P0mlans and ground slag
2.Ahemical admixtures
2.5-Aggregates
2.6Water
2.7-Selection of proportions
Chapter 3-Properties, p. 207.1 R-1
3
3.1-General
3.24trength
3.3-Elastic propexties
3.4-creep
3.5-Volume change
3.6-Permeability
3.7-Thermal properties
3.8-Shear properties
3.9-Durability
Chapter rbConstruction, p. 207.1R-22
4.1-Batching
4.2-Mixing
4.3-Placing
4.4"cUring
~.~-FoMIs
4.6-Height of lifts and time intervals between
lifts
4.7-Cooling and temperature control
4.8-Grouting contraction joints
Chapter &Behavior, p. 207.1 R-29
5.1-Thermal stresses and cracking
5.2-Volume change
5 .%Heat generation
5.4-Heat dissipation studies
5.5-Instrumentation
Chapter 6"References, p. 207.1R-38
6.1-Specified and recommended references
6.2-Cited references
6.3-Additional references
Appendix-Metric examples, p. 207.1 R 4 0
CHAPTER 1"INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL

DEVELOPMENTS
1.l-scope
1.1.1-'Mass
concrete" is defined in AC1 116R as "any
to r e q e
volume of concrete with dimensions large enough
that measures be taken to cope with generation of heat from o
hydration of the cement and attendant volume change to
minimize cracking." The designof mass concrete structures
is generally based principally on durability, economy, and
thermal action, with strength often being a secondary rather
than a primary concern. The one characteristic thatdistinguishes mass concrete from other concrete workis thermal
behavior. Since the cement-water reaction is exothermic
by
~ t u r ethe
, temperature rise within a large concrete mass,
where the heat is not quickly dissipated, can be quite high
(see 5.1.1). Significant tensile stresses and strainsmay develop from the volume change associated withthe increase
anddecrease of temperaturewithinthe mass. Measures
to thermal behavior may
should be taken where cracking due
cause loss of structural integrity and monolithic action, or
may cause excessive seepage and shortening of the service
life of the smcture, or may be esthetically objectionable.
Many of the principles in mass concrete practicecan also be
applied to general concrete work whereby
certain economic
and other benefits
may be realized.
This report contains a history
of the developmentof mass
concrete practice and discussionof materials and concrete
mix proportioning,properties,constructionmethodsand
equipment, and thermal behavior. This report covers tradimass concrete, and does not
tionally placed and consolidated
cover roller-compacted concrete. Roller-compacted concrete
is described in detail in AC1 207.5R.
Mass concreting practices were developed largely from
where
temperature-related
concrete dam construction,
cracking was frrst identified. Temperature-related cracking
also has been experienced in other thick-section concrete
structures, including mat foundations, pile caps, piers,
bridge
thick walls, and tunnel linings.
High compressive strengths are usually not required in
massconcretestructures; thin arch dams are exceptions.
Massive struchues, such
as gravity dams, resist loads by virtue of their shape and mass, and only secondarily by their
strength. Of more importance are durability and properties
connected with temperature behavior and the tendency for
cracking.
Theeffects ofheatgeneration,
restraint, andvolume
changes onthe design and behavior
of massive reinforcedelin AC1 207.2R. Cooling
ements and structures are discussed
and insulating systems for mass concrete are addressed in
mass concrete is disAC1 207.4R. Mixture proportioning for
cussedinACI211.1.
1.2-Hi~tory
1.2.1-When concrete was frrst used in dams, the dams
were small andthe concrete was mixed by hand. The port.land cement usually hadto be aged to comply with a ''boiling" soundness test, the aggregate was bank-run sand and
gravel,andproportioningwas
by theshovelful(Davis
of verydry consistency was placed inthin layers and consolidated by rigorous hand tamping.
Generally, mixed concrete was transported
the to
forms by
wheelbarrow. Where plums were employed in cyclopean
masonry, stiff-leg derricks operating inside the work area
moved the wet concrete and plums. The rate of placement
was at most a few hundred cubic yards a day. Generally,
1.2.2-Covered herein are the principal steps from those
there was no attempt to moistcure.
In large dam construcvery small beginnings to the present.
An exception to these general practices was the Lower
tion there now
is exact and automatic proportioning mixand
C
r
y
stal Springs Dam completed
in 1890. This dam is located
ing of materials. Concrete in 12-yd3 (9-m3) buckets can be
near
San
Mateo,
California,
about
20 miles south of San
placed by conventional methods at the ofrate
10,OOO yd3/day
Francisco.
According
to
available
information,
it was the
(7650 m3/day) at a temperature of less than50 F (10 C) as
dam
in
the
United
States
in
which
the
maximum
permisfirst
placed, even during the hottest weather. Grand Coulee Dam
sible
quantity
of
mixing
water
was
specified.
The
concrete
still holdstheall-timerecordmonthlyplacing
rate of
for
this
154
ft
(47
m)
high
structure
was
cast
in
a
system
of
536,250 yd3 (410,020m3)followedbythemorerecent
interlocking
blocks
of
specified
shape
and
dimensions.
An
achievement atItaipu Dam onthe Brazil-Paraguay border of
old photograph indicates that handtampers were employed
440,550 yd3 (336,840 m3) (Itaipu Binacional 1981). Lean
to consolidate thedry concrete. Fresh concrete was covered
mixes are now made workable by means of air-entraining
and other chemical admixtures and the use of finely dividedwith planksas a protection from the sun and the concrete was
kept wet until hardeningoccurred.
pozzolanicmaterials.Water-reducing,strength-enhancing,
Only a fewof the concrete dams built in theUNted States
and set-controlling chemical admixturesare effective in reprior
to1900remain serviceable today, and most of are
them
as well as
ducing therequired cement content to a minimum
small.
Of
the
nearly
3500
dams
built
in
the
United
States
to
in controlling the time of setting. With the increased attendate,
fewer
than
20
were
built
prior
to
1900.
More
than
a
tion to roller-compacted concrete,
newa dimension has been
t
h
i
r
d
of
these
are
located
in
the
states
of
California
and
Arigiven to mass concrete construction. The record monthly
zona wherethe climate is mild. The others survive more rigplacing rateof 328,500yd3 (250,200m3) for roller-compactorous climates thanks to their stonemasonry facing.
ed concrete was achieved at Tarbela
Dam in Pakistan. Plac13.4 Years 1900 to 1930-After the turn of the century,
ing rates for no-slump concrete, using large earth-moving
the
construction ofall types of concretedams was greatly acequipment for transportation and large vibrating rollers for
celerated.
More and higherdams for irrigation, power, and
consolidation, appear to be limited only by the size of the
water
supply
werethe order of the day. Concrete placement
project and its plants ability to produce concrete. Those conmeans
of
towers
and chutes became the vogue. In the
by
cerned with concrete dam construction should not feel that
United
States,
the
portland
cement industry became well esthe ultimate has been reached, but they are justified in feelwas
rarely
imported from Europe.
tablished,
and
cement
ing some satisfaction with the progress has
thatbeen made.
ASTM specifications for portland cement underwentlittle
1.23 Prior to 190QPrior to the beginning of the twentichange during thefirst 30 yearsof this century aside from a
used in the United
eth century, much of the portland cement
modest increase in fineness requirement determined by sieve
States was imported from Europe. All cements were very
loss on ignianalysis. Exceptfor the limits on magnesia and
coarse by present standards-and quite commonly they were tion, there were no chemical requirements. Character and
of
underbumed and had a highfree lime content. For dams
grading of aggregateswas given more attention during this
that period, bank-run sand and gravelused
were
without benperiod. Very substantial progresswas made in the developefit of washingto remove objectionabledirt and fines. Conment of methods of proportioning concrete. The water-cecrete mixes varied widely in cement content and in sand
ment strength relationship was established
by Duff Abrams
coarse aggregate ratio. Mixing was usually
by hand and proand his associates from investigations prior to 1918 when
portioning by shovel, wheelbarrow, box, or cart. The effect
PortlandCementAssociation ( K A ) Bulletin1appeared.
of water-cement ratio was unknown, and generally no atNevertheless, little attention was paid to the quantitymixof
tempt wasmadetocontrol
the volume of mixing water.
ingwater.Placingmethodsusingtowersandflat-sloped
There was nomeasure of consistency exceptby visual obserchutes dominated, resulting in the use of excessively wet
vation of the newly-mixed concrete.
12 years after the importance
of the watermixes for at least
cement ratio had been established.
Some of the dams were of cyclopean masonry in which
Generally, portland cements were employed without adplums (large stones) were partially embedded in a very
mixtures. There were exceptions such as the sand-cements
wet concrete. The spaces between plums were then filled
employed by the U.S. Reclamation Service, now the U.S.
with concrete, also very wet. Some of the early dams were
BureauofReclamation,intheconstructionofElephant
built without contraction joints and without regular lifts.
Butte and Arrowrock dams. At the time of its completion in
However, there were notable exceptions where concrete was
1915, the Arrowrock
Dam,a gravity-archdam, was the highcast in blocks; the heightof lift was regulated and concrete
est dam in the world at 350 ft (107 m). The dam was constructed with lean interior concrete and a richer exterior
face
*.See 6.2for references.
1963).* Tremendous progress

has been made since the early
art and scienceof dam building practicedtoday
days, and the
has reached a highly advanced
state. The selection and proportioning of concrete materialsto produce suitable strength,
durability, and impermeability of fthe
i s h e d product can be
predicted
and
controlled
with
accuracy.

concrete. The mixture for interior concrete contained

apcessed, ingredients were proportioned byweight, and the
proximately 376lb of a blended, pulverized granite-cement mixing water measured by volume.
combination per yd3 (223kg/m3). The cement mixture was
Improvement in workability was brought aboutthe
byinproduced at the site by intergrinding about equal parts of
troduction of finely divided mineral admixtures @ozzolans),
portland cement and pulverized granite such that not less
air-entrainment, and chemical.admixtures. Slumps
as low as
p)
mesh sieve. Theinthan 90 percent passed the 200 (75
3 in. (76 mm) were employed without vibration, although
terground combination was considerablyfiner than the ceof this era employedlarge spud
most projects in later years
ment beiig produced at that time.
vibrators for consolidation.
Another exception occurredin the concrete for one
of the
A study of the records and actual inspection of a considerabutments of Big Dalton Dam,a multiple-archdam built by
able number of dams show that there were differences in
the Los Angeles County Flood Control District during the
condition which could not be explained. Of two smctures
late 1920s. Pumicite (a pozzolan) from Friant, California,
that appearedto be of like quality subjected to the
same enwas employed as a 20 percent replacement by weight for
vironment, one might exhibit excessive cracking while the
portland cement.
other, after like
a period of service, wouldbe in near-perfect
condition.
The
meager records available on a dams
few indiDuring the 1900-1930
period, cyclopean concrete went out
cated
wide
internal
temperature
variations
due
to cement hyof style. Fordams of thick section,the maximum size of agdration.
The
degree
of
cracking
was
associated
with
the
gregate formass concrete was increased toas large as 10 in.
(250 mm). As a means of measuring consistency, the slump temperature rise.
AC1 Committee 207, Mass Concrete, was organized in
testhadcome into use. The testing of 6 x 12-in.(150 x
1930 (originallyas Committee 108)for the purposeof gath300-mm) and8 x 16-in. (200 4x0 0 " ) job cylinders became
ering information about the significant properties of mass
common practice in the United States. European countries
concrete indams and factors which influence these proper8 x 8-in. (200x 2 0 0 " ) cube fortestgenerally adopted the
ties. Bogue (1949) and
his associates under the PCA fellowing the strength at various ages. Mixers of 3-yd3 (2.3-m3)
caship at theNational Bureau of Standards had already
pacity were in common use near the end of this period and
identified the principalcompounds in portland cement. Latthere were some of
4yd3 (3-m3) capacity.Only Type I cement
er, Hubert Woods and his associates engagedin investiga(normal portland cement) was available during
this period.In
tionstodeterminethecontributions
of each ofthese
areas where freezing and thawing conditions were severe it
compounds to heatof hydration andto the strength of morwas common practice use
to a concretemix containing 564 lb
tars and concretes.
of cement per yd3 (335 kg/m3) for the entire concretemass.
The construction practice of using
an interior mix containing
By the beginning of 1930, Hoover Dam was in the early
376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3) and anexterior face mix containing
stages of planning. Because of the unprecedented size of
564 lWyd3 (335 kg/m3) was developed during this period to
than any
Hoover Dam, investigations much more elaborate
make the dam's face resistant to the severe climate and yet
that had been previously undertaken were carried
out to deminimizethe overalluse of cernent. In areas of mild climate,
termine the effect of composition and fineness ofcecement,
amounts of cementas low
one classof concrete that contained
mentfactor,temperature
of curing,maximum size of
as 376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3) was
used in somedams.
aggregate, etc., on heat
of hydration of cement, compressive
of mortars and concrete.
An exception was Theodore Roosevelt Dam built during strength, and other properties
The results of these investigations ledto the use of lowmasonry structure facedwith rough
1905-1911. It is a rubble
stone blocks laidin portland cement mortar made with a ce- heat cement in Hoover Dam. The investigations also furnished informationfor the design of
the embedded pipe coolment manufactured in a plant near the dam site. For this
Hoover Dam. Lowstructure the average cement content has been calculated to ing system employed for the firstintime
be approximately 282 lb/yd3 (167 kg/m3). For the interior heat
of cement was f m t used in Morris Dam,near Pasadena,
California, which wasstaxted a year before Hoover
Dam.
the mass, rough quarried stones were embedded in a 1:2.5
per yd3 (502 kg/
mortar containing about 846 lb of cement
For Hoover Dam,the construction plant was of unprecem3). In each layer the-voids between the closely spaced
dented capacity. Batching and mixing were completely autostones were filled with a concrete containing564 lb of cematic. The record day's outputfor the two concrete plants,
ment per yd3 (335 kg/m3)into which spalls were spaded
by
equipped with 4-yd3 (3-m3) mixers was over l0,OOO yd3
hand. These conditions account for
the very low average ce- (7600m3).Concretewastransported in 8-yd3(6-m3)buckets
mentcontent.Constructionwaslaboriouslyslow,and
by cableways and compacted initially by ramming
tam
and
p
Roosevelt Dam represents perhaps the last of the large
dams
ing. In the spring of 1933, large internal vibrators inwere
built in the United Statesby this method of construction.
duced
and
were
used
thereafter
for compacting
the
remainder
of
the
concrete.
Withii
about
two
years,
12.5 Years 1930 ru 1970-This was an era
of rapid devel(2,440,000
m3)
of
concrete
were
placed.
3,200,000
yd3
opment in mass concrete construction fordams. The use of
the towerand chute method declined duringthis period and
Hoover Dam marked the beginning of an
of improved
era
was usedonly on small projects. Concrete was typically
practices in large concretedam construction. Completed in
placed using large buckets with cranes, cableways, and/or
1935 at a rateof construction then unprecedented, the pracrailroad systems.On the largerand more closely controlled
use in
tices employedthere with some refinements have been
constructionprojects,theaggregateswerecarefullyproon most of the large concrete dams which have been con-

struckxi in theUnited States andin many other countries all ment factor for the interior concrete of Noms Dam (Tenover the world since that time.
nessee
Valley
Authority
1939)
constructed
by the
Tennessee Valley Authorityin 1936, was 376 lb/yd3 (223
The use of a pozzolanic material (pumicite)was given a
kg/m3). The degree of cracking was objectionably great.
trial in Big Dalton Dam by the Los Angeles County Flood
The compressive strength of the wet-screened 6 x 12-in.
ControlDistrict.ForBonnevilleDam,completed
by the
(150 x 300-mm)job cylinders at one-year age was
7000 psi
Corps of Engineers in 1938, a portland cement-pozzolan
combination was employed for all of the work. It was pro- (48.3 MPa). Core specimens 18 x 36-in. (460 x 910-mm)
fnst stage concrete containing 376lb of ceduced by intergrinding the cement clinker with a pozzolan drilled from the
ment per yd3 (223 kg/m3)at Grand Coulee Dam tested in
processed by calcining an altered volcanic material
at a temthe excess of 8000 psi (55 MPa) at the age of two years.
perature of about 1500F (820 C). The proportion of clinker
Judged by composition, the cement was of the moderateto pozzolan was3: 1 by weight. This type of cement was seheat type corresponding tothe present TypeII. Considering
lected for use at Bonnevilleh eonbasis of results of tests on
two structures, it
the moderately low stresses within the
concrete which indicated
large extensibility andlow temperature rise. This is the only known completed concrete dam wasevidentthatsuchhighcompressivestrengthswere
quite unnecessary. A reductionin cement content onsimiin the United Statesin which an interground portland-pozlar future constructions might
be expected to substantially
as a
zolan cement has been employed. The use of pozzolan
reduce the tendency towardcracking.
separate cementing material to be added at the mixer, at a
rate of 30 percent, or more, of total cementitious materials,
For Hiwassee Dam, completed by TVA in 1940,
the 376
of Reclamahas come to be regular practice by the Bureau
lb/yd3(223 kg/m3) cement-content barrier was broken. For
tion, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Corps of Engithat structure the cement content of the mass concrete was
neers, and others.
only 282 lb/yd3 (167 kg/m3), an unusually low value for
The groupof chemical admixtures that function to reducethat time. Hiwassee Dam was singularly
free from thermal
water in concrete mixtures, control setting, and enhance
cracks, and there began a trend toward reducing
the cement
in
strength of concrete, beganto be seriously recognized the
content whichis still continuing. Sincethis time, the Type
mass concrete. In
1950s as materialsthatcouldbenefit
II cement content of the interior
mass concrete has been on
1960, Wallace and Ore published their report on the benefit
the order of 235 lb/yd3(140 kg/m3) and even
as low as 212
of these materials to lean mass concrete. Since this time,
lb/yd3 (126 kg/m3).An example of a large gravity damfor
chemical admixtures have come to be used in most mass
which the Type II cement content for mass concrete was
concrete.
235 lb/yd3 (140 kg/m3) is Pine Flat Dam in California,
It became standard practice about 1945to use purposely
completed by the Corps of Engineers in 1954. In high
dams
are exposed
entrained air for concretein most structures that
of the archtype where stressesare moderately high, the ceThis practice was applied to ment content ofthe mass mix is usually in the range of 300
to severe weathering conditions.
the concreteof exposedsurfaces of dams as well as concrete
to 450 lb/yd3 (180to 270 kg/m3),the higher cementcontent
pavements and reinforced concrete in general. Air-entrainbeing usedin the thinner and more highly stressed dams
of
ing admixtures introduced at the mixer have been employedthis type.
of practically all
for both interior and exterior concretes
Examples of cementitious contents (including pozzolan)
dams constructed since 1945.
for more recentdams are:
Placement of conventional mass concrete has remained
Arch dams
largely unchanged since that time. The major new develop1. 282 lb/yd3 (167 kg/m3) of cement and pozzolan in Glen
ment in the field of mass concrete is the use of rollercomCanyon Dam, a relatively thick arch dam in Arizona,
pacted concrete.
completed in 1963.
12.6 1970 to present: roller-compacted concrere-During this era, roller-compacted concrete was developed and
2. 373 lb/yd3 (221 kg/m3) of cement
in Morrow Point Dam
became the predominant method for placing
mass concrete.
in Colorado, completedin 1968.
Becauseroller-compactedconcreteis now so commonly
3. 420 lb/yd3 (249 kg/m3) of cement in
El Dam near
Atazar
used, a separate report, AC1 207.5R, is the principal referMadrid, Spain, completedin 1972.
ence for this subject. Traditional mass concrete methods
continue to be usedfor many projects, large and small, par- 4. 303 to 253 lb/yd3 (180 to 150 kg/m3) of portland-pozzolan TypeIP cement in El Cajon Dam on the Humuya
ticularly where roller-compacted concrete would
be impracRiver in Honduras, completed in 1984.
tical or difficult to use.
This often includes arch dams, large
Straight
gravitydams
wall, and some foundation works, particularly where reinforcement is required.
1. 226 lb/yd3 (1 34 kg/m3)
Typof
e II cement in Detroit Dam
1.2.7 Cementcontent-Duringthe
late 1920s and the
in Oregon, completed in 1952.
early 1930s, it was practically an unwritten law that no
2. 194 lb/yd3 (115 kg/m3) of Type II cement andfly ash in
mass concretefor large dams should containless than 376
Libby Dam in Montana, completed in 1972.
lb of cement per yd3 (223 kg/m3). Some of the authorities
of that period were of the opinion that the cement factor
3. 184 lb/yd3(109 kg/m3) of Type II cement and calcined
clay in Ilha Solteira
Dam in Brazil, completedin 1973.
should never be less than 564 lb/yd3 (335 kg/m3). TheceCOPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute
13.1-To achieve a lower maximum temperature of interior mass concrete during the hydration period,the practice of precooling concrete materials prior to mixing was
started in the early 1940s and has been extensively employed in the constructionof large dams beginning inthe
late 1940s.
CHAPTER 2-MATERIALS AND MIX

PROPORTIONING
2.1-General
2.1.1-As
is the case with other concrete,mass concrete is
composed of cemenf aggregates, and water, and frequently
pozzolans and admixtures. The objective ofmass concrete
mix proportioning is the selection of combinations of mate1.3.2-The
first serious effortto precool appears to have
rials that will produce concrete to meet
the requirements of
occurred during the construction of NorforkDam in 1941the structure with respect to economy, workability, dimen1945 by the Corps of Engineers.The plan was to introduce
sional stability and freedom from cracking, low temperature
crushed ice into the mixing water during the warmer months.
rise, adequate strength, durability,and-in the case of hyBy so doing, the temperature of freshly mixed
mass concrete
draulic structureclow permeability. This chapter will decould be reduced by about 10 F (5.6 C). On later works not
scribe materials that have been successfully used in mass
only has crushed ice been used in the mixing water, but
concrete construction and factors influencing their selection
coarse aggregates havebeen precooled eitherby cold air or
and proportioning. The recommendations contained herein
cold water prior to batching. Recently, both
fine and coarse
may needto be adjusted for special uses, such
as for massive
aggregates in a moist condition have been precooled
by varprecast beam segments, for tremie placements, and for rollious means including vacuum saturation and liquid nitrogen
er-compactedconcrete.Guidance inproportioning mass
injection. It has become almoststandard practice inthe Unitconcretecan also be found inAC1 21 1.1,
particularly Appened States to employ precooling for large dams in regions
dix 5 which details specific modificationsin the procedure
where the summer temperaturesare high, to assure that the
for mass concrete proportioning.
temperature of concrete as it is placed in the work does not
exceed about50 F (10 C).
2.2-Cements
2.2.1-AC1 207.2R and AC1 207.4Rcontain additional in13.3-011 some largedams, including Hoover (Boulder)
Dam,a combination of precooling and postcooling refriger- formation on cement types and effects on heat generation.
The following types of hydraulic cementare suitable for use
ation by embedded pipehas been used(US. Bureau of Recin mass concrete construction:
lamation 1949). A good example of this practice is Glen
Canyon Dam, where at times during the summer months the(a) Portland cement: Types I, II, IV and V as covered by
ASTM C 150.
100 F
ambient temperatures were considerably greater than
(38 C). The temperatureof the precooled fresh concrete did (b) Blended cement: Types
P,P,S,IS, I(PM), and I(SM) as
not exceed 50 F (10 C). Both refrigerated aggregate and
covered by ASTM C 595.
crushed ice were usedto achieve this low temperature. By
When portland cement
is used with pozzolan
or with other
means of embedded-pipe refrigeration, the maximum temcements, the materials are batched separately at the mixing
perature of hardening concrete was kept below F75(24 C).
plant. Economy and low temperature rise
are both achieved
Postcooling is sometimes required in gravity and in arch
by limiting the
total cement content to as small an amount
as
dams that contain transverse
joints, so that transverse joints
possible.
can be opened for grouting by cooling the concrete after it
2.2.2-Type
I portland cement is commonly
used in genhas hardened. Postcooling is also done for controlof peak
eral construction. It is not recommendedfor use by itself in
temperatures, to control cracking.
mass concrete without other measures that help to control
temperature problems because of itssubstantiallyhigher
1.4-Long-term strength design
heat of hydration.
2.2.3-Type
II portland cementis suitable formass conA most signifcant developmentofthe1950swasthe
of hydraabandonment of the 28-daystrength as a design requirement crete construction because it has a moderate heat
for dams. Maximum stresses under loaddo not usually detion important to the control of cracking. Specifications for
velop until the concrete at
is least one year old. Undermass
Type II portland cement requirethat it containno more than
curing conditions, with the cement and pozzolans customar-8 percent tricalcium aluminate (C3A), the compound that
contributes substantially to early heat development in the
ily employed,the gain in concrete strength between days
28
concrete. Optional specifications for
Type II cement place a
and one year is generally large.The gain can range from
30
s u m of tricalcium aluminate
limit of 58 percentor less on the
percent to more than 200 percent, depending on
the quantities and proportioning of cementitious materials and proper- and tricalcium silicate,or a limiton the heat of hydration to
ties of the aggregates. It has become the practice of some
70 caVg (290 U k g ) at 7 days. When one of the optional requirements is specified, the 28-day strength requirement for
designers of dams to specify the desired strength of mass
ASTM C 150is reduced due to the slowcement paste under
concrete at later ages such one
as or two years. For routine
this cement.
er rate of strength gain of
6 x 12-in. (150 300-mm)
x
cylinquality control in the field,
ders are normally used with aggregate larger than 11/2in.
2.2.4-Type IV portland cement, also referred to
as low
(37.5 mm) removed by wetscreening. Strength requirements heat cement,may be used where it is desired to produce low
of the wet-screened concrete are correlated with the speciheat developmentin massive structures.It has not been used
fied full-mix strength by laboratory tests.
in recent years because it has been difficult to obtain and,

more importantly, because experience has shown that in

2.3Pouolans and ground slag
23.1-A pozzolan is generally defined as a siliceous or
most cases heat development can
be controlled satisfactorily
siliceous-and-aluminous material which in itself possesses
by other means. Type IV specifications limit the C3A to 7
finely divided form
little or no cementitious value but inwill,
percent, theC$ to 35 percent, and place a minimum
on the
and
in
the
presence
of
moisture,
chemically
react with calciC2S of40 percent. At the option
of the purchaser, the heat of
to
form
compounds
um
hydroxide
at
ordinary
temperatures
hydration may be limited to 60 caVg (250 kJAcg) at 7 days
possessing cementitious properties. Pozzolans are ordinarily
and 70 d g (290 HAcg) at 28 days.
Type V sulfate-resistant portland cement (Canadian Type governed and classified by ASTM C 618, as natural (Class
N), or fly ash (ClassesF or C). There are some pozzolans,
50) is available bothin the United Statesand in Canada usufly ash, whichcontainsignificant
Type I. Itis usually both low al- such as theClassC
ally at a price premium over
amounts
of
compounds
like those of portland cement The
kali and low heat.
Class C fly ashes likewise have cementitious properties by
2.25-Type IP portland-pozzolan cement is a uniform
themselveswhich
may contributesignificantly
to the
blend of portland cement or portland blast-furnace slag cestrength of concrete.
ment and fine pozzolan.Type P is similar but early strength
Pozzolans react chemically with
the calcium hydroxide or
requirements are lower. They are produced either by interhydrated
lime
liberated
during
the
hydration
of portland cegrinding portland cement clinker and pozzolan
or by blendment
to
form
a
stable
strength-producing
cementitious coming portland cement or portland blast-furnace slag cement
best activity the siliceousingredient of a
pound.
For
and finely divided pozzolan.The pozzolan constituents are
pozzolan must be in an amorphous state such as glass or
between 15 and 40 percent by weight of the portland-pozas quartz, do not
zolan cement, with Type
P having the generally higher poz- opal. Crystalline siliceous materials, such
combine
readily
with
lime
at
normal
temperature
unless they
zolan content.
are ground into a very
fine powder. The use of fly ash in conType I(PM) pozzolan-modified portland cement contains crete is discussed in AC1
226.3R and the use of ground granless than 15 percent pozzolan and its properties are close ulated
to
blast-furnace slagis discussed in AC1 226.1R.
those of Type I cement.
A heat of hydration limit 70
of call
2.3.2Natural pozzolanic materials occur in large deposg (290kJkg) at 7 days is an optional requirement for Type
its throughout the western United States in the
of obsidform
IP and Type I(PM) by adding the suffix (MH). A limit of
tuffs, clays,shales,and
ian,pumicite,volcanicashes,
60 c d g (250 kJ/kg) at
7 days is optional forType P by adddiatomaceous earth.These natural pozzolans usually require
ing the suffix (LH).
grinding. Someof the volcanic materials
are of suitable fme2.2.6-Type IS portland blast-furnace slag cement is a
ness in their natural state.The clays and shales,in addition
uniform blend of portland cement and fine blast-fumace
to grinding, mustbe activated to form an amorphous state by
slag. It is produced eitherby intergrinding portland cement
calcining at temperatures
in the rangeof 1200to 1800 F (650
clinkerandgranulatedblast-furnaceslagorbyblending
to 980 C).
portland cement and finely ground granulated blast-furnace
2.3.3-Fly
ash is the flue dust from burning ground or
slag. The amount of slag
used may vary between 25 and 70
fly ash canbe an excellent pozzolan
powdered coal. Suitable
percent by weight of the portland blast-furnace slag cement. if it has a low carbon content, a fineness about the same
as
This cement has sometimes been used with a pozzolan. Type
that of portland cement, and occurs in the form
of very fine,
S slag cement is finely divided material consisting essential-glassy spheres. Because of its shape and texture, the water
ly of a uniform blend of granulated blast-furnace slag and
requirement is usually reduced whenfly ash is usedin conhydrated lime in which the slag constituent is 70
at perleast
crete. Thereare indications thatin many cases the pozzolanic
cent of the weight of the slag cement. Slag cement is generactivity of the fly ash can be increased by cracking the glass
ally used in ablendwithportlandcementformaking
spheres by means of grinding. However,t h i s may reduce its
concrete.
lubricating qualities and increase the water requirement of
Type I(SM) slag-modified portland cement contains less
F fly ashthe concrete.It is to be noted that high-silica Class
than 25 percent slag and its properties are close to thoseof
es are generally excellent pozzolans. However, some Class
Type I cement. Optional heat
of hydration requirements can
C fly ashes may contain such a high
Ca0 content that,while
be applied toType IS, and I(SM), similar to those applied
to
possessing good cementitious properties, they may be unType P,IPM), and P.
suitable for controlling alkali-aggregate reaction or forimprovingsulfateresistance
of concrete.Additionally,the
22.7-Low-allcali cements are defined by ASTM C 150
Class C fly ash will be less helpfulin lowering heat generaas portland cements containing not more than0.60 percent
tion in the concrete.
alkalies calculated as the percentage of Na20 plus 0.658
times the percentage
of K20. These cements should
be spec23.4-Pozzolans in mass concrete may be used to reduce
ified when the cement is tobe used in concrete with aggreportland cement factors for better economy, to lower internal
gate thatmay be deleteriously reactive. The use of low-alkaliheat generation, to improve workability, and to lessen the
cement may not always control highly reactive noncrystalpotential for damage from alkali-aggregate reactivity and
line siliceous aggregate. It may also be advisable to use a
sulfate attack.It should be recognized, however, that properproven pozzolan to insure control of the alkali-aggregate re- ties of different pozzolans may vary widely. Some pozzolans
may introduce problems intothe concrete, suchas increased
action.
drying shrinkageas well as reduced durability and low early The development of new types of pozzolans, such as rice
strength. Before a pozzolan is used it should be tested in
may find a promising placefuture
in
hull ash and silica fume,
combination with the project cement and aggregates to esmass concrete work.
to the
tablish that the pozzolan will beneficially contribute
2 3 S F i i e l y ground granulated iron blast-furnace slag
quality and economy
of the concrete. Comparedto portland
may also be used as a separate ingredient with
portland cecement, the strength development from pozzolanic action
is
ment as cementitious materid in mass concrete. Requireslow at early ages but continues
at a higher level
for a longer
ments on finely ground slagfor use in concrete are specified
time. Early strength of a portland cement-pozzolan concrete in ASTM C 989. If used with Type I portland cement, prowould be expected
to be lowerthan that of a portland cement portions of at least 70 percent finely ground slag
of total ceconcretedesigned for equivalentstrength at laterages.
mentitious material may be needed with an active slag to
Where some portion of mass concrete is required to attain
produce a cement-slag combination which will have a heat
strength at an earlier age than is attainable withthe regular
of hydration of lessthan 60 caVg (250 kJkg) at 7 days. The
mass concrete mixture, the increased internal heat generated addition of slag will usually reduce the rate of heat generaby a substitute earlier-strength concretemay be accommotion due to a slightly slowerrate of hydration. Finely ground
dated by other means. Where a pozzolan is being used, it
slag also produces many ofthe beneficial propertiesin conmay be necessary temporarilyto forego the use of the poz- crete that are achieved with suitable pozzolans, such
as rezolanandotherwiseaccommodatetheincreasedinternal
ducedpermeability,controlofexpansionfromreactive
heat generated bythe use of straight portland cement.Howaggregate,sulfateresistance,andimprovedworkability.
ever, if there is a dangerous potential from alkali-aggregate
However, finely ground slagis usually used in much higher
reaction,thepozzolanshouldbeused,whileex@ted
percentages than pozzolan to achieve similar properties.
strength increaseis achieved by additional cement content.
Pozzolans, particularly natural
types, have been foundef2.4-Chemical admixtures
2.4.1-A
full coverageof admixtures is contained inAC1
fective in reducing the expansion of concrete containing re212.3R. The chemical admixtures that
are important to mass
active aggregates.The amount of this reduction varies with
wathe chemical makeup and fineness of the pozzolan and the concrete are classifkd as follows: (1) air-entraining; (2)
ter-reducing; and (3) set-controlling.
amount employed.For some pozzolans,the reduction in ex2.4.2-Accelerating
admixtures are not used in mass
conpansion may exceed 90percent. Pozzolans reduce expansion
crete because high early strength is not necessary in such
can enter
by consuming alkalies from the cement before they
work and because accelerators contribute
to undesirable heat
into deleterious reactions withthe aggregates. Where alkali-reactive aggregatesare used, it is considered good practice development in the concrete
mass.
to use both a low-alkali cement and a pozzolanof proven
2.4.3-Chemical admixtures can provide important benecorrective ability. Alkali-aggregate reactionsare discussed
fits to mass concrete in its plastic stateby increasing workin AC1 221R.
abilityand/orreducingwatercontent,retardinginitial
setting, modifying the rate of and/or capacity for bleeding,
Some experiments conducted by theCorps of Engineers
reducing segregation, and reducing rate of slump loss.
(Mather 1974) indicate that
for interior mass concrete, where
stresses are moderately low, a much higher proportion of
2.4.4-Chemical admixtures can provide important benepozzolan toqment may be used when thereis an economic
fits to mass concrete in its hardened state by lowering heat
advantage in doing so and thedesired strength is obtained at evolution during hardening, increasing strength, lowering
later ages. For example, the results
of laboratory tests indicement content, increasing durability, decreasing permeabilcate thatan air-entrainedmass concrete, containing 94 lb/yd3 ity, and improvingabrasioderosion resistance.
(53 kg/m3)of cement plusfly ash in an amount equivalent in 2.45-entraining
admixtures are materials which provolume to 188 Ib (1 12 kg) of cement has produced a very
mixing-with reduce minuteair bubbles in concrete during
workable mixture,for which the water content was less than sultant improved workability, reduced segregation, lessened
100lb/yd3(60kg/m3). The one-year compressive strength of bleeding, lowered permeability, and increased resistance to
wet-screened 6 x 12-in. (150 x 300-mm) cylinders of this
damage from freezing and thawing cycles.
The entrainment
concrete was on the order of 3000 psi (21m a ) . For such a
of air greatly improvesthe workability of lean concrete and
mixture the mass temperature rise would be exceedingly
permits the use of harsher and more poorly graded aggresmall. For gravity dams of moderate height, where the mate- gates and those
of undesirable shapes.It facilitates the placrial would be precooled such that the concreteas it reaches
ing and handling of
mass concrete. Each one percent of
or
the formswill be about15 F (8 C) below the mean annual
entrained air permits a reduction in mixing waterof from 2
rock temperature,there is the possibility that neither longitu- to 4 percent, with some improvement
in workability and with
dinal nor transverse contraction joints would be required.
no loss inslump.Durability, as measuredby the resistance
The maximum temperatureof the interior ofthe m a s s due to
of concrete to deterioration from freezing and thawing, is
cement hydration might not be appreciably greaterthan the
greatly improved if the spacing of theair bubble system is
mean annual temperature.
such thatno point inthe cement matrix is more than0.008 in.
The particle shapes of concrete aggregates and their effect (0.20 m m ) from an air bubble.
on workability has become less important because of the im-2.4.6-Entrained air generally will reducethe strength of
proved workability that is obtainable through the
of pozuse
most concretes. Where the cement content is held constant
zolans, and air-entraining and other chemical admixtures.
air
and advantage is taken of the reduced water requirement,
entrainment in lean mass concrete

has a negligible effect on natural grains, manufactured grains obtained by crushing
strength andmay slightly increase it. Among the factors that larger size rock particles, or a mixture
of the two. Fine aggreinfluence the amount of air entrained
in concrete for a given gate should consistof hard, dense, durable, uncoatedpartiamount of agent are: gradmg and particle
shape of the aggrecles. Fine aggregate should
not contain harmful amounts of
of other admixtures, mix- clay, silt, dust, mica, organic matter, or other impurities to
gate, richnessof the mix, presence
ing time, slump and temperature of the concrete. For a given
such an extent that, either separately or together, they render
quantity of air-entraining admixture, air content increases
it impossible to attain the required properties of concrete
with increases in slump up to6 in. (150 mm) and decreases
when employing normal proportions of the ingredients. Delwith increases in amount of fines, temperature of concrete,
eterious substancesare usually limitedto the percentages by
and mixing time.
If fly ash is used that contains activated
carweight givenin Table 2.5.2. For bridge piers, dams, and othbon, an increased dosage of air-entraining admixture be
will er hydraulic structures, the maximum allowable percentage
required. Most specifications formass concrete now require
of the deleterious substance should
be 50 percent lowerfor
that the quantity of entrained air, as determined from conface concretein the zone of fluctuating water levels. It becan
cretesamples wet sievedthrough the 1l2-in. (37.5-mm)
50 percent higherfor concrete constantly immersed
in water
sieve, be about 5 percent, although in some cases
as high as
and for concretein the interior of massivedams.
8 percent. Requirements for air-entraining admixtures are
contained in ASTMC 260.
Table 2.5.2- Maximum allowable percentagesof
2.4.7-Water-reducingand
set-controllingadmixtures
deleterious substancesin fine aggregate (by
generally consistof one or more of these compounds: (1)
liweight)
gnosulfonic acid; (2) hydroxylated carboxylic (3)
acid;
polyClay lumps and friable particles
3.0
meric carbohydrates; or (4)naphthalene or melamine types
Material
finer
than
No.
200
(75-pm
sieve:
of high-range water reducers.
For concretesubject to abrasion
3.o*
Set-controlling admixtures can be used to keep the conFor all other concrete
5.0*
in massive blocksso that successive laycrete plastic longer
Coal and lignite:
ers can be placed and vibrated before the underlayer sets.
Where surface appearance of concrete is of
Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the mixing
importance
0.5
water requirement, to increase the strength
of the concrete or A l l other concrete
1.o
to produce the same strength with less cement. Admixtures
I
nthe case of mufecarrcd sand, if the matcrial passing the No. 200
(75-W) s i m consistsof the dust of fractun. essentially free of
from the first three families
of materials above generally will
clay OT shale, these limits may be i n c d to 5 prcent for concrete
reduce the water requirement
up to about10 percent, will resubject to abrasion and 7 percmt for all other matte.
tard initial set at least 1 hr (but not reduce slump loss), and
a rewill increase the strength an appreciable amount. When
tarder is used, the strength after hr
12is generally compara2.5.3-The
grading of fine aggregate strongly influences
ble to that of concrete containingno admixture. Depending
mass
the workabilityof concrete. Agood grading of sand for
upon the richness of the concrete, composition of cement,
concrete will be within thelimits shown in Table 2.5.3. Labtemperature and other factors, use of chemical admixtures
oratory investigationmay show other gradings be
to satisfacwill usually resultin significant increasesin 1-, 7-, 28day,
fine
tory. This permits a rather wide latitude in gradings for
This gain in strena& cannot be explained
and later strengths.
aggregate.
by the amount of the water reduction or by the degree of
Although the grading requirements themselves may be
change in the water-cement ratio; the chemicals have a farather
flexible, it is important that once the proportion is
vorable effecton the hydrationof the cement. Admixtures
of
established,
the grading of the sand be maintained reasonthecarboxylicacidfamilyaugmentbleeding.Thehighably
constant
to avoid variations in the workabilityof the
range water-reducing familyof admixtures does not have a
concrete.
well-established record in mass concrete construction, although these admixtures were used in mass
someconcrete in
Table 2.5.3- Fine aggregate formass concrete*
Guri Dam in Venezuela, and have been used in reinforced
mass concrete foundations. However,
in view oftheir strong
Percentage retained,
Sieve designation
individual by weight
plasticizing capability, they mayhold a promising role in
adding workability to special mass concreting applications
where workabilityis needed. Requirements for chemical adNo. 4 (4.75 mm)
I
0-5
mixtures are contained inASTM C 494.
No. 8 (2.36 mm)
5-15
2.5-Aggregates
2.5.1-Coarse and fine aggregate as well as terms relating
to aggregatesare defined inASTM C 125. Additional information on aggregatesis contained inAC1 221R.
2.5.2-Fine
aggregate is that fraction almost entirely
passing the No. 4 (4.75mm) sieve. It may be composed of
No. 16 (1.18 mm)

No. 30 ( 6 0 0 um)
No.50 (300 um)
No. 100 (150 Pm)
Pan fraction
US.Bureau of Reclamation 1981
I
I
1 -
10-25
1G30
15-35
12-20
3-7
207.1 R10
2 5 A o a r s e aggregateis definedas gravel, crushed gravel,

2.5.6Theore&ally, thelargerthe maximum aggregate
orQushedrock,oramixtureofth~nominallylargerthanthe size, the less cement required
is
in a given volume of concfete
to achieve thedesired quality. This theory is based on thefact
No.4 (4.75 mm)and smaller than the 6 in. (lu) mm) sizes for
large structures.Massive structural concrete structures, such as
that with well-graded
materials the voidspace between the particles (and the specific
powerhouses or other heavily-reinforcedunits that are considsurface) decreases as the m g e in sizes
ered to be in themass concrete category, have successfully
used
increases. However, it has been demonstrated F1g.2.5.6) that
d
e
r
acoarseaggregates, usually of3 in. (75 mm) max- to achieve the greatest cement efficiency there
is am optimum
imum~izebutwithso~assmallasl~/~in.(375mm).Theuse
maximum size for each compressive strength level tobe o b
tained with a given aggregate and cement
(Higginson, Wallace,
of smaller aggregate may
be dictated by theclose spacing reof
and Ore 1963). While the maximumsize of coarse aggregate is
inforcement or embedded items, or by the unavailability
of larger aggregates. This results inhighercement contents with
lirnited by theconfiguration of theforms and reinforcing
steel,
in most u
n
r
e
n
i
f
d mass concrete structures these requireattendant adverse effects on internal heat generation and crackments permit an almost
ing potential that mustbe offset by greater effort
to d u c e the
unlimited maximumaggregate size. In
addition to availability, the economical
maximumsize is therecement requirement and concrete placing temperatures. The
fore determinedby the design strength and problems in promaximum size of m e aggregate should not exceed one
fourth of the least dimension of the
structure nor two-thirds of
cessing,
batching,
mixing,
transporting,
placing,
and
the least clear distance between reinforcing bars in horizontal consolidating the concrete. Large
aggregate particles of irregumats or where there
is more than one vertical reinforcing
curtain
lar shape tend to promote m k i n g around the larger particles
next to a form. Otherwise, the rule for mass concrete shouldbe
because of differential volume change. Theyalso cause voids
to use the largestsize of coarse aggregate thatis practical.
to formunderneaththem dueto bleeding waterand air accumulating during placingof concrete. Although larger sizes have
255-Coarse aggregate shouldconsist of hard, dense, duis very friable or which beenusedonoccasion,an~~tesizeof6in.(15Omm)has
rable, uncoated particles. Rock which
normally beenadopted as the maximumpractical size.
tends to degrade during processing,
transporting, or in storage
2.5.7-The particle shape of aggregates
has some ef
on
should be avoided. Rock having an absorptiongreater than 3
percent or a specificgravity less than 2.5 is not generally con- workability and consequently,on water requirement Rounded
particles, suchas those whichOCCUT in deposits of stream-worn
s i d e d suitable for exposed mass concretesubjected to freezsand and gravel, provide best workability. However,modem
ingandthawing.Sulfatesandsulfides,
determined by
crushing and grinding equipment

is capable of producing both
chemical analysis and calculatedas SO3, should not exceed
0.5 p e n t of the weightof the coarse aggregate. The percent- fine and coarse aggregate of entirely adequate particle shape
from quarriedrock. Thus, in spite of the slightly lower water r
age of other deleterious substances such
as clay, silt, and fine
as delivered to the mixer should
quirement ofnatural rounded aggregates,it is seldom economdust in the coarse aggregate
a
of high quality
ical to import naaual aggregates when source
in general not exceed the values outlined in Table
2.5.5.
crushed aggregate is available near the site of the work It is
Fig. 2.5.5 shows a coarse aggregate rewashing screen
at the
necessary to determine that the crushing equipment
and procebatchplantwheredustandcoatingsaccumulatingfrom
dures will yield a satisfactory particle
shape.One procedure to
be removed to assure aggregate
stockpihg and handling can
control particle shapeis to specify that the flat and elongated
cleanliness.
particles cannot exceed U)percent in each size group. A flat
particle is defined as one having a ratio of width to thichess
Table 25.5- Maximum allowable percentagesof
delederious substances in coarse aggregate (by
is defined as one
greater than three,while an elongated particle
weight)
having aratio of lengthto width greaterthan three.
2.5.8-The
proportioning of aggregates in the concrete
Material passing No. 200 sieve (75 pro)
I
0.5
Lightweight material
20
mixture will strongly influence concrete workability and
Chv lumos
I
0.5
this is one factor that can readily be adjusted during conother dele.terious substances
1.0
struction. To facilitate this, aggregates are processed into
and batched from convenient sizegroups. In United States
practice it is customary, for large-aggregate mass concrete,
in
to divide coarse aggregate into the fractional sizes listed
Table 2.5.8 (Tuthill 1980).
Sizes are satisfactorily graded when one-third to one-half
of the aggregate within the limiting screens
is retained on the
middle size screen. Also, it has been found that maintaining
the percent passing the 3/8-in. (9.5-mm) sieve at less
than 30
percent in the 3/4 in. to No. 4 (19 to 4.75 mm) size fraction
(preferably near zero if crushed) will greatly improvemass
concrete workability and response to vibration.
25.P-Experience has shown that a rather wide range of
material percentage in each size group may be used as listed
in Table 2.5.9. Workability is frequently improved by reducFig. 2.5.5-Coarse aggregate rewashing
ing the proportion of cobbles called for by the theoretical
COPYRIGHT American Concrete
S T Institute
D - A C 1 207.1R-ENGL
179b
Obb29q9 0531177 b1q
~~~
S T D * A C I 2 0 7 - L R - E N G L L97b
Obb2747 0533378 550
MASS CONCRETE
Each point representsan average of two 18 x S i n . (450x 900-mm)
and two 24 x Win. (Soox 1200-mm) concrete cylinders tested i p
for both Grand Coulee and Clear Creek aggregates.
Maximum Size Aggregate,mm

38
75
=/a =/.1'12
9.519
150
Maximum Sire Aggregate, in.
Fg. 2.5.6-Efect of aggregate size and cement contenton

compressive strengthat one year (adaptedfromHigginson,
Wallace, and Ore 1963)
Table 2.5.8aggregate
Grading requirements for coarse

Percent by weight passing designatedtest sieve
-7-
-------.
in. (nun)
Table 2.5.9- Ranges in each size fraction

of
coarse aggregate that have
produced workable
concrete*

207.1R-11
gradings. Whennatural gravel is used, it is economically&sirable to depart from theoretical gradings to approximate
as
closely as workability
permits the average grading of material
in the deposit. Where there are extreme excessesor deficiencies in a particular size,it is preferable to waste a portion of
the material ratherthan to produce unworkable concrete. The
problem of waste usually does notoccur when the aggregate
is crushed stone. With modemtwo- and three-stagecrushing
it is normally possibleto adjust the operationso that a workable gradingis obtained. Unless finishscreening is employed,
it is well to reduce the amount
of the fmestsize of coarse aggregate since that is the size
of the accumulated undersizeof
the larger sizes. However, finish screening at the batching
plant, on horizontal vibrating screens andwith no intermediate storage,is strongly recommended for
mass concrete coarse
aggregates. With finsh screening there is little difficulty in
limiting undersize to
4 percent of the cobbles,3 percent of the
intermediate sizes, and 2 percent of the fine coarse aggregates.
Undersize is defined as that passing a test screen having openings five-sixthsof the nominal minimum
size of the aggregate
fraction. Undersize larger than
this five-sixths fractionhas no
measurable effecton the concrete(TuthiIl 1943).
2.5.10-In some partsof the world "gap"gradings are used
in mass concrete. Theseare gradings in which the materialin
one or more sievesizes is missing. In United States practice,
continuous gradingsare normally used. Gappdings can be
used economically where the material occurs M ~ Ug a~p Y
graded. But comparisons which can be made between concretescontaining gapgraded aggregate andcontinuously
graded aggregate indicate there isno advantage in purposely
producing gap gradings. Continuous gradings producemore
workable mass concrete with somewhat lower
slump, less water, andless cement. Continuousgradings can always be producedfromcrushingoperations.Mostnaturalaggregate
deposits in the United States contain material from which acbe economically prepared.
ceptable continuous gradings can
2.6-Water
2.6.1-Water used
for mixing concrete should be free of
materials that significantly affect the hydration reactions of
portland cement (Steinour 1960). Water that is fit to drink
may generally be regarded as acceptable for use in mixing
concrete. Potability will preclude any objectionable content
of chlorides. However, chloride content tests should
be made
on any questionable water if embedded metals are present.
Limits on total chloride for various constructions are contained in AC1 201.2R. Whenit is desirable to determine
whether a water contains materials that significantly affect
the strength development of cement, comparative strength
tests should be made on mortars made with water from the
If the averageof the
proposed source and with distilled water.
results of these tests on specimens containing the water being
evaluated is less than 90 percent of that obtained with specimens containing distilled water, the water represented
by the
sample should notbe used formixing concrete. If a potential
imwater source lacking a service record contains of
amounts
purities as large as5000 ppm or more, then,to insure durable
concrete,testsforstrengthandvolumestability(length
change) may also be advisable.
207.1 R-1 2
AC1 COMMIITEE REPORT
2.6.2-Waters
containing up to several parts per million
of ordinary mineral acids, suchas hydrochloric acidor sulfuric acid, canbe tolerated as far as strength developmentis
concerned. Waters containing even small amounts
of various
sugars or sugar derivatives should not be used as setting
times may be unpredictable.
The harmfulness of such waters
may be revealed in the comparative strength tests.
fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume

may be
as low as 21 percent. With crushed aggregatesthe ratio may
be in the range 25 to 27 percent.
2.7SWhen a pozzolanis included in the concreteas a
part of the cementitious material, the
mixture proportioning
be given to the
procedure does not change. Attention must
following matters: (a) water requirement may change, (b)
early-age strength may become critical, and (c) for maxi2.7-Selection of proportions
mum economy the age at which design strengthis attained
27.1-The primary objectiveof proportioning studiesfor
should be greater. Concrete containing most pozzolans gains
mass concrete is to establish economical mixes of proper
strength somewhat more slowly than concrete made with
strength, durability, and impermeability with the best combionly portland cement. However, the load
massonconcrete is
nationofavailable
materials thatwillprovideadequate
generally not applied until the concrete is relatively old.
in temperworkability for placement and least practical rise
Therefore, mass concrete containing pozzolanis usually deature after placement. Trial
mix methods are generally used
signed on the basis of 9O-day to one-year strengths. While
following procedures in
AC1 2 1.1,
1 Appendix 5.
mass concrete does not require strength at earlytoages
per2.7.2-Selection of the water-cement ratio or water-ceform its design function, most systems of construction rementitious material ratio will establishthe strength, duraquire that the forms for each lift be anchored to the next
bility, and permeabilityof the concrete. There also must be
lower lift. Therefore, the early strength
must be great enough
sufficient fine material to provide proper placeability. Exto prevent pullout of the form anchors. Specially designed
perience has shown that with the best
shaped aggregates of
form anchorsmay be required to allow safe rapid turnaround
6 in. (150mm) maximum size, thequantity of cement-size
times for the forms, especially when largemounts of pozmaterial required for workability is about 10 percent less
zolan are used or when the concreteis lean and precooled.
than for a concrete containing angular aggregates.
Trial
mixes usingthe required water-cementitious material
ratio
and the observed water requirementfor the job materials
2.8.1-The
four elements of an effective temperature
willdemonstratethecementitious material contentthat
control program, anyor all of which maybe usedfor a parmay be safely used to provide the required workability
ticular mass concrete project, are: (1) cementitious material
(Portland Cement Association 1979; Ginzburg, Zmchenko,content control, where the choicetype
of and amountof ceand Skuortsova 1966).
mentitious materials can lessen the heat-generating poten2.72LThe first stepin arriving at the actual batch weights tialof the concrete; (2) precooling,wherecooling
of
is to select the maximum aggregate size
for each part of the
i n m e n t s achieves a lower
concrete temperature as placed
work. Criteria forthis selection are given in Section 2.5.The
in the structure; (3) postcooling, where removing heat from
next step is to assume or determine the total water content
the concrete with embedded cooling coils limits
the temperneeded to provide required slump whichmay be as low as
ature risein the structure; and(4) construction management,
1-1/2in. (38 mm) to 2 in. (50mm). In tests for slump, aggrewhere efforts are made to protectthe structure from excesgate largerthan 1 in. (38 mm) must be removed by p m p t sive temperature differentials by knowledgeable employly screening the wet concrete. Gin.
For (150 mm) maximumment of concrete handling, construction scheduling, and
size aggregate, water contents for air-entrained, minimumconstructionprocedures. The temperaturecontrol for a
150lb/yd3 (71 to small structure may be no more than a single measure, such
slump concrete may vary from aboutto120
89 kg/m3) for natural aggregates, and from
140to 190 lb/yd3
as restricting placing operationsto cool periodsat night or
(83 to 1 13 kg/m3) for crushed aggregates. Corresponding during
wa- cool weather. On the other extreme, some projects
ter requirements for3 in. (76 mm) maximum-size aggregate
can be large enough tojustify a wide variety separate
of
but
are approximately 20 percent higher. However, for strengths complementary control measuresthat additionally can inabove 4OOO psi (28 m a ) at 1 year the 3-in. (75 mm) maxiclude the prudent selection
of a low-heat-generating cement
mum-sizeaggregatemay
be moreefficient. (See Figure
system including pozzolans;the careful production control
2.5.6).
in
of aggregate gradings and
the use of large-size aggregates
2.7.4-The
batch weight of the cement is determined by
efficient mixes with low cement contents; the precooling
of
dividing the total weight of the mixing water by the wateraggregates and mixing water
(or the batching ofice in place
of mixing water) to make possible a low concrete temperacement ratio or, when workability governs, it is the minimum weight of cement required to satisfactorily place the
ture as placed; the use of air-entraining and other chemical
concrete (see 2.7.2). With the batch weightsof cement and
admixtures to improve both
the fresh and hardened properair content of 3 to 5
water determined and with an assumed
ties ofthe concrete; using appropriate block dimensions for
placement; coordinating construction schedules with seapercent, the remainder
of the material is aggregate.
The only
remaining decision is to select the relative proportions of
sonal changesto establish lift heights and placing frequenfine and coarse aggregate. The optimum proportions dependcies; the use of special mixing and placing equipment to
can be fion aggregate grading and particle shape, and they
of
quickly place cooled concrete with minimum absorption
nally determined only in the field. For
(150")
6-in. aggreambient heat; evaporative cooling of surfaces through water
gate concrete containing natural sand and gravel, theofratio curing; dissipating heat from
the hardened concrete by cir-

~
~~
S T D - A C 1 207-LR-ENGL L99b
Obb27Y7 053LLBO L O 7
MASS CONICRETE
207.1 R-13
culating cold water through embedded piping; and insulat- properties of the concrete. Within recent
years an increasing
ing surfaces to minimize thermal differentials between the
utilization has been made of finite element computer prointerior and the exterior
of the concrete.
grams for thermal analysis (Polivka and Wilson 1976;
U.S.
Army
Corps
of
Engineers
1994).
Determination
of
tensile
It is practical to cool coarse aggregate, somewhat
dif- more
strain capacity hasalso lead to abetter understanding of the
ficult to cool fine aggregate, and practical
to batch a portion
potential
for cracking under rapid and slow loading condior all of the added mixing water in the form ice.
of As a retions
(Houghton
1976).
sult, placing temperatures
of 50 F (10 C) and lowerare prac3.1.2-The
specific properties of concrete which should
ticableandsometimes specified. Lowertemperaturesare
be known are compressive strength, tensile strength, moduobtainable with more difficulty. Injection
of liquid nitrogen
lus of elasticity,Poissons ratio, tensilestraincapacity,
into mix water hasalso been effectively usedto lower concreep, volume change during drying, adiabatic temperature
crete temperature for mass concrete work. In most cases a
rise, thermal coefficientof expansion, specific heat, thermal
placing temperature of less than
65 F (18 C) can be achieved
conductivity and diffusivity, permeability, and durability.
with liquid nitrogen injection. Cooled concrete is advantageous in mixture proportioning since water requirement de- Approximate valuesof these properties based on computaare often used in preliminary evalucreases as temperature drops. Specified placing temperatures tions or past experience
ations. Useful as such approximationsmay be, the complex
should be established by temperature studies to determine
heterogeneousnature of concrete and the physical and chemwhat is required to satisfy the design. Guidance in cooling
ical interactions of aggregate and paste are still not sufisystems formass concrete canbe found in AC1 207.4R.
ciently known to permit estimation of reliable values. For
2.8.2-The
chief means for limiting temperature rise is
this reason, it is again emphasized that extensive laboratory
controlling the type and amount of cementitious materials.
and field investigations mustbe conducted to assure a safe
The goal of concrete proportioning studies is to reach cea
structure at lowest cost.In addition, the moisture condition
mentitious material contentno greater than is necessary for
structure,and the loading rate
req~ed,
of
the specimens and
the design strength. The limiting factorin reaching this low
must
be
known,
as
these
factors
may
dramatically
affect
cementitious material level is usually the need touse some
efsome
concrete
properties.
Specimen
size
and
orientation
minimumamount of cement-sized particles solely to provide
fects
on
mass
concrete
test
properties
can
also
be
significant,
workability in the concrete. Without the use of supplemental
3.1.3-A
compilation of concrete proportion dataon repworkability agents-such as pozzolans,air-entraining,or
other chemical admixtures-a mass concrete project can ex- resentative dams is given in Table3.1.3 (Price and Higginperience a continuing struggle to maintain workability whileson1963;Ginzburg,Zinchenko,andSkuortsova1966;
ICOLD 1964; Harboe 1961; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation
holding to the low cementitious material content that best
1958; Houghton and Hall 1972; Houghton 1970; Houghton
protects against cracking. The
ASTM specification for Type
1969). Reference will be made to concrete mixes described
II portland cement containsan option which makes it possiin Table 3.1.3 in discussions of properties reported in Tables
ble to limit the heat of hydration70tocaYg (290 H k g ) at 7
days. Use of a pozzolanas a replacement further delays and 3.2.1, 3.3.2,3.4.2, 3.5.1,3.7.1, and 3.8.1.
reduces heat generation.This delay is anadvantage-except
that when cooling coils are used, the periodof postcooling
3.2-Strength
may be extended. If the mixture is proportioned so that the
32.1-The water-cementitious material ratio to a large
cementitious materials content is limited to not more than
extent governsthe quality of the hardened portland cement
235 lb/yd3 (139 kg/m3). the temperature rise for most con- binder. Strength, impermeability, and most other desirable
of
cretes will not exceed F35(19 C). A complete discussion
properties of concrete are improved by lowering the watertemperature control is given in Chapter 5.
strenag
cementitious materialratio. A study of compressive
data given in Table 3.2.1 shows a considerable variation
mafrom the direct relationship between water-cementitious
CHAPTER 3-PROPERTIES
terial ratio and strength. Factors, totally or partially independent of the water-cementitious material ratio, which affect
3.1-General
the strength are: (1) composition and fineness
of cement, (2)
3.1.1-The
design and construction of massive concrete
amount andtype of pozzolan, (3) surface texture and shape
structures, especially dams, is influenced by site topography,
of the aggregate, (4) the mineralogic makeup and strength of
foundation characteristics, and the availability of suitable
the aggregate, (5) aggregate grading, and (6) the improvematerials of construction. Economy, second only to safety
ment of strength by admixtures above that attributable to a
requirements, is the most important single parameter to conreduction in water-cementitious materialratio.
sider. Economy may dictate the choiceof type of structure
for a given site. Proportioning
of the concrete is
in turn gov3.2.2-High
strengths are usually not required in mass
concretes except inthin arch dams. Concrete proportioning
erned by the requirementsof the type of structure and such
properties as the strength, durability, and thermal properties.should determine the minimum cement content for adequate
For large structures extensive investigationsof aggregates,
and minimum temperature
strength to give greatest economy
rise. Cement requirementsfor adequate workability and duadmixtures, and pozzolans are justified. Concrete mixture
investigations are necessary to determine the most economi-rability rather than strength frequently govern the portland
cal proportions of selected ingredients to producedesired
the
cement content.
AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT
207.1R-14
z"
m
Y
O
1
I
8;
+
I
OS
oo=
zs
Do-
"r
I-
E o '
OI

r i ( ?
MASS CONCRETE
e
Z
I
$16
dd
I,
207.1 R-15
F- 1
/o?
-6
-c
(CI
v)
Y
O
+-
2
qs
-c
v)
O"
r-o
"
Y
+ +
S
B
n w
"3
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=c
*lo
z
N6
10
m-
v)-
-e
30
or2"-
r-
5:
o'
i
N
N
Table 3.2.1-Cement/water requirements and strengths

of concrete in various dams
Thm. Roosevelt
* smgth at 180 days

tsmgthatmeyr
provide an indicationof potential concrete strength. Howev3 Z b M a s s concrete is seldom required to withstand
substantial stress at early age. Therefore,to take full advaner, the use of these procedures shouldbe limited to detecting
tage of the strength propertiesof the cementing materials, the variations in concrete quality and judging the effectiveness
on the strength at ages from of job control measures.The accelerated strength indicator
design strength is usually based
is
90days toone year; and sometimes
up to two years. Job con- helpful where satisfactory correlation has been established
trol cylinders mustof necessity betested at an earlier age if
with longer-term valuesusing companion specimens ofthe
they are to be useful in exercising control and maintaining
same concrete. Although the indicator may have dubious reof the construction. For the
consistency during the progress
lationship to the actual future strength
in the concrete strucsake of convenience,job control test specimensare usually
ture, it can be helpful during construction.
6 x 12-in. (150x 300-mm)cylinders containing concrete wet
33.5-The
factors involvedin relating resultsof strength
screened to 192 in.
(37.5 mm) maximum size. It is important
tests
on
s
m
a
l
l
samples
to the probable strength
of mass conthat correlationtests be made wellin advance of construction
crete
structures
are
several
and
complex
and
still essentially
to compare the strength of wet-screened concrete tested at
unresolved.
Because
of
these
complexities,
concrete
strength
the control age with appropriate-size test specimens containing the full mass concrete tested at the design test age. The requirements are usually severalt i m e s the calculated maximum designstresses for mass concrete
structures. For exambe only 80 to 90
strengthof large test specimens will usually
ple, design criteriafor gravity dams commonly used by the
percent of the strength of 6 x 12-in. (150 x 300-mm) cylinUS.Bureau of Reclamation and U.S.
the Army Corps of Enders tested at the same age. Accounting for the continued
gineers set the maximum allowable compressive stress for
strength development beyond 28 days, particularly where
of the specified conpozzolans are employed, the correlation factors at one year usual loading combinations at one-third
crete strength. The selection
of allowable stresses and factors
may range from 1.15 to 3.0 times the strength of the wetscreened control specimens tested at
28 days.
of safety dependon the structure type, loading conditions
being analyzed, and the structure location
(U.S. Bueau of Rec3.2.4-Accelerated curing proceduresset forth in ASTM
C 684 yield compression test resultsin 24 to 48 hr that can
lamation 1976;U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1990).
MASS CONCRETE
Table 3.3.2-
207.1 R-17
Compressive strengthand elastic propertiesof mass concrete
3 Glen Canyon
3a Glen Canyon*
Gorge
5 Yellowtail
'Oint*
7 LowerGranite*
(17.6)
(26.3)
(24.1)
2950
(33.8)
(45.2)
3500
3870
(24.1) (20.3)
(26.7)
(31.6)
4770 5.3 5960
(37.4)
6430
(44.3)
(14.3)
(16.7)
(8.8)
8 Libby
1450
(10.0)
9 Dworshak*
1200
(8.3)
10 Ilha Solteira
11 Itaipu
12 Peace Site* 1
Roosevelt
13 Theodore
Modification
(27.2)
1885
(13.0)
3060
(21.1)
2400
(16.5)
(17.0)
2030
(14.0)
2755 23203045
(21.0)
2610
(18.0)
(18.0)
5.8 5.4 3950

- 3810
0.1 12550 0.14
(4.0)
6.3 5.3 6.7
6820 6560
- 4900 3500
0.19 0.15 0.15
(47.0)
(4.6) (4.3)
(3.7)
3.5
4680
4.3
4.6
0.13
0.20 0.25 (32.3)
(3.0)
(2.4)
(3.2)
5.4 6.1 6.2
5640 5420 4580 0.24
0.26
0.27
(4.3)
(4.2)
(3.7)
(38.9)
4.4
4.6
4.9
6680
0.22
0.22
0.23
0.20
(3.2)
(41.1)
(46.1) (32.9)(3.0)
(3.7)
(3.4)
3.9
3.9
3.8
2730 24202.82070 1270
0.20 0.19 (18.8)
(2.7)
(1.9)
(2.7)
(2.6)
5'5
4.0
3190 24603.2
0.14
0.18
(3.8)
(2.2)
(2.8)
(22.0)
3.8
3.7 3110
(21.4)
(2.6)
(2.6)
5.1
3190
5.9
0.15
0.16
(19.0) (16.0)(3.5) (22.0)
(4.1)
2755 26105.5
6.2
6.2
0.18 0.20 0.22 0.21
(4.5)
(3.8) (19.0)
(4.3)
(4.3)
4666 4506-3939 (32.2) (31.1) (27.2)
6.2
5800 54304.5
5.4
0.20
0.21
0.21
(4.3)
(40.0) (3.1)
(3.7)
(3.7)
4500
(31.0)
(37.4)
3.2.6-Concrete thatisstrong in compressionisalso

strong in tension but this strength relationshipis not linear.
Tensile strength canbe measured by several tests, primarily
direct tensile, splitting tensile, and modulus
of rupture (flexural) tests. Each of these tests has a different relationship
An expression that relates tensile
with compressive strength.
strength,f, to compressive strength& is
for& andf, in psi
f,= 1.7fcz3
for&andf, in MPa
may be increased up to30 percent

crete for moist specimens
and tensile strength
may be increased up to 50 percent, when
compared to values obtained at standard rates of loading
(Saucier 1977; Graham 1978; Raphael 1984).
3.3-Elastic properties
33.1-Concrete is not a truly elastic material, and the
graphic stress-strain relationship for continuously increasing
load is generallyin the formof a curved line. However, the
modulus of elasticity is for practical purposes considered a
constant within the range
of stresses to which massconcrete
is usually subjected.
f,= 0.32fcm
Raphael (1984) discussed these and other tensilecompres- 33.2-The moduli of elasticity of concrete representative
sive strength relationships,and their use in design. Relationof various dams are givenin Table 3.3.2. These values range
specific
materials can
vary
ships of these types for
from 2.8 to 5.5 x lo6 psi (1.9 to 3.8 x lo4 MPa) at 28 days
significantly from the formulas above, based on aggregate
and from 3.8 to 6.8 x IO6 psi (2.6 to 4.7 x lo4"a)
at one
quality and many other factors. Where feasible and necessary,year. Usually, concretes having higher strengths have higher
testing shouldbe conducted to confirm these relationships.
values of elastic modulus and show a general correlation of
increase in modulus withstren,oth, although modulusof elas3.2.7-The strength of concrete is also influenced by the
is influit
ticity is not directly proportional to strength, since
speed of loading. Values usually reported
are for static loads
time to develop, e.g. dead load or water enced by the modulus of elasticity of the aggregate. In the
that take appreciable
past, data from concrete modulusof elasticity tests showed
load. Duringearthquakes,however, stressesmay be fully developed ina small fractionof a second. It has been found thatrelatively high coefficient of variation resulting from attempts to measuresmall strains on a heterogeneous mixture
when loaded at this speed, compressive strength of a con-

S T D - A C 1 2 0 7 - L R - E N G L 1996
Elastic properties of mass concrete
Table 3.4.2Age at
time of
2days
7days
90davs
E'
ig)I (?i)
:$)
E'
E'
(0.57)
(0.52)
(0.97)
1.1
1.0 1.0
I 2.1
O.% I
(1.6) (0.76) (0.69) (1.4) (0.69) (0.66)
3.5
1.8
1.6
1.6 1.8
I 3.5
I
(2.4) (1.2) (1.1) (2.4) (1.2) (1.1)
4.12.3 2.5
4.4
2.1
2.5
(1.7) 11.6)12.0)
11.71
11.9)
13.0)
4.4
2.7
2.5
5.0
2.5
2.3
(3.4) (1.7) (1.6) (3.0) (1.9) (1.7)
3.8 4.0
5.3
3.6
3.4
(3.7) (2.5) (2.3)
1 2.3
E2
E'
I (i:;)
I
2Odays
Instantaneous and sustained modulus of elasticity,* psi x 106 (MPa x 104,

Dworshak
Hungry Horse
Shasra
Grand Coulee
loading
5vr
0531185 7 9 0 M
AC1 COMMillEE REPORT
207.1 R-1 8
lyr
= Obb2749
4.2
(2.9)
4.5
(3.1)
5.2
(3.6)
5.2
(3.6)
5.9
(4.1)
.
0.75
1.5 1.4
(1.0)
1.8 1.9
(1.3)
2.6
(1.8)
3.2
(2.2)
. ,
3.2
(2.2)
(2.8)
Libby
E'
E
E'
E'
0.70
1.4
(0.97) (0.97) (0.52) (0.48)
I 2.0
1.0
0.90 I
(1.2) (1.4) (0.69)
(0.62)
2.4 I 2.8
1.4
1.3 I
(1.7) (1.9) (0.97) (0.90)
3.0
2.2
2.0
(2.1)
(1.5)
(1.4)
. , 12.6)
,
,
.~
. ,
2.0
3.02.2 3.8
(2.1) (2.6) (1.5) (1.4)
3.0
2.9
(2.6) (3.4) (2.1) (2.0)
E
E'
E*
1.6
1.0
0.9
(1.1) (0.69) (0.62)
3.2 1.3 1.6
(2.2) (1.1) (0.90)
4.1
2.2
2.0
(1.4)
(2.8) (1.5)
5.2
2.93.8 2.7
(3.6)
12.0)
(1.9)
.~
,
,
. ,
5.2
2.9
2.1
(3.6) (2.0) (1.9)
6.4
4.34.9 4.1
(4.4) (3.0) (2.8)
*Au WIICIC~~S mass mixed, wet scnmd to 1 ' 1 ~in. (37.5 nun) maximum-sizc aggrrgate.
E = instantancousmodulusof elasticity at timc of loading.
E' = sustainedmodulus aftcr 365 days under load.
E2 = sustained modulus aftcr l o o 0 days underload

Note: The htantancws modulus of elasticity refers to ri-~e"static" or normal load rate (1 to 5 min duration) mcddus, not a rmly instantaneous rncdulus
measuredfrom "dynamic" or rapid load rate testing.
containing large-size aggregate. Modem electronic devices

such as the linear variable differential transformer(LVDT)
can measure small length changeswith great accuracy. Tenassumed to be identical
sile modulus of elasticity is generally
to the compressive modulus of elasticity.
3.33-Poisson's ratio data given in Table 3.3.2 tend to
range between the values of 0.16 and 0.20 with generally
small increases with increasing time
of cure. Extreme values
may varyfrom O. 11to 0.27. Poisson's ratio,like modulus of
elasticity, is influenced by the aggregate, the cement paste,
and relative proportions
of the two.
3.3.4-The growth of internal microcracks in concrete
underloadcommences at compressive stresses equal to
about 35 to 50 percent of the nominal compressive strength
under short term loading. Abovethis stress, the overall volupthese internal
umetric strain reflects the volume taken by
fissures, and Poisson's ratio and the elastic moduli are no
longer constant.
3.3.5-The
results of several investigations indicate that
the modulus of elasticity appearsto be relatively unchanged
whether testedat normal or dynamic ratesof loading (Hess
1992). Poisson's ratio can
be considered thesame for normal
or dynamic rates of loading(Hess 1992).
3.4"creep
3.4.1-Creep of concrete is partially-recoverable plastic
deformation that occurs while concrete is under sustained
stress. Creep appears
to be mainly related to the modulus of
elasticity of the concrete. Concretes having high values of
modulus of elasticity generally have
low values of creep deformation. The cement paste is primarily responsible for
concrete creep. With concretes containing
the same type of
aggregate, the magnitude of creep is closely related to the
paste content (Polivka,Pm,
and Adams 1963) and the watercementitious material ratio of the concrete. AC1 209R
discusses the prediction

of creep, shrinkage, and temperature
effects in concrete structures.
3.4.2-0ne method of expressing the effectof creep is as
the sustained modulusof elasticity of the concrete in which
the stress is divided by
the total deformation for the time under the load. The instantaneous and sustained modulus of
Gin. (150-mm)diameter cylinelasticity values obtained on
ders made with mass-mixed concrete wet screened to 1 in.
(37.5 mm) maximum size, are recorded in Table 3.4.2. The
instantaneous modulus is measured immediately after the
concrete is subjected to load. The sustained modulus repre365 and lo00 days under load.From Table
sents values after
for modulus are
3.4.2 it canbe seen that the sustained values
approximately one-half that of the instantaneous modulus
is a and
slightly higher perwhen load is applied at early ages
centage of the instantaneous modulus when the loading age
is 90days or greater. Creep of concrete appears
to be approximately directly proportional to the applied stresdstrength
ratio up to about 40 percent of the ultimate strengthof the
concrete.
3.5-Volume change
35.1-Volume changes are caused by changes in moisture content of the concrete, changes in temperature, chemical reactions, and stresses from applied loads. Excessive
are formed
volume changeis detrimental to concrete. Cracks
in restrained concreteas a resultof shrinkageor contraction
or strain capacity. Cracking
and insufficient tensile strength
is a weakening factor thatmay affect the abilityof the concrete to withstand its design loads and
may also detract from
durability and appearance. Volume change data for some
mass concretesare given in Table3.5.1. Various factorsinfluencing crackingof mass concrete are discussed in Carlson, Houghton, and Polivka (1979).
~~
S T D - A C 1 207.LR-ENGL
~~
L77b
Obb2747 0 5 3 L L B b b27
MASS CONCRETE
Table 3.5.1-
207.1 R-19
Volume change andpermeability of mass concrete
DWOrshak
+IO
-8
- 510
6.02 x IO"*
5.59 X 1 0 - l ~
Libby
+3
+I2
- 480
1.49 x lo-"
1.38 x 1 0 "
+4
+4
Lower Granite
Volutne change specimens for Hooverand Grand Coul Dams were 4 x 4 x 40-in (100 x 1 0 0 x 1ooO-mm)prisms; for Dworshak, Libby,
and h
e
r Granite Dams volume changewas d
c
c
t
m
rn
i
e
d on 9 x 18-in. (230 x 46CLmm) scaled cylinders. Specimens for theothu
damstabulatcdwnt4x4x"in.(100x1oox76o-nun)prisms.
Specimens for permeability for Dworsbak Libby, and Lower G&te D a m s W- 6 x Gin. (150 x 150-mm) cylinders. Specimens for permcabity for the otherdams tabulated were 18 x 18 in. (460x 460 mm).
*ft/dfi= ft%$-s/ftof hydraulic head, d d m = m3/m2-dmof hydraulic W,millionths= in.x IO6 /i.(mmx ld/mmmeasured
),
ia linear length change.
depending on the chemical composition and the degree of

35.2-Drying shrinkage ranges from less than0.02 perhydration. The thermal coeffkient of the concrete usually recent (or 200 millionths) for low-slump lean concrete with
flects theweightedaverageofthevariousconstituents.
good quality aggregates to over 0.10 percent (or 200 millionths) for rich mortarsor some concretes containing poor Sometimes coefficientof expansion tests are conducted on
concrete that has been wet screened to 11/2 in. (37.5 mm)
quality aggregates and an excessive amount of water. The
maximum size in order to work with smaller-size specimens.
principal drying shrinkage of hardened concrete is usually
However, the disproportionately larger amount of cement
occasioned by the drying and shrinking of the cement gel
which is formed by hydration of portland cement. The main paste, which has a higher coefficient, results in values higher
factors affecting drying shrinkage are the unit water contentthan thatof the mass concrete. Concrete coefficients of thermal expansion are best determined on specimens containing
and aggregate mineralogy and content. Other factorsinflumix. Refer to values in Table
3.7.1.
ence drying shrinkage principally
as they influence the total the full concrete
amount of water in mixtures.
The addition of pozzolans gen35.5-The portland cement in concrete liberates heat
erally increases drying shrinkage except where the water rewhen it hydrates and the internal temperature of the conquirementissignificantlyreduced,such
as withflyash.
crete rises during this period (Dusinberre 1945; Wilson
Some aggregates, notably graywacke and sandstone, have
1968). The concrete is relatively elastic during this early
been known to contribute to extremely high drying
shrinkstage, and it can be assumed to be at or near zero stress
age. AC1 224R and Houghton (1972) discuss the factors inwhen the maximum temperatureis attained. When cooling
volved in drying characteristicsof concrete.
begins, the concrete is gaining strength and stiffness rapidfrom the chem35.3-Autogenous
volume change results
ly. If there is any restraint against free contraction during
ical reactions within the concrete. Unlike drying shrinkage cooling,
it
tensile strain and
stress develop. The tensile stressis unrelated to the amount
of water in the
mix.The net autog- es developed during the cooling stage are determined by
enous volume change of most concretes is a shrinkage of
five quantities: (1) thermal differential and rate of temperfrom O to 150 millionths. When autogenous expansion ocaturechange, (2) coefficient of thermalexpansion, (3)
days after placcurs it usually takes place within the 30
first
modulus of elasticity, (4) creep or relaxation, and (5) the
ing. Concretes containing pozzolans may sometimes have
degree of restraint. If the tensile stress developed exceeds
greater autogenous shrinkage than portland cement concretethe tensile strength of the concrete, cracking will occur
1969).
without pozzolans (Houk, Borge, and Houghton
(Houghton 1972; Houghton 1976; Dusinbeme 1945). Principal methods utilized toreduce the potential for thermally
3.5.4-77.- thermal coefficientof expansion of a concrete
induced crackingin concrete are outlined inAC1 224R and
depends mainly upon thetype and amountof coarse aggreCarlson, Houghton, and Polivka (1979). They include regate in the concrete. Various mineral aggregatesmay range
ducing the maximum internal temperature which the conin thermal coefficients from below2 millionths to above 8
millionths per degF (3 to 14 millionths per deg C). Neat cecrete attains; reducingthe rate at which theconcrete cools;
and increasingthe tensile strength of the concrete. Concrete
ment pastes will vary from about 6 millionths to 12 milresistance to cracking can be equated to tensile strain calionths per degF (10 millionths to 21 millionths per degC)
er?
mm
++
a*-
! t N
.* Tf
on
2
m
6
X
:or=
:PO
I-
+
"
NmYI
l-WC
W q P:
01010
I - N U
N
qa oq cr
NNN. NNC'
O 0 0 o o c
E t
- s
VI

pacity rather than to strength. When this

is done, the averE ) can be omitted
from
age modulus of elasticity (sustained
the testing and computation requirements (AC1 207.2R;
Houghton 1976). Tensile strain capacitymay be predicted
using compressive strength and the modulus of elasticity
(Liu and McDonald1978). Thermal tensiles t r a i n capacity
of the concrete is measured directly in tests on concrete
made during the design stages of
the project. Thermal tensile strain developed in mass concrete increases with the
magnitude of the thermalcoefficient of expansion, thennal
differential and rateof temperature change, and degree of
restraint (AC1 207.2R).
3.8-Ghear properties
3.8.1-Although
the triaxial shear strengthmay be determined as one of the basic design parameters, the designer
usually is required to usean empirical relationship between
the shear and compressive strength
of concrete. Shear properties for some concretes containing
1'/+. (37.5 mm) maximum-sizeaggregates are listedinTable
3.8.1. These
include compressive strength, cohesion, and coefficient of
internal friction, which are related linear functions determined from results of triaxial tests. Linear of
analysis
triaxial
results gives a shear strength slightly above the value obstated
tained from standard push-off tests. Past criteria have
that the coefficient
of internal friction can
be taken as 1.O and
3.5.6-Volume changes can also result from chemical re- cohesion as 10 percent of the compressive strength(U.S. Buactions, which can be potentially disruptive. These reactions reau of Reclamation 1976). More recent investigation has
are discussed in 3.9.4.
concluded that assumingthis level of cohesion may be unconservative (McLean& Pierce 1988).
3.8.2-The
shear strength relationships reported canbe
3.6-Permeability
linearly analyzed using the
Mohr envelope equation
3d.l-Concrete has inherently low permeability to water.
are compacted by
With properly proportioned mixtures that
Y=C+Xtanl$
vibration, permeabilityis not a serious problem. Permeability of concrete increases with increasing water-cementitious in whichC (unit cohesive strength or cohesion)
is defined as
material ratios (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1981). Therethe shear strength at zero normal
stress. Tan @,
which is the
fore, low water-cementitious material ratio and good consol- slope of the line, represents the coefficientof internal fricidationandcuring
are themostimportantfactors
in
producing concrete with low permeability. Airentraining
and other chemical admixtures permit the same workabilityTable 3.8.1- Shear properties of concrete*
with reduced water content and therefore contribute to resive
Zomp
duced permeability. Pozzolans usually reduce the permeabilStre h
- Cohesion
4ge.
ity of the concrete. Permeability coefficients
for some mass
Dam
m
W S
psi
- psi Mpa 'an0 S(sc
- WIG concretes are given in Table
3.5.1.
3.7-Thermal properties
Grand
Coulee
28
28
28
90
112
365
0.52. 2
i5
0
0.58 I530
0.64 3810
0.58 5750
0.58 1920
0.58 B500
36.2
31.2
26.3
32.8
33.9
58.6
1020
830
1010
930
1880
8.1
7.0
5.7
7.0
6.4
13.0
1
1.90
170
1.89
9.92
D.97
1 .O5
0.91
0.223
0.225
0.218
0.21 3
O. 189
0.221
3.7.1-Thermal
properties of concrete are significant in
connectionwithkeepingdifferentialvolumechangeata
minimum in mass concrete, extracting excess heat from the
104 O.%*
2250 15.5 500
3.4 0.90 0.222
concrete, and dealing with similar operations involving beat Hungry 144 O.%* 3040 21.0 680 4.7 0.89 0.224
Horse
transfer. These properties are specific heat, conductivity, and
622 0.60* 1750 12.1 400
2.8 0.86 0.229
-diffusivity. Themain factor affecting the thermal properties
28 0.62* 2800 19.3 610 4.2 0.93 0.218
Montiof a concreteis the mineralogic composition
of the aggregate
cello
40 0.92* 4120 28.4 950 6.6 0.85 0.231
(Rhodes 1978). Since the selection of the aggregate to be
0.50 5740 39.6 1140
7.9 1 .O5 O.199
28
used isbased on other considerations, little or no control can
0.60 4920 33.9 1 0 6 0 7.3 0.95 0.215
28
be exercised over the thermal properties of the concrete.
90 0.50 5450 37.6 1 0 9 0 7.5
1 .O5 0.200
Tests for thermal propertiesare conducted only for providing S b
90 0.50 6590 45.4 1360
9.4 1.01 0.206
90 0.60 SOO0 34.5 1 0 4 0 7.2 1 .o0 0.208
constants to be used in behavior studies as describedin
245 0.50 61
20
42.2 1230 8.5 1 .o4 i 0.201
Chapter 5. Specification requirements for cement, pozzolan,
-percent sand, and water content are modifying factors but
180T 0.59* 4150 28.6 1490
10.3 0.44 i 0.359
1807 0.63* 3220 22.2 1080 7.4 0.46 0.335
with negligible effect on these properties. Entrained
air is an
Dworshak
1
80T 0.70* 2420 16.7 950 6.6 0.43 0.393
insulator and reduces thermal conductivity, but other considZao$
0.59* 2920 20.1 720
5.0 0.84 0.247
erations which govern the use of entrained
air outweigh the
-significance of its effect on thermal properties. Some rock
All test specimens 6 x 12 in.(150 x 300 mm) with dry, 1'12 i
n
.(37.5
types, such as granite,can have a rather wide range of thermm) maximum-size aggregate exceplt designates 3 x 6 in.(75 x
mal properties depending upon their source. Quartz aggre150 mm) E s t speciacns scaled to prevent drying with
in. (19
mm) maximum-size aggngate and t designates 18 x 36 in.(450 x
its highvalue of thermal
gate is particularlynotedfor
900 mm) fest specimens scaled to prevmt drying, with 6 in. (150
conductivity. Thermal property values for somemass conmm) maximum-size aggregate.
Pcohcsiondivided by Compressive strength
cretes are given in Table 3.7.1.Thermal coefficientof expan'Triaxial Lests.
sion is discussed in Section
3.5.4.
--

leach from concrete. Surfaces of tunnel linings, retaining

are often disfiguredby lime
walls, piers, and other structures
deposits fromwater seeping through cracks, joints, and interc o ~ e c t e dvoids.Withdense,low-permeability
concrete,
leaching is seldom severe enough
to impair the serviceability
of the structure.
3.9.4-Alkali-aggregate
reaction is the chemical reaction
between alkalies(sodium and potassium) from portlandcement or other sources and certain constituentsof some aggregates,
which
under
certain conditions
produces
deleterious expansion of the concrete. These reactions include alkali-silica reaction and alkali-carbonate rock reaction, discussedin an Engineer Manual ( U S . Army Corps of
Engineers 1994). Where itis necessary to use an aggregate
containing reactive constituents, low-alkali cement should
be specified. Also, as further insurance against alkali-aggrebe specified in sufgate reaction, a suitable pozzolan should
ficient quantity to control deleterious reaction. Fly ash is
generally considered less effective in controlling alkali-silica reaction and expansion
than are Class N pozzolans.
39.5-The
principal causesof erosion of concrete surfaces are cavitation and the movementof abrasive materialby
3.9-Durability
3.9.1-A
durable concreteis one which will withstand the flowing water. Use of concrete of increased strength and
effects of service conditions to which it will be subjected,
in
wear resistance offers some relief but the best lies
solution
such as weathering, chemical action, alkali-aggregate reacthe prevention, elimination, or reduction of the causes by
tions, and wear(U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1981). Labora- proper design, construction, and operation of the concrete
tory tests can indicaterelative durabilities of concretes, itbut structure (AC1 210R). The use of aeration in high velocity
in field
is not generally possible
to directly predict durability
flows is an effective way to prevent cavitation.
service from laboratory durability studies.
of concrete by weathering
is caused
3.9.2-Disintegration
CHAPTER 4"CONSTRUCTION
mainly by the disruptive action
of freezing and thawing and
by expansion and contraction under restraint, resulting from 4.1-Batching
batching of mass concrete requires little
temperature variations and alternate wetting and drying. En- 4.1.1-Proper
that is different from the accurate, consistent, reliable batchmined air improves the resistance of concrete to damage
ing that is essential
for other classes of concrete. AC1 221R
from frost action and should be specified for all concrete
subject to cycles of freezing and thawing while critically sat- covers the processing, handling, and quality control of aggregate. AC1 304R discusses the measuring, mixing,transurated. Selectionof good materials,use of entrained air,low
porting, and placing of concrete.
water-cementitiousmaterialratio,properproportioning,
placement to provide a watertight structure, and good water
41.2.-The
desirability of restricting the temperature rise
of mass concrete by limiting the cement content of themix
curing usually provide a concrete that has excellent resistance to weathering action.
creates a continuing construction problem
to maintain work3.93"chemical attack occurs from (1) exposure to acid
ability in the plastic concrete. Efficientmixes for mass concrete contain unusually low portionsof cementing materials,
waters, (2) exposure
to sulfate-bearing waters, and
(3) leaching by mineral-free watersas explained in AC1 201.2R.
sand, and water. Thusthe workability of these mixesfor conthan normally sensitive to variaventional
placement is more
No type of portland cement concrete
is very resistant to attions in batching.This problem can be lessened by the use of
tack by acids. Should this type of exposure occur the conefficient construction methods and modem equipment. Usucrete is best protectedby surface coatings.
of concrete is like
Sulfate attack can be rapid and severe. The sulfates react ally the production of large quantitiesmass
chemically with the hydrated lime and hydrated tricalcium an assembly-line operation, particularly in dam construction,
aluminate in cement paste
to form calcium sulfate and calci- where the performanceof repetitive functions makesit economically prudent to employ specialty equipment and effium sulfo-aluminates. These reactions are accompanied by
.
considerable expansion and disruption
of the concrete. Con- cientconstructionmethods.Consistencyinthebatchingis
improved by: (1) finish screening of coarse aggregate at the
crete containing cement low in tricalcium aluminate (ASTM
batchingplant,preferably on horizontalvibrating screens
Types II, IV and V) is more resistantto attack by sulfates.
Hydrated limeis one of the products formed when cement withoutintermediatestorage, (2) refinementsinbatching
equipment, suchas full-scale springlessdials which register
and water combine
in concrete. This lime is readily dissolved
all stages of the weighing operation,(3) automatic weighing
in pure or slightly acid water, which
may occur in high
(4) interlocks to prevent recharging when
mountain streams. Pozzolans, which react with lime liberat- and cutoff features,
some material remains in a scale hopper,(5) a device forined by cement hydration, can prevent the tendency
of lime to
tion. X and Y are normal and shear stresses, respectively.

In
many cases, the shear strengths in Table 3.8.1 were higher
for specimens of greater age; however,
W definite trendis in
evidence. The ratio of triaxialshear strength to compressive
strength varies from0.19 to 0.39 for the various concretes
shown. When shear strength is used
for design, the test confining pressures used should reflect anticipated conditions
in
the structure. Whenever possible, direct shear tests
on both
parent concrete and
on jointed concrete shouldbe conducted
to determine valid cohesion
and coefficient of internal friction values for design.
3.8.3-Bonded
horizontal construction joints may have
shear strength comparable to of
that
the parent concrete.Unbonded joints typically have lower cohesion, but the same
to parent
coefficient of inmal friction, when compared the
are conducted, the coefficient of intemal
concrete. If no tests
friction canbe taken at 1.O and the cohesion
as O, for unbonded joints. For bondedjoints, the Coefficient of internal friction can be taken as 1.O, while the cohesion may approach
& Pierce 1988).
that of the parent concrete (McLean

MASS CONCRETE
207.1 R-23
stant reading of approximate moisture content of sand, (6)

Table 4.1.5- Typical batching tolerances
graphic or digital recording of the various weighing
mixand
ing operations, and
(7)equipment capableof instant automatBatch weights
icselectionandsettingofatleast11differentbatch
less than 30 percent of
greater than 30 percent
ingredients in as many different mix proportions. In large
of scale
capacity
scale
capacity
centml plant mixers, the large batches commonly used for
Batching
mass concrete also tend to minimize the effect of variations.
Ingredient Individual I Cumulative I Individual I Cumulative
4.1.3-Since gmter use is made in mass concrete of such
Cement and f 1 percent of specified
not less than required
special-purposeingredients as ice,air-entraining,water-reOther
weight, or f I percent of weight nor morethan 4
cementious scale capaciv,whichever percent over required
ducing and set-controlling a d m i x t u r e s , and fly ash or other
materials
is greater
weight
pozzolans, the dependable, accurate batching
of these materiwater
(by
als has become a very important aspect of the concrete plant. volume or
weight),
use of ice, its temperature
must be less than
For most efficient
percent
32 F (O C) and it must be brittle-hard,dry, and finely broken.
f 3 percent of
For maximum effkiency ice should be batched by weighing
scale capacfrom a well-insulated storage bin, with quick discharge into
ity or* 3
percent of
the mixer along with the other ingredients. Pozzolan and
Aggregates,
percent
the same as cement.
ground iron blast-furnace slag are batched
cumulative
weight,
4.1.4-Liquid
admixtures are generally batched by volwhichever
is less
ume, although weighing equipment hasalso been used successfully.
Reliable
admixture
batching
equipment
is
Admixtures
(by.volurnc c
* 3* Imomeoddedl Not** /nrommendcd
Not
availablefrom some admixture or batch plant manufacturers. weight),
Means should be provided for making a
visual accuracy
percent
check. Provisions should be made
for preventing batchingof
*or f 10
is open.Interlocks
admixturewhilethedischargevalve
should also be provided that will prevent inadvertent overbatching of the admixture. Particularly with air-entraining
and water-reducing admixtures, any irregularitiesin batchbatchingmakesitpossibletoreducethemixingperiod.
air coning cancause troublesome variation in slump and/or
Some of the mixing water and coarser aggregate should lead
tent. When several liquid admixtures are to be used, they
other materials into the mixer to prevent sticking and clogshould be batched separately into the mixer. The
of comuse
ging. Mixing times should be lengthened or shortened deparatively dilute solutions reduces gumming in the equippending upon the results
of mixer performance tests. Criteria
be
ment. For continuing good operation, equipment must
for these tests are found in ASTMC 94, Annex, TableAl. 1.
maintained and kept clean. Timed-flow systems should not
Mixing timeis best controlledby a timing device which prebe used. Also,it is important to provide winter protection forvents release of the discharge mechanism until the mixing
storage tanks and related delivery lines where necessary.
time has elapsed.
4.1.5-Batching
tolerances frequently used are shown in
4.2.3-During
mixing, the batch must
be closely observed
Table 4.1 S .
to assure the desired slump. The operator and inspector must
be alert and attentive.Tuthill(l950) has discussed effective
4.2-Mixing
inspection procedures and facilities. Preferably the operator
42.1-hhem for mass concrete must be capable of disshould be stationed in the plant where he
can see the batch in
charging low-slump concrete quickly and with consistent disthe mixer and be able to judge whether
its slump is correct.
This is best
tribution of largeaggggate throughout the batch.
If the slumpis low, perhaps due
to suddenly drier aggregate,
accomplished with large tilting mixers in statiowy central
he can immediately compensate with a little more water and
drum is 4 yd3
plants. The most common capacity of the mixer
maintain the desired slump. Lacking
this arrangement tosee
(3 m3) but goad results have been achieved with mixers as
into
the
mixer,
he
should
be able to see the batchas it is dissmall as 2 yd3 (1.5 m3) and as large as 12 yd3 (9 m3). Truck
charged. From t h i s he can note any chauge from former
mixers are not suited to the mixing and discharging oflowslump, large-aggregate concrete. Turbine-type mixers be
may batches and make subsequent water adjustments accordingly. A sand moisture meter will assist in arriving at the approused for mass concrete containing 3-in.(75-mm) aggregate.
priate quantitative adjustment.
4.2.2-Specifications for mixing time range from a mini4.2.Aontinuous batchingandmixing(pugmill)
has
mum of 1 min for thefirst cubic yard plus
15 sec for each additional cubic yard (80 sec for firstm3 plus 20 sec for each
been used successfully in roller-compactedconcrete for
additional m3) of mixer capacity (AC1 304R and ASTM C
years, and has also been used for traditional mass concrete
94) to 1 min for the first 2 yards plus 30 sec for eachaddiwith satisfactory performance. Generally the maximum agtional yard(11/2 min for the first 1i2 m3 plus 40 sec for each
gregate size for this method is limited to 3 in. (75 mm) or
additionalm3) of capacity (U.S. Bureau ofReclamation
possibly 4 in. (100 mm). AC1 207.5R and AC1304R discuss
1981).Blendingthematerials
by ribbonfeedingduring
continuous batching and
mixing in more detail.

207.1 R-24
AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT
4.3-Placing
the joint area andall rock clusters at batch-dump perimeters
are carefully scattered.
43.1-Placingincludespreparationofhorizontal
construction joints, transportation, handling, placement, and con-435"selection of equipment for transporting and placing
solidation of the concrete (AC1 SP-6 1963;ACI 304R, U.S.
of mass concrete is stronglyM u e n d by the maximum size
Bureau of Reclamation 1981;Tuthill1950; Tuthilll953).
of the aggregate. Concrete for mass placements such as in
43.2-Efficient
and best preparation of horizontal
joint surdams often contains cobbles, whichare defined as coarse agfaces begins with the activities
of topping out the lift. The
surgregate particles larger than 3 in. (75 mm) and small& than 12
.
face shouldbe left free from protrudingmk,deep footprints,
in. (300 mm). The tendency of cobblesto segregate from the
In general, the
vibrator holes, and other surface irregularities.
mix as a result of the^ greater inertia when in motion may dicsurface shouldbe relatively even witha gentle slope for drain- tate the use of large, 2 to 12-yd3(1.5 to 9-m3) capacity buckets.
.
age. This slope makes the cleanup easier.
As late as is feasible Railcars, trucks, cableways, or cranes, or some combination of
but priorto placement of the next
lift, surface film and contamthese, maybe used to deliver the buckets
to the point of placeination shouldbe removed to expose a fresh, clean mortar and ment. For concrete containingcoarse aggregate 3 in. (75 mm)
aggregate surface. overcutting to deeply expose aggregate is
and larger,a bucket size of4 to 8 yd3 (3 to 6 m3)is preferable,
unnecessary and wasteful of good material.Strength of bond
as readily, and each desince smaller buckets do not discharge
is accompiished by cement grains, not by protruding coarse
livery is too small to work well witha high-production placebybond
aggregate. Jointshear strength is determined boththis
ment scheme.On the other hand,
the 12-yd3 (9-m3) bucket puts
and by interface friction. The friction contribution is affected such a large pile in one place
thatmuch of the crew's time
is deby confining pressure and
coarse aggregate interlock. Usually
voted to vibrating for spreading instead of forconsolidation.
removal of only about 0.1 in. (a few millimeters) of inferior
To preclude these piles being larger than 4 yd3 (3 m3), one
material will reveal a satisfactory surface.
agency requires controllable discharge gates in buckets carry433-The best methodsof obtaining sucha clean surface
are by means of sandblasting (preferably wet sandblasting to
avoid dust hazard)or high-pressure waterjet of at least 6OOO
psi (41.4 m a ) . Operators must be on guard to avoid harm to
other personnel, to wooden surfaces, etc., from water-blasted
pieces of surf= mamial, which maybe hurled forward with
has the advantage that
great force and velocity. Sandblasting
it will do the job atany age the concrete
may be, but requires
its removal afhandling of sandblast sand and equipment and
ter use. The water-jet method leaves relatively
little debris for
cleanup and removal, but may not work as efficiently after
the concrete is more
than one week old. Before and after horizontal construction joint cleanup with sandblasting and highpressure water blasting are illustrated in Fig. 4.3.3(a) and
4.3.3(b), respectively. Clean joints are essential to good bond
and watertightness. "Green cutting," which is the early re(a)Sandblast treatment
moval of the surface mortar with an air-waterjet about the
time the concrete approaches
finalsec-is also used. However,
it may not be possible to preserve the initially clean surface
until concrete is placed upon it. The initially acceptable surface may become dull with lime coatings orbecome
can contaminated to such an extent that it may be necessary to use
sandblasting or high-pressure water
jets to reclean it.
43.4-The clean concrete surface shouldbe approaching
dryness and be free from surface moisture at the time new
(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 1959,
concrete is placed on it
1963, and 1%). Testing has shown superior strength and
watertightness ofjoints that are dry and clean when the overlying concreteis placed, then no water
is presentto dilute and
weaken the cement paste of the plastic concrete at the construction joint. Tests have also shown that the practice of
placing mortar on
the joint ahead of the concrete
is not necessary for either strength or impermeability
of the joint (Houghton and Hall 1972). Themortar coat, although widelyused in
the past, is no longer commonly used in mass concrete work.
Equivalent results can be obtained without the mortarif the
first layer of the plastic concreteis thoroughly vibrated over
(b)High-pressure water-blast treatment

Fig. 4.3.3(a)and (b)-Before
tionjoint cleanup
and @er horizontal construc-
Six-in. (150-mm) diameter vibrators produce satisfactory

ing more than4 yd3(3 m3).Extra care mustbe taken to assure
reample vibration deep
in the center ofthese piles and atpoints
sults with 4 to Gin.
(100 to 150-mm)nominal maximum size
of contact with concrete previously placed.
Mass concrete of
aggregate (NMSA) and less than 11/2 in. (40-mm) slump in
proper mixture proportions and low slump does not separate layers 18 to 20 in.
(460 to 510 mm) thick placed with4 to 8by settlement during such transportation over the short disyd3 (3 to Gm3)buckets. Smaller diameter vibrators will probe taken to pretances usually involved. However, care must
ducesatisfactoryresultswith3to4-in.(75to100-mm)
vent segregationat each transfer point.
NMSA and lessthan 2-in. (50-mm) slump placedin 12to 15in. (300 to 380-mm) layers with smaller buckets. Shallower
43.6ass concrete may also be transported in dumping
of satlayers,
ratherthandeeper layers, give better assurance
rail cars and trucks and placed by use of conveyors. Placing
isfactory
consolidation
and
freedom
from
rock
pockets
at
mass concrete with conveyorshas been most successful and
joint
lines,
comers,
and
other
form
faces,
as
well
as
within
size is 4in.(100 mm) or less.
economical when the aggregate
the block itself.
be managed so
The point of discharge from conveyon must
that concreteis discharged onto fresh concrete and immediate- 4 3 . e T h e layer thickness shouldbe an even fractionof
ly vibrated to prevent stacking. Placement
ofconcrete
mass
the lift height orof the depthof the block. The layers
are caron
by conveyoris shown in Fig. 4.3.1. Additional information
ried forwardin a stair-step fashionin the block by means of
placing concrete with conveyors is contained
AC1
in 304.4R.
of about 5 ft
successive dischargesso there will be a setback
(1.5 m) between the forward edges of successive layers.
43.7-Luge building foundations and other very large
Placement of the stepsis organized so as to exposea minimonolithic concrete structuresare mass concrete. Availabilimum of surface and to lessen warming of the concrete in
ty andjob conditions may preclude the useof preferable agwarm weather and reduce the area affected by rain in wet
mm) orspecialized
gregateslarger than 11~in.(37.5
weather. A setback greater than 5 ft (1.5 m) unnecessarily
placement equipment. Concrete in such structures may be
in
exposes cold concreteto heat gain in warm weather and,
placed with more conventional equipment such as smaller
crane buckets, concrete pumps, or conveyors. The selection rainy weather, increasesthe danger of water damage; a narsag when the
of placing equipment should be predicated upon its ability torower setback will cause concrete above it to
successfully place concrte which has been proportioned forstep is vibrated to make it monolithic with the concrete
mass concrete considerationsas defined in Section 2.7, which placed later against that step.This stepped front progresses
forward from one end of the block to the otherform
until the
emphasizes the reduction of heat evolution. It is important
lift placement is completed.
that placing capacity be great enough to avoid cold joints is
andfilled and the
undesirable exposureto extremes of heat and coldliftatsur4.3.10-Vibration
is the key to the successful placefaces. This is usually accomplished by utilizing many pieces ment of mass concrete, particularly when the concrete is
of placing equipment. Additional information on pumping oflow slump and contains large aggregate (Tuthill 1953).
concrete is contained AC1
in 304.2R.
Ineffectual equipment is more costly to the builder be43.8-Mass concrete is best placed in successive layers.
cause of a slowerplacing rate and the hazard ofpoor conThe maximum thickness of
the layer dependsupon the abilsolidation. Vibration must be systematic and should
ity of the vibrators to properly consolidate the concrete.
thoroughly cover and deeply penetrate each layer. Partic-
Fig. 4.3.7-Placement of mass concrete by conveyor belt

ular attention must be paid to ensure full vibration where

the perimeters of two discharges join, since the outer edge
of the first batch is not vibrated until the next batch is
placed against it. The two discharges can then be vibrated
monolithically together without causing either edge to
flow downward. Proper vibration of large aggregate mass
concrete is shown in Fig. 4.3.10. To insure proper consolidation, the vibrators should penetrate the lower layer for
several inches (50 to 100 mm) and be held in a vertical position and shouldremain in a vertical position ateach penetration during vibration. To prevent imperfections along
lift lines and layer lines at form faces, these areas should
be systematicallydeeply revibrated as each layer advances
from the starting form, along each of the side forms, to the
other end form. Any visible clusters of separated coarse
aggregate should be scattered on the new concrete before
covering with additional concrete. Vibration is unlikely to
fill and solidify unseparated aggregate clusters with mortar. During consolidation the vibrators should remain at
each penetration point until large air bubbles have ceased
to rise and escape from the concrete. The average time for
one vibrator to fully consolidate a cubic yard (3/4 m3) of
concrete may be as much as oneminute (80 sec for 1 m3).
Over-vibration of low slump mass concrete is unlikely. To
simplify cleanup operations, the top of the uppermostlayer
should be leveled and made reasonably even by means of
vibration. Holes from previous vibrator insertions should
be closed. Large aggregate should be almost completely
embedded andboards should belaid on the surface in sufficient number to prevent deep footprints. Ample and effective vibration equipment must be available and in use
during theplacementofmassconcrete.Anything
less
shouldnot be tolerated. Specific recommendations for
mass concrete vibration are contained in AC1 309R.
Fig. 4.3.10-Consolidarion of low slump mass concrete

placed by bucket
tion, and generally good surface condition

as those described
in Hurd (1989). Formwork for mass concrete may differ
somewhat from other formwork because the
of comparativebe
ly low height normally required for each lift. There may
some increaseof form pressures dueto the use of low temperature concrete and the impact of dumping large buckets
of concrete nearthe forms, despite the relieving effectof the
generally low slump of mass concrete. Form pressures depend uponthe methods used and the care exercised in placing concreteadjacentto the form.For this reason, it is
recommendedthat100percent
of equivalent hydrostatic
pressure plus 25 percent for impact be used for design of
mass concrete forms.
4.4-Curing
4.4.1-Mass
concrete is best cured with water, which pro4.5.2-Form ties c o ~ e ~ t to
e dstandard anchors in the prevides additional cooling benefit in warm weather. In cold
vious
lift
and
braces
have
long
been
used.
Many largejobs are
weather, little curing is needed beyond the moisture provided
now
equipped
with
forms
supported
by
cantilevered strongto prevent the concrete from drying duringits initial protecbacks
anchored
firmly
into
the
lift
below.
Additional support
be satution from freezing. However, the concrete should
not
of
cantilevered
forms
may
be
provided
by
form ties, parricurated when it is exposed to freezing. In above-freezing
is
low
in
early
strength.
Cantilevered
larly
when
the
concrete
weather when moisture is likely to be lost from the concrete
forms
are
raised
by
hydraulic,
air,
or
electric
jacking
systems.
surfaces, mass concrete shouldbe water cured for at least 14
Care
is
necessary
to
avoid
spalling
concrete
around
the
andays or up to twice this time if pozzolan is used as one of the
lift
W
ig
chor
bolts
in
the
low-early-strength
concrete
of
the
cementitious materials.Except when insulationis required in
since
these
bolts
will
be
used
to
provide
stripped
of
forms,
cold weather, surfaces
of horizontal construction
joints should
be kept moist until the wetting will no longer provide benefi-horizontal restraint in the next form setup. High-lift, mass
concrete formwork is comparableto that used for standard
cial cooling. Curing shouldbe stopped long enough
to assure
structural concrete work except that ties maybe 20 to 40 ft (6
that the joint surfaceis free of water but still
damp before new
to 12 m) long across the lift rather
than 20 to 40 in. (0.5 to 1.O
concreteis placed. Theuse of a liquid-membrane curing
comm).
To
facilitate
placement
by
bucket,
widely spaced largepound is not the best methodof curing mass concrete, butin
diameter,
high-tensile-strength
ties
are
requiredto permit
some instances it is the most practical.
If used on construction
passage
of
the
concrete
buckets.
joints, it must be completely removed by sandblasting or
waterblasting to prevent reductionor loss of bond.
4.5.3-Beveled
grade strips and 1-in. (25-mm)sr-larger
triangular toe filets can be used to mask offsets that some
4.5"FOmS
times occur at horizontaljoint lines. This will generallydress
up and improve appearance
of formed surfaces. When used at
45.1-Forms
for mass concrete have the same basicrethe top and bottom of the forms, this can create an effective
quirement for strength, mortar-tightness, accuracy of posCOPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute
~~
tended exposure. A long exposure

of lift surfaces to changes
and pleasinggroove.Al-in.(25-mm)-or-largerchamfer
in ambient temperature may initiate cracking.This can deshould also be used in the comers of the forms at the upfeat anotherwisesuccessfulcrack-preventionprogram.
stream and downstream ends of construction joints for the
are beWhere thermal-control crack-prevention procedures
sake of appearance and to prevent chipping of the edges.
Sharp corners of the block otherwise are often damaged and ing used, the best construction schedule consistsof regular
placement on each block, at the shortest time interval, with
cannot be effectively repaired. Such chamfers also prevent
the leastpracticalheightdifferentialbetweenadjacent
pinching andspding of joint edges causedby high surface
blocks. This is further discussed in Chapter
5.
temperatures.
4.5.4"sloping forms, when used, often extend over the
4.6.2-Control of temperature rise is a design function.
construction jointto the extent that itis difficult to position
Therefore lift heightsandplacingfrequencyshould
be
buckets close enough to place
and adequately consolidate
the
shown on drawings and in specifications. (Refer to Chapter
concrete. Such forms maybe hinged so the top halfcan be
5). Influencing factors
are size andtype of massive structure,
held in a vertical position until concrete is placed up to the concrete propertiesand cement content, prevailing climate
hinged elevation. The top half is then lowered into position during construction and in service, construction schedule
and concrete placement continued. Sloping forms are subject
and other specified temperature controls. Heights of lifts
to less outward pressure, butuplift should be considered in
range from2lI2 ft (0.75 m)for multiplelifts just above fountheir anchorage.
dations to 5 ft (1.5 m) and 71/2ft (2.3 m) in many gravity
4.55-A common forming problem for spillway sections dams; and to10 ft (3 m) or more inthin arch dams, piers, and
of gravity dams is encountered in the sloping and
the curved
abutments.
portions of the crest and the bucket. These are the slopes that
mass concrete construction was adopted
4.6.3-High-lift
.O vertical atthe tranrange from horizontal to about 1.5 1to
in Canadaduring the
by someauthorities,particularly
sition where regular fixed forms
can be used. The curved or
1950s and 196Os, in an attempt to reduce potential leak
sloped surfacesare effectively shaped and the concrete thorpaths and minimize cracking
in dams builtin cold and even
oughly consolidatedby means of temporary holding forms,
subzero weather. The procedure is no longer in common
With no
ratherthan using screedguidesandstrikeoff.
usage. In its extreme form, the method provides
for continstrikeoff involved, the regularmass concrete facemix is as
uous placing of lifts up to 50 ft (15 m) high using woodor
readily used as one withsmall aggregate, unless a different
insulated formswith housings and steam heat. Under
these
concrete mix is required on the spillway face
for durability
placing conditions the adiabatic temperature rise
of the
reasons. The desired shapeis achieved with strong, solidly
concrete and the maximum temperature drop to low
stable
anchoredribsbetweenwhichrows
of formpanels are
temperatures are approximately equal. For control of
placed row-on-row upwardas the lift space is filled, and recracking mostdesign criteria restrict this maximumdrop to
moved starting row-on-row at the bottom
when the concrete
25 to 35 F (14 to19 C). Design requirements can be met unwill no longer bulge outof shape but is still responsive to
der these conditions by controlling, through mixture profinishing operations (Tuthill 1967). Considerable time and
portioning, the adiabatic rise to these levels (Klein, Pirtz,
labor are saved bythis method andit enables the concrete to
and Adams 1963). With precooled50 F (10 C) mass conbe wellconsolidated by vibrationand very accurately
crete of low cement content in a warm climate, ambient
shaped and finished.
heat removes the advantage of shallower
lifts and is the reason 7I/*-ft (2.3-m)or even 10-ft (3-m)lifts have been per4.6-Height of l i f t s and time intervals betweenlifts
mitted by specifications on several dam projects in recent
4.6.1-From the standpoint of construction, the higher the
years.
lift the fewer the construction
joints; with 7.543(2.3-m) lifts
there are only twc-thirds as many joints as when 5-ft(1-5-m)
4.74ooling and temperaturecontrol
lifts are used. With regardto hardened concrete temperature
liftthe
the higher the
histories in cold weather, the shallower
4.7.l"Currently it is common practice to precool mass
bepercentage of the total heat of hydration that will escape
concretebeforeplacement.Efficientequipment
is now
fore the next lift is placed. In hot weather with lean mixes
available to produce such concrete at temperatures less than
and precooling, the opposite may be true. When lift thick45 F (7 C) in practicallyany summer weather. The simple
ness is increased above 10ft (3 m), heat losses fromthe upexpedient of using finely chipped ice instead of mixing waper surface become a decreasing percentage
of the total heat
ter and shadingdamp (but not wet) aggregate will reduce the
generated within the full depth of the lift. Hence, with very concrete placing temperature to a value approaching50 F
deep lifts, the internal temperature reached
by the concreteis
(10 C) in moderately warm weather. To permit maximum
not significantly influenced
by the lengthof time interval be- use of ice in place of mixing water, fine aggregate should be
tween lifts. In such extreme cases, continuous placing in
drained to a water content of not more 5than
percent. Steel
high lifts may be preferable, especiallyas a means of miniaggregate storage bins and aggregate piles should
be shaded
mizing joint cleanup, to prevent cracking, or to permit the
as illustrated in Fig. 4.7.l(a). Aggregates can be cooled by
evaporation through vacuum, by inundation in cold water,
use of slipfoxms, e.g.,for massive piers.
by coldair circulation (Roberts 1951; AC1 305R),or by liqIn large blocks, such as in dam constmction, the loss of
uid nitrogen. Fig. 4.7.l(b) shows the coolingof coarse agheat from a lift surface in cold weather
does not justify exCOPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute
A C 1 COMMITTEE REPORT
207.1 R-28
Fig. 4.7.1(a)"etal cover
over drained $ne aggregate stockpile to reduce heat absorption
gregate by sprayingandinundationwithchilledwater
immediately prior to placing in the batch plant bins.
To obtain full advantage of the low placing temperature,
the concrete shouldbe protected from higher ambient temperature conditions during the
first few weeksafter placement to
to reduce the therreduce temperaturerise in the concrete and
mal differential tendingto crack the surface laterwhen much
colder ambient conditions may occur. During placement in
warm weather, absorption of heat by cold concrete can be
.. .
rrrrmrmzed by placing at night, by managing placement so
that minimum areas are exposed, and, if placement mustbe
done in thesun, by fog spraying the work
area. Much can be
done during the curing period to prevent heating and to remove heat from
the hardening concrete, including use of steel
forms, shading, and water curing.
Fig. 4.7.1(b)"cooling coarse aggregate by chilled
water
Embedded pipe coolingcan be used to control the rise in
spmy and inundation
concrete temperature in restrained zones near foundations
when maximum temperatures cannotbe limitedby other,less
expensive cooling measures. Embedded pipe coolingalso
is
normally required to assure at least theminimum opening of
ment will bring the joints into tight contact. Nevertheless,
contractionjoints needed when in dams grouting of joints is
grouring relieveslater arch and cantilever stresses by distribnecessary.
uting them more evenly and it remains general practice to
Aggregate and concrete precooling, insulation, protection grout contractionjoints in such dams.
from high ambient temperature, and postcooling consider4.8.2-In recent decades the transverse contraction
joints
ations and recommendationsare provided inAC1 207.4R.
in most gravity dams have not been grouted. It was considered that an upstream waterstop backed upby a verticaldrain
would prevent visible leakage; that grout filling
UMWSwas
4.8"Grouting contractionjoints
sary because there was no transverse stress; and that money
4.8.1-With increasingly effective use of cold concrete
as
of
would be saved. However, in recent years the appearance
placed, and especially when narrow shrinkage slots are left
question wheth- some transverse cracks, generally parallel to the contraction
and later filled with cold concrete,may
some
joints, has prompted reconsideration
of the groutingof coner contraction joint grouting serves much purpose for high
traction joints in gravity dams. It hasbeen suggested that inthin-arch dams, since a little downstream cantilever moveCOPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute
termediate cracks can start on the upstream face and be

differentials neverbecome large in thin structuresand, therepropagated farther into the dam, and sometimes through it, fore, thin structures are relatively free from thermal crackdue to the cold temperature and high pressure of deep reser-ing. In contrast, as thicknessincreases,theuncontrolled
voir water. Its coldness cools the interior concrete at the
interior temperature rise in mass concrete becomes almost
crack and further opens it. Transverse cracks should be
readiabatic andthis creates the potential for large temperature
paired prior to reservoir fillingif at all possible. Ithas been
differentials which,if not accommodated,can impair strucfurther suggested that if the transverse joints
are filled with
tural integrity.
grout, a surface crack opening somewhere on the upstream
mass concrete, thermal strains and stresses
are
512.n
Iface would have effective resistance against propagation and
developed in two ways: from the dissipation of the heat of
further opening.
cement hydration and from periodic cycles of ambient tem4.83-Where there is reason to grout contraction joints, the perature. Since all cements,as they hydrate, cause concrete
to heat up
to some degree, it is fortunate that the strength and
program of precooling and postcooling should be arranged
to
the corresponding cement requirements for mass concrete
provide a joint openingof at least 0.04 in. (1 mm) to assure
are usually much less than thosefor general concrete work;
complete filling with grout even though, under special test
hence, temperature riseis also less. Some reduction in temconditions, grout may penetrate much namwer openings.
perature risecan be achieved by (1) the use of minimal ceThe grouting system
can be designed in such aasway
to allow
ment contents, (2) the partial substitutionof pozzolans for
of
either just one two
or grouting operations (when the width
the openingis near itsmaximum), or several operations, when cement, and(3) the useof special types of cement with lower
or delayed heats of hydration. When the potential temperamaximum
the fust joint filling has to be pefiormed before the
ture rise of a concrete mixture has been reduced
its to
practiopening is reached and there
is no provisionfor postcooling.
cal minimum, the temperature drop that causes tensile stress
The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1976) Sections8-9 and8and crackingcan be reduced to zero if the initial temperature
10has described the grouting systems and grouting
operations
of the concrete
is set below the final stable temperature of the
it uses. Silveira, Carvalho, Paterno, and Kuperman (1982)
have described a grouting system which employs packers to structure by the amount of the potential temperature rise.
Theoretically this is possible; however, it is not generally
permit reuse of the piping system.
practical except in hot climates. Economy in construction
The use of embedded instrumentation across the joint is
can be gained if the initial temperatureis set slightly above
the only way to detemine with precision the magnitude of
this value so that a slight temperature drop
is allowed, such
thejoint opening (Carlson 1979; Silveira,
Carvalho, Paterno,
that the tensile stresses built
up duringthis temperature drop
and K u p e m 1982).
are less than thetensile strength of the concrete at that time
(or such that the tensile
strains are less than the tensile
strain
CHAPTER C E H A V I O R
capacity of the concrete at that time).
5.1.3-Frevious
chapters describe methods for reducing
5.1-Thermal stresses and cracking.
the initial temperature of concrete, and the benefits of plac5.1.1-A
most important characteristicof mass concrete
ing cold concrete.
It can be seen that ifmaximum
the
temperthat differentiates its behavior from that of structural conature of the concrete is appreciably above that of the final
crete is its thermal behavior. The generally large size
of
mass-concrete structures creates the potential for significant stable temperatureof the mass, volume changes in massive
between the interior and the outside structures will take place continuouslyfor centuries. Since
temperature differentials
t h i s is intolerable in some structures that dependon fast consurface of the structure. The accompanying volume-change
this excess heat must be removed
arstruction for economy,
strains and stresses
differentials and restraint result in tensile
tificially.Theusualmethod
is by circulatingacooling
swctural design.
that may cause cracking detrimental to the
Because concretehas a low thermal conductivity, heat gen- medium in embedded pipes(see 4.7.1).
behavior of exposed surfaces of concrete is
erated within a massive structure can escape only very slow-5.1.4-The
lyunlessaidedartificially.Heatescapesfromabody
greatly affectedby daily and annual cycles of ambient teminversely as the square of its least dimension. In ordinary
perature (AC1 305R). At the surface the temperature of concrete responds almost completely to daily variations in air
structural construction most of the heat generated
by the hydrating cementis rapidly dissipated and only slight tempera- temperature, while at a depth
of 2 ft (0.6 m) from the surface,
6 in.
ture differences develop. For example, a concrete wall
the concrete is affectedby only 10 percent of the dailysur( 150 mm) thick can become thermally stable
in about 1 ir.
face temperature variation. The annual ambient temperature
A 5-fi (1.5-m) thick wall would require a week to reach a
cycle affects the concreteat much greater depths. Ten percomparablecondition. A 5 0 4 (15-m)thickwall,which
cent of the annual variation in temperature is effective25 ft
could represent the thickness
of an arch dam,would require
(7.6 m) from the surface. It can be seen that the surface is
subjected to rather severe tensilestrains and stresses caused
two years. A 500-h (152-m) thick dam, such as Hoover,
by temperature changes. Since the interior reacts so much
Shasta, or Grand Coulee, would take some 200 years to
achieve the same degree of thermal stability. Temperature
more slowly thanthe surface, itis as though the surface were
Thus in alocompletely restrained by the interior concrete.
*.For additional information see Klein. pirtz.and Adams 196% Rawhouser 1945:
cation where the surface temperature varies annually
by 100
Waugh and Rhodes 1959: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1949 U.S. Bureau of ReclaF (59 C)and the concrete is assumed to have a modulusof
mation 1981; and Ross and Bray 1949.
of a foot
per year. As a working guide
to the behavior ofconelasticity of 3.0 x lo6 psi (2.1 x lo4 MPa) before cracking,
crete, it can be considered that concrete gives up water with
lo00 psi (7
the surfaces couldbe subjected to stresses about
it at a free surface fairly easily.
great reluctance, but accepts
m a ) above and below the average. While concrete can quite
Thus, at a surface exposed
to air, the surface is quite capable
easily sustain l o o 0 psi (7 MPa) in compression, its tensile
of dryingout, while the concrete farther from
the surface has
strength is much lower, and cracking would be inevitable.
lost
little,
if
any,
of
its
moistuie
content
(Carlson
1937).
However, because of the rapid deterioration
of the temperature differential with distance from
the surface, the variation
Previous paragraphs have discussed temperature
differenin stress is likewise dissipated rapidly, with the result that
tial as a cause of surface cracking. Another common
cause of
surface cracking dueto ambient temperature changes origi- surface crackingis dryiig at the surface.It can be seen&om
nates in and usuallyis confned to a relatively shallow region Table 3.5.1 that the concrete exhibiting minimum dryiig
shrinkage has a volume change expressedin single dimenat and near the surface.In a massive structure such
as a dam,
where a regular and orderly construction scheduleis being
sion shrinkage of roughly300 millionths. If one considers a
followed,
the
surface
concrete,
although
superficially
drying surface concrete completely restrained by a fully-saturated interior concrete,
it will be seen that tensile stresses
in
cracked by ambienttemperaturecycles, can protect the
structural integrity of the concrete below it. Where there
is
lo00 psi (7 MPa). Concrete
the surface concrete can exceed
an intemption to the orderly construction schedule and time cannot withstand such a tensile stress, and theis result
an exintervals betweenlifts become overly extended, lift surface
tensive pattern of surface cracking. Exactly
as in the case of
cracking may become deep andrequire treatment to prevent
inthermal crackingat the surface, these cracks will extend
propagation into subsequent placements.
ward a short distance and disappear
in the region of moisture
equilibrium. AC1 209R discusses further the prediction of
5.1.5-The
above statements about the effect
of variations
shrinkage in concrete.
in surface temperatureon cracking explainwhy form stripa flat surface of concrete is being fmping at times of extreme contrast between internal and ambi- 5.2.2-Whenever
ent temperatures will inevitably result in surface cracking.
ished as in a dam roadway, a spillway apron surface, or a
This phenomenon has beentermed thermal shock and ocpower plant floor, care must be taken to avoid the condicurs when forms that as
actinsulators are removed
on an extions causing whatis known as plastic shrinkage cracks.
tremely coldday. Modem steel forms that allow the surface This cracking occurs under extreme dryingconditions,
to that
temperature of the concreteto more nearly correspond
when water evaporates from the upper surface of the unhardened concretefaster than it reaches the surface by waof the air reduce this differential temperature somewhat.
ter gain. Evenas the concrete is setting, wide cracks appear,
However, they are open to the objection that the thermal
shock may be felt from low temperatures at an early age
often as parallel tears, across the entire finished surface.
through the form
into the concrete. Either dead
a airspace or
These can be preventedin extreme drying weatherby shadinsulation should be provided to protect concrete surfaces
ing the area of finishing operations,by providing barriers
where steel forms are used in cold weather. Insulation reagainst the movement ofthe air, by fog spraying, by surface
quirements and the agefor form stripping to avoid cracking sealing, or by any other means available to prevent rapid
on the air temperature andthe strength of
the surface depend
surface moisture evaporation.
the concrete. Requirements
for protection in freezing weather are given in AC1 306R.
5.3-Heat generation
5 3 . 1 4 i n c e one of the main problemsof mass concrete
5.1.6-Any
change intemperature in a partially restrained
construction is the necessity for controlling the heat enblock will cause
a corresponding change stress
in (Rawhouser 1945). At any pointwithin a dam,the total thermal stress trapped withinit as the cement hydrates, ashort statement
will be givenhere of the thermal properties and mathematis the s u m of the structural stress produced by the average
ical relationships thatenable the engineer to estimate raptemperature changewithin the entire volumeand the stress
idly the degree of temperaturecontrolneeded
for a
caused by the difference between the average temperature
and the point temperature.For example, one percent of the particular application.
Both the rate and thetotal adiabatic temperaturerise difannual surface temperature will felt
be at a depth50 ft (15 m)
fer among the varioustypes of cement. Fig. 5.3.1shows adifrom the surface, thus producing a volume and
stress change
abatic tem rature rise curves for mass concretes containing
throughout the block. In designing an arch dam, the total
376 lb/yd (223 kg/m3) of varioustypes of cement with a
be considered.
temperature distribution should
4- /*-in.(1 14 mm) maximum size aggregate. Values shown
are averaged from anumber of tests; individual cementsof
5.2-Volume change
the same type will vary considerably from the averagefor
53.1-The tables of Chapter 3 list properties affecting
that type. As might be expected, high-early-strength cevolume changefor a number of dams. It will be noted from
Table 3.5.1 that the values for drying shrinkage, autogenous ment, Type III, is the fastest heat generator and gives the
Type IV, or low-heat cevolume change, and permeability
are results of tests on quite highest adiabatic temperature rise.
ment, is not only the slowest heat generator, butgives the
small specimens and, except
for the permeability specimens,
lowest total temperaturerise. Since the cementis the active
none contained mass concrete. However, the values given
heat producerin a concrete mix,
the temperature rise of concan be used as a guide to the actual behaviorof mass concrete in service. First, it can be seen that the permeability of cretes with cement contents differing from 376 lb/yd3 (223
kg/m3) can be estimated closelyby multiplying the values
these low-cement-content mixtures is very small, a fraction

50
.
LL
I
W
c"
TIME
DAYS
Fig. 5.3.1-Temperature rise of mass concrete
(0.093 m2/day)or 0.042 ft2/hr (3.9 x

m2/hr), although as
can be seen from Table 5.3.4,the value of diffisivity can
vary substantially fromthis average value.
53.5-Mass concrete canbe affected by heat dissipatedto
or absorbed from its surroundings (Burks 1947). If the exterbe consideredto be expressedas
nal temperature variation can
a sinewave, and if, as in a dam, the body of concrete issufficiently thickso that the internal temperature variation is negligible compared to that of the exposed face, the range of
temperature variation any distance
in from the surfacecan be
computed from
where
R, = temperature range at distance
x from surface
R, = temperature range atthe surface (x = O)
e = base of natural logarithms(= 2.718)
x = distance from surface, fi (m)
h2 = difhsivity,ft%r <m2/hr>as defmed in 5.3.4
y = period of the cycleof temperature variation in days
shown on the curves by a factor representing the proportion

of cement.
1 @/day (0.093 m2/day),
For concrete with a diffusivity of
5.3.2-When
a portion of the cementis replaced bya poz(3.9 x
m'h) the penetration of the daily and
or 0.042 ft2h
zolan, the temperature rise curves
are greatly modified, par- the annual temperature cyclesis as shown in Fig.5.3.5.
ticularly in the early ages. While the effects of pozzolans
on the composition and fineness
of
differ greatly, depending
5.4-Heat dissipation studies
the pozzolan and cement used in combination, a rule of
5.4.1-Studies of the dissipation of heat from bodies of
thumb that has worked fairly wellon preliminary computamass concrete can be accomplishedby the use of charts and
tions has beento assume that pozzolan produces only about graphs, by hand computation,
or with finite element computer
50 percent as much heat as the cement that it replaces.
programs.
5.3.3-In general, chemical admixtures affect heat gener- When the body to be analyzedcan be readily approximated
first few hours after mixing by a known geometrical shape, charts are available for the diation of concrete only during the
and canbe neglected in preliminary computations. However, rect determination of heat losses.instance,
For Fig. 5.4.1 canbe
as in
in studies involving millions of cubic yards of concrete,
used to determine the loss
of heat in hollow and solid cylinders,
be applied onlyto prelimia dam, the above remarks should
slabs with one ortwo faces exposed, or solid spheres. The apnary computations, and the adiabatic temperature rise shouldplication of the values found on these graphs
can easily be
be determined for the exact mixture to beused in the mass
made toa wide variety of problems as
such
the coolingof dams
concrete starting at the proposed placing tempemture.
or thick slabsof concrete, the cooling of concrete aggregates,
5.3.4-The characteristic that determines
the relative abilartificial coolingof mass concrete by use of embedded pipes,
is its thermal
ity of heat to flow through a particular concrete
and the cooling of bridge piers. The following five examples
diffusivity which is defined
as:
are typical concrete cooling problems
which can be solved by
h2 = -K
Table 5.3.4- Diffusivity and rock type

Cf
where
Diffusivity
Diffusivity
h2
= diffusivity, ft2h
(m2/hr)
of concrete,
of concrete
coarse
f t h
K
= conductivity, Btu/ft-hr-F(kJ/m-hr-C)
$/day (m2/day)
aggregate
C
= specificheat,Btu/lb.F (kJkg-C)
0.058 (5.4)
1.39 (O. 129)
Quartzite
p
= density of the concrete,lb/ft3 &dm3)
1.22 (O.1 13)
Limestone
0.05 1 (4.7)
The value of diffusivity is largely affected by the rock
Dolomite
0.050 (4.6)
1.20(0.111)
type used in the concrete. Table 5.3.4 shows diffusivities
for concrete made with different rock types. The higher the
Granite
1.O3 (0.0%)
0.043 (4.0)
value of diffusivity,themorereadilyheatwillmove
0.84 (0.078)
0.035 (3.2)
Rhyolite
through the concrete. If the rock
type is not known, an avBasalt
0.032 (3.0)
0.77 (0.072)
eragevalue of diffusivitycan be takenas1.00ft2/day
METERS (NOMINAL)
useFig.
5.4.1.
ofFor
simplicity
presentation
of
examples
the
are in inch-pound units only;AppendixApresentstheexamples worked in SI (metric) units. In the examples below and
is followed:
Fig. 5.4.1, the following notation
t =time, days
h2 = diffusivity, ft? per day (m2/day)
D = thickness of concrete section,ft (m)
9, = initial temperature difference between concrete
and
ambient material, F(C)
0, = final temperature difference between concrete and
ambient material, F (C)
DISTANCE FROMSURFACE
- FEET
Example 1 (See Appendix Afor examples worked in SI units)

At acertain elevation an arch dam is 70 ft thick and has a
mean temperam of 100F. If exposed to air at 65 F, how long
will it take to cool
to 70 F? Assume h2= 1.20 f?/day.
Initial temperature difference,9, = 100- 65 = 35 F
Final temoerature difference.
,v,= 70 - 65 = 5 F
.9
The portion of the original heat remaining
is
Z!
Fig. 5.3.5-Temperature variation with depth
e*
2 = 0.142
35
From Fig. 5.4.1, usingthe slab curve
Then
1 = - =0.18D2
- = 7 4 0 0.18(70)
1.20
h
days
Example 2
A mass concrete bridge pierhas a horizontal cross section
of 80 F. Determine
of 25 x 50 ft, and is at a mean temperature
the mean temperature at various times up
to 200 days if the
pier is exposed to water at 40 F and if the diffusivityis 0.90
f$/day. For a prismatic body such
as this .pier, where heatis
moving towards each offour pier faces, the part of original
heat remaining maybe computed by fmding the part remaining in two infinite slabs of respective thicknessequal to the
two horizontal dimensions of the pier, and multiplying the
two quantities so obtained to get the total heat remainingin
the pier. Forthis two-dimensional use,it is better to find for
various times the heat losses associated with each direction
and then combine them
to find the total heat loss the
of pier.
Initial temperature difference,0, = 80 40 = 40 F
For the 25-ft dimension
and for the5 0 4 dimension
Fig. 5.4.1-Heat lossfrom solid bodies

of 0.00144t and 0.00036t

Then calculate numerical values
for times from10 to 200 days. See Table 5.4.1. These values
can be used with Fig.5.4.1 to obtain thee,,@, ratios for both
25-ft and 5 0 4 slabs. The product of these ratios indicates the
S T D * A C I 207-LR-ENGL L99b
Obb2947
0533200 8 2 7 W
207.1 R-33
MASS CONCRETE
Calculations for Example 2
Table 5.4.1T,
days
10
20
30
40
60
Temperature,
0.00036r
0.00144r
0.0144
0.0864
100
0.144
0.0144
0.0216
0.036
200
0.61
0.53
0.46
0.0576
0.35
O.19
0.87
0.73
0.00720.80 0.0288
0.01080.77 0.0432
0.73
0.67
0.57
0.40
heat remaining in the pier, and can be used to calculate the

fmal temperature differenceO., The values for
O, are added
to the temperatureof the surrounding waterto obtain mean
pier temperatures at varioustimes up to 200 days as shown
on Table 5.4.1.
Example 3
Granite aggregate at an initial temperature90
ofF is to be
precooled in circulating 35 F water
for use inmass concrete.
The largest particles canbe approximated as 6-in.-diameter
spheres. How long mustthe aggregate be immersed to bring
its mean temperature to40 F?
For granite, h2 = 1.O3 f~?/day
Initial temperature difference,e,= 90 - 35 = 55 F
Final temperature difference,
0, = 40 - 35 = 5 F
From Fig. 5.4.1, fore&

,,
3
= 0.050
D2
1.03
days
or approximately 17min.
Example 4
A 50-ft diameter circular tunnel
to be
is plugged with
mass
concrete with a diffusivity of 1.20 ft2/day. The maximum
mean temperature in the concrete is 110 F, andthe surrounding rock is at 65F.
Without artificial cooling, how long will it take for the
70 F, assuming the rock retemperature in the plug to reach
mains at 65F?
Initial temperature difference,0, = 110 - 65 = 45 F
Final temperature difference,0, = 70 - 65 = 5 F
-=e-
eo
45
= 0.11
From Fig. 5.4.1, fora solid cylinder,
h2t = 0.080
D2

0.64
0.0036
26 .
20
0.49
0.34
0.23
0.1 1
0.02 0.05
14
9
4
1
66
60
56
54
49
44
41
16
0.41
Example 5
A closure block of concrete initially at 105 F is to be

cooled to45 F to provide ajoint opening of 0.025 in. prior to
grouting contraction joints.
How long willit taketo cool the
massby circulating water at 38 F through cooling pipes
spaced 4ft 6 in. horizontally and5 ft O in. vertically. Assume
diffuconcrete to be made with granite aggregate having
a
sivity of 1.03 @/day.
Cross section handledby each pipeis (4.5)(5.0) = 22 ft?.
The diameter of an equivalent cylindercan be calculated
from 22= R 02/4
D = 5.3 ft
Initial temperahue difference,
0, = 105 - 38 = 67 F
Final temperature difference,0, = 45 - 38 = 7 F
= 0.09,
t = (0.050)(6/12)2= o.o12
em
Referring toFig. 5.4.1 and using the curve for the hollow
cylinder (since cooling from
is within cross section), for the
,,
calculated valueof e@
About the same results be

canachieved with greater economy if thenatural cold water of the riveris used for partof
the cooling. Controlof the rateof cooling mustbe exercised
to prevent thermal shock,and in many cases postcooling is
conducted intwo stages.
Assume river water is available 60
at F, cool to68 F, and
then switch to refrigerated water at 38 F. How much time
the cooling
will be taken in each operation, and what istotal
time?
For initial cooling,0, = 105 - 60 = 45 F and 0, = 68 - 60
=8F
temperature atvarious points along the length

of the cooling
coil. Fig. 5.4.2(a) can be used to determine the temperature
rise of the coolantin the pipe.
Using Fig. 5.4.2(a), one can determine e,#$, for a given
system of 1 in. OD cooling tubes embeddedin concrete of
known diffusivity. This use is illustratedon the figure.
how many days
Fig. 5.4.2(a) canalso be used to determine
of cooling flow will be
required to achieve a&sired 9J6,.
Using the figure to solve Example 5 of Section 5.4.2, for
which it is given that
Q
= 5 galfmin,
h2
= 1.03 $/day,
S
= 4.5 ft, and
ede, = (45 - 38) + (105 - 38) = 0.104
and assuming that tube length is 200 ft and cooling water
tube is 5 gal/&, one can read that
35 days will
flow in each
be required to accomplish the required temperature reduction. If tube lengthis 600 ft, 40days will be required, according to Fig. 5.4.2(a).
From Fig.5.4.1, for a hollow cylinder
Therefore
Forfinalcooling,8,=68-38=30Fand9,=45-38=
7F
Total time is 20 + 18 = 38 days, but of this, the timefor

The difference in results between the method using Fig.
using refrigeration has been cut by one-third.
is due to the fact thatthe latter
5.dzFor graphical solutions, Figs. 5.4.2(a), 5.4.2(b) and 5.4.1 and that using Fig. 5.4.2
of the cooling
5.4.2(c) can be used for the determination of all the charac- takes into account the variation in temperature
water alongthe pipe as it extracts heat from the concrete.
teristics of an artificial cooling system for mass concrete.
5.4.3-All the foregoing methods are only approximaFig. 5.4.2(a) can be used for
the determination of the actual
cooling accomplished in a given number
of days with a given tions; in the usual case hydration and coolinggo on simultaneously. For this more general casein which it is necessary
pipe spacing and flow of coolant. Fig. 5.4.2(b) gives more
to determine actual temperature gradients, Schmidts methdetail on the cooling
of the mass concrete by determining the
read em/eo
t-TIME-DAYS
I
I
6 1 8 9 D
rQ0
20
S - H O R I Z O N T A L S P A C I N G OT C I C C S - F E E T
I
~a
Based on use of 1 in.
m
I
O.D. tubing
Vertical spacing of pipes = 5 ft O in.
EXAMPLE SHOWN
FOR O = 3gaVmin
I? =
0.66/day
Note: 1.00 rnm = 3.28 fi;1.00 m3/min = 264 U.S.liquid gumin; 1.00 m2/hr= 10.8 f&hr; 1.00 m2/day = 10.8 f$/day
Fig. 5.4.2(a)-Ratio
ofjnal mean temperature differenceto initial temperature differencee,&),

F/F(C/C) (Rawhouser 1945)
~~
~~
~~
S T D - A C 1 207.3R-ENGL L 7 7 b
Obb2749 0533202 bTT

207.1 R35
MASS CONCRETE
Note: 1.00 mm = 3.28 ft; 1.00 m3/min = 264 U.S. liquid gamin; 1.00 m25r = 10.8 @h
1.00
,m2/day = 10.8 @/day
Fig. 5.4.2(b)-Ratio
off;tal mean temperature difference at a given lengthhfrom

the inlet to initial temperature dlrerence0,Je,
F/F(C/C)
S-MORIZONTAL
C
S P A C I N G Of P I P E S - F E E T
'I
2
Note: 1.00 mm = 3.28 ft; 1.00 m3/min = 264 U.S. liquid gal/min; 1 . 0 0 m2/hr = 10.8 @h,
1.00 m2/day = 10.8 ft%ay
Fig. 5.4.2(c)-Ratio
of temperature rise of water in cooling pipes to initial temperature diflerence0J0, F/F (C/C)

od (Rawhouser 1945) has proved

of immense value.The concept and application is so simple that it can be performed
quite easily with a desk calculator, and yet
for complicated
cases can easily be programmed for computer application.
its derivation, it can be said that Schmidt's
Without going into
method is based on the theorem thatthe
if body under question is considered tobe divided into a numberof equal elements, and if a number of physical limitations are satisfied
simultaneously, the temperature for a given increment
at the
of
end of an interval of time
is the average of the temperature
the two neighboring elementsat the beginningof thattime interval. The necessary physical relationshipis
2h'
where Az is the time interval,Ax is the length

of element, and
h2 is the diffusion constant.Units of At and Ax must be conh2 is expressed. Stated mathematsistent with units in which
ically, e,, 8,: and O r a r e the temperatures of three successive
elements at tune r, then attime t2
struction joint the rise is the averageof the two lifts, which
the
are generating heat at different rates
at any given time. At
exposed surface the adiabatic riseis zero since the heat is dissipated as quickly as it is generated from the concrete below.
Note that in the computation above two
steps are required to
the half-dayperiod; the
produce the temperature at the ofend
fmt step averagesthe adjacent temperatures, andthe second
stepaddstheadiabatictemperaturerise
of the concrete.
Normally where there are several stations considered in
each lift, the temperature distribution within the lift at any
given timecan be obtained with sufficient accuracy by calculating onlyhalf of the points at anyone time, as shown in the
tabulated solution. With the use of computers, the calculastresses can be easily detertions of heat and induced-thexmal
mined usingthe finite element method (Wilson
1%8;Polivka
may also be determined
and Wilson 1976). Thermal gradients
as part of a wider scope 2-D or 3-D nonlinear, incremental
Table 5.4.3(a)- For Example

6, adiabatic
temperature increments read from Table 5.3.1
The universal applicabilityof Schmidt's method is such
that it can be extended to cases of two-dimensional andthreedimensional heat flow. For
the two-dimensional casethe numerical constant2 is replaced by 4, and the averaging must
take into account temperatures
on four sides of the given element. For the three-dimensional case, the constant 2 is rebe carried on
placed by the number 6 and the averaging must
for six elements surrounding the cubic elementin question.
The following example demonstrates the use of Schmidt's
method in a practical problem.
Eunple 6(See
Afor this example worked m SI units).
Determine temperature rise throughout two 6-fi lifts of
mass concrete placedat two-day intervals.The concrete contains 376 lb/yd3 of Type II cement and has a diffusivity of
1.O0 f!?/day. Take the space interval
as 1.O ft.
Then the time interval needed for the temperature at the
center of the space to reach a temperature whichis the average of the temperaturesof the two adjacent elements is
Ti,days
Adiabatic temperature rise above

placing temperature e, F
(read fromFig. 5.3.1)
Table 5.44b)- For Example

6, calculated
temperature rise in concrete above placing
temperature, F
Time r, days
ground,
12
11
10
9
In Table 5.4.3(a) the adiabatic temperature rise (above the 7

6
temperature of concrete whenit was placed) in OS-day inter5
4
5.3.1 (except
vals for a 3-&y investigation is taken from Fig.
3
that the temperature rise at 0.5-day age is estimated). The
2
1
change in temperature A6 is determined by subtracting the
O
temperature at any time interval from that of the preceding
-1
-2
time interval.
-3
In the tabular solution, Table 5.4.3(b), the space interval
of
-4
-5
1.0 ft divides eachlift into six elements or stations. Bound-6
aries such as rock surface, construction joints, and exposed
surfaces must be clearly defined. Note that the adiabatic temasjust one-half of the
perature rise at the rock surface is taken
concrete rise since the
rock is not generating heat.At a conCOPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute
A0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
o
~~
STD.ACI 207.LR-ENGL L 9 9 b
Obb2947 0533204 472
MASS CONCRETE
m
207.1 R 4 7
Internal Movement Measuring Devices--These are used

to obtain measurementsof relative movements betweenthe
structure and the abutments
andor foundations. The devices
consist of essentially horizontal and vertical measurements,
using calibrated tapes, single-point and multi-point borehole
extensometers,joint meters, plmblines, dial gauge devices,
Whittemore gauges, resistance gauges, tilt meters, and inclinometer/deflectometers.Strain meters and no-stressstrain
devices may also be usedfor measuring internal movements.
5.Ii-lnstrumentation
Surfme MovementMeasuring Devces-External vertical
55.1-Factors or quantities that are often monitored in
and
horizontal movements are measured on the surface of
mass concrete dams and other massive structures include
structures
to determine total movements with respect to a
structural displacements, deformations, settlement, seepage,
fmed
datum
locatedoff the structure. Referencepoints may
piezometric levels in the foundation, and uplift pressures
be
monuments
or designated points on a dam crest, on the
within the structure. A wide variety of instruments can be
upstream
and
downstream
faces, at the toe
of a dam, or on
used in a comprehensive monitoring program. An instruappurtenant
structures.
Both
lateral,
or
translational,
and romentation program at a new dam may cost h m about 1 to
of
the
dam
are
of
interest.
Surface
movetational
movements
as highas 3 percent of the total construction cost
of the dam,
ments
are
usually
observed
using
conventional
level
and
depending on the complexity of instrumentation requireusposition surveys.The position surveys may be conducted
ments. Instruments installed in mass concrete to datein the
ing
triangulation,
trilateration,
or
collimation
techniques.
InUnited States have been primarily of the unbonded resisdividual
measurement
devices
include
levels,
theodolites,
tance-wire or Carlson-type meter, although a wide variety
of
calibrated survey tapes, EDM (electronic distance measurinstruments is being incorporated in current projects. The
ing) devices, and associated rods, targets, etc.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation discussed structural behavior
measurement practices (1976), and prepared a concrete dam VibrationMeasuringDevices-Variouscommercially
availableinstruments include thestrongmotionaccelU.S. Army Corps of Eninstrumentation manual (1987). The
erograph, peak recording accelerograph, and others.
gineersprepared an engineermanualoninstrumentation
55.2-Unbonded
resistance-wire or Carlson-type meters
(1980). Someof the instruments available for use
are:
include strain meters, stress meters, joint meters, defonnaHydrostatic Pressure Measuring Devices-These are
tion meters, pore pressure cells, and reinforcement In
meters.
generally piezometers, operating eitheras a closed or open
each of these devices,two sets of unbonded steel wiresare
system, or closed system Bourdon-type pressure monitoring
so arranged that when subjected to the to
action
be measured,
systems.Closedsystempiezometersconsist
of vibratA test
one set increases in tension, while the other decreases.
ing-wire units or Carlson-type devices, while open system
set, basedupon the Wheatstone Bridge, measures resistance
A varidevices used are commonly called observation wells.
and resistance ratios from which the temperature and
the
ation of the closed system unit is the well or pipe system,
strain and stress canbe determined. These instruments emwhich is capped so that a Bourdon-type gaugemay be used
bedded in fresh concrete are relatively durable in service,
for directly reading water pressure. Some similar systems
provide a stable zero reading, maintain their calibration, and
use pressure transducers rather than Bourdon gauges to meaare constructed so as to be dependable for a long time.
sure the pressure. Other types of piezometersare available
5.53-To properly monitor the performance of a mass
dams. These other types
but have not been used in concrete
concrete structure, it is often necessary
to collect instrumeninclude hydrostatic pressure indicators, hydraulic twin-tube
tation data over extended periods. It is important that the
piezometers, pneumatic piezometers, porous-tube piezomemonitoring equipmentbe as simple, rugged, and durableas
ters, and slotted-pipe piezometers.
possible and be maintained in satisfactory operating condiPressure or Stress Measuring Devices-Fou types have
tion. The instruments mustbe rugged enough to be embedbeen used: Gloetzl cell, Carlson load cell, vibrating-wire
ded in fresh concrete. When measuring strain, in particular,
gauges, and flat
jacks. The Gloetzl cell operates hydraulical- the instruments must be at least three times the length
the of
ly to balance (null)a given pressure, whilethe Carlson load
largest particlein the fresh concrete. Since they contain eleccell uses changing electrical resistance due to wire length
trical-sensing elements, they must not only be waterproof,
changescausedbyappliedpressure.Thevibrating-wire
in concrete.
but all material mustbe resistant to the alkalies
gauge, a variation of the Carlson cell, measures the change The necessity of maintaining proper operational characterisin vibration frequency causedby strain in a vibrating wire. tics creates many problems. Even a simple surface leveling
The flat jacks use a Bourdon-tube gauge to measure prespoint may be subject to damageby frost action, traffic, and
sures.
the crest, or vandalism. Observamaintenance operations on
tion wells and most piezometers
can be damagedby frost acSeepage Measurement Devices-Commonly used seeption, caving, corrosion of material used for casing, loss of
that inage monitoring devices include quantitative devices
measuring equipment in the hole, and by vandals dropping
cludeweirs,flowmeters,Parshallflumes,andcalibrated
are taken, the
catch containers. Howmeters and pressure transducer devic-rocks into the holes. Unless special precautions
es arealso sometimes used to determine quantity of flow in average life of installations of these types may be significantly reduced.To minimize damage, thetops of measuring
a pipe or open channel.
structural analysis. Ordinarily used only for very complex

mass concrete structures,this method of analysiscan evaluate complex geometryof a structure, nonlinear behaviorof
concrete, structure interaction with the foundation, fill, or
other elements suchas a reservoir, the effects of sequential
construction, thermal gradients, added insulation, and surface and gravity forces (Corps of Engineers 1994).

points and wells should

be capped and locked, and should
be
their serial designation. The documents listed were
the latest
as inconspicuous and close to the surrounding surface as
effort at the time this,documentwas revised. Since some of
be immediatepossible. Locations of installations should not
of docthese documentsare revised frequently, the user this
ument should check directly with
the sponsoring groupif it
ly adjacent to roads, trails, or water channels, and non-corrosive material should be used whereverpossible.
is desired to referto the latest revision.
Concrete surfacesmay be subjected to excessivestresses
American Concrete Institute
and cracking that will make meaningless
stress or strain
measurements obtained from surface-mounted instrumenta- 116R Cement and Concrete Terminology
tion. Reliable measurements of
strain and stress must come
20 1.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
from electrical measuring instmments embedded far enough 207.2R EffectofRestraint,VolumeChange,andReinfrom the surfaceto avoid the effects
of daily temperature cyforcement on Cracking
of Massive Concrete
cles. Ehbedded instruments are generallyaccessed by
207.4R Cooling and Insulating Systems
for Mass Concrete
means of conducting cables leading to convenient reading
207.5R Roller Compacted Concrete
stations located in dam galleries or at the surface of other
209R Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature
mass concrete structures.
Effects in Concrete Structures
If certain types of piezometer tubingare used, there are
2 1OR Erosion Resistanceof Concrete in Hydraulic Struccertain microbes that can live and proliferate within the tubes
tures
unless the water
in the system is treated with a biological in- 211.1 StandardPractice for SelectingProportions for
hibitor. Some antifreeze solutions previously placedin sysNormal, Heavyweight, andMass Concrete
tems develop a floc that results in plugging of the tubes.
2 12.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
Also, in certain environments, material in some gauges may 221R Guide for Use of Normal Weight Aggregates in
corrode and render them useless.
Concrete
Many devicesare removable and manybe calibrated on a
224R Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures
regular basis.However,mostinstrumentation
is fixed in
226.1R GroundGranulatedBlast-FurnaceSlag as aCeplace and not repairable when damage or malfunctioning is
mentitious Constituent in Concrete
discovered. Fixed devices can generally only be replaced
226.3R Use of Fly Ashin Concrete
from the surface by devices installed
in drilled holes and are, 304R Recommended Practice for Measuring,Mixing,
as
therefore, usually not replaceable. Other devices, such
Transporting, and Placing Concrete
surface monuments,are replaceable to some extent.
304.2R Placing Concreteby Pumping Methods
5.5.4-The specifc goals of data collection, transmittal,
304.4R Placing Concrete with Belt Conveyors
processing, review and action procedures
are to provide ac305R Hot Weather Concreting
curate and timely evaluation of data for potential remedial
306R Cold Weather Concreting
action relating to the safety of a structure. For credibility,
309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
enough instruments should
be installed to provide confirmation of all important data. It is often desirable to use more
ASTM
than one type of instrumentto facilitate the analysis.
Instruc 94 Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
mentation is also required in cases whereit is necessary to
C 125 StandardD e f ~ t i o nof
s Terms Relating
to Concrete
correlate with or c o b an unusual design donceptrelated
and
Concrete
Aggregates
to either.the structure or the service condition, or where the
C 150 Standard Speciflation for Portland Cement
instrumentation results may lead to greater refmements for
c 260 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining Admixfuture design.
tures for Concrete
5.5.5-It
is suggested that the reader review Chapter 3
c
494 Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures
for a reexaminationof the scope of laboratory studies that
for Concrete
are necessary for a meaningful interpretation of data obc
595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cetained from an embedded instrumentprogrm. Instrumenments
of any
tation should be partof the design and construction
C 618 Standard Specification for
Fly Ash and Raw
or Calmass concrete structure wherever it can be foreseen that a
cined Natural Pozzolan for Use as a Mineral Adfuture questionmayariseconcerning
the safetyofthe
mixture in Portland Cement Concrete
structure. Also, preparations essentialfor an accurate evalC
684
Standard Method of Making, Accelerated Curing,
uation of theinstrumentationresultsshouldhavebeen
and Testing of Concrete Compression Test Specimade through long-term, laboratory-sample studies to demens
termine progressive age relationshipsfor properties of the
StandardSpecificationforGroundIronBlast-Furc
989
actual project concrete.
nace Slag for Use in Concrete and Mortars
These publications may be obtained from the followingorCHAPTER &REFERENCES
ganizations:
6.1-Specified and recommended references

The documents of the various standards-producing organi- American Concrete Institute
zations referred to in this document are listed below with
P.O. Box 9094
Farmington Hills, MI 48333-9094
Mather, Bryant, Dec. 1974, Use of Concrete of Low Portland Cement

Content in Combination with Pozzolans and Other Admixtures in Construction of Concrets Dams: ACI JOURNAL, Prvcedngs, V. 71, No. 39,
ASTM
PP. 589-599.
100 Barr Harbor Drive
Mc-,
Francis G., and Pierce, James S., 1988, Comparison of Joint
Shear Seength for Conventional and Roller-Compacted Comte, Roller
West Conshohocken, PA 19428
Compacted ConcreteII Proceedings, ASCE. pp. 151-169.
Polivka Milos; Pirtz, David; and Adams, Robert F., 1%3, Studies of
Creep in Mass Concrete, Symposium on Mass Concrete, SP-6. American
6.2-Cted references
Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp.257-285.
American ConcreteInstitute, 1963, Symposium on Mass Concrete.SP-6,
Polivka R M., and Wilson, E. L.. 1976, Finite Element Analysis of
Detrois 427 pp.
Nonlinear Heat Transfer Problems, SESMReport No. 76-2, Univmity of
Bogue, R.H..
1949, Studies on the Volume Stability of Portland
Caliiomia, Berkeley, 98 pp.
Cement Pastes, PCA FeUowship Paper No. 55, National Bureau of StanPortland Cement Association, 1979, Concrete for MassiveStructures,*
dards, Washington, D.C.
Pubkation No.IS128T. 24 pp,
Bur& S. D., Sept. 1947, Five-Year Temperature Records of a Thin
Pr
c
ie,Walter H., and Higginson, Elmo C., 1963, Burcau of ReclamaConcrete Darn, ACI JOURNAL,Proceedings V. 44,No. 1, pp.65-76.
tion Practices in Mass Concrete: Symposium on Mass Concrete, SP-6,
Carlson. Roy W., Jan.-Feb. 1937. Drying Shrinkage of Large Concrete
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. 77-87.
Membm, AC1 JOURNAL, P m & g s V. 33, No. 3, pp.327-336.
Rawhouser, Clarence, Feb. 1945, Cracking and TemperatureControl of
Carlson, R W.,1979, Manual for the Use 0fStrui.n Meters and Other
Mass Concrete, AC1Jorn& Proceedings V. 41, No.4, pp. 305-348.
Imtnunenr~in Concrete Stn~cncns,Carlson Instruments, Campbell.
Raphael, J. M.,Mar.-Apr.1984,TensileStrength
of Concrete,AC1
Carlson, RoyW.: Houghton, Donald L.; and Polivka, Milos, July 1979,
JOWAL,Proceedings V. 81, pp. 158-165.
Causes and Control of Cracking in Unreinforced Mass Concrete, ACI
Rhodes, J. A., 1978, Thermal Properties, Significance of Tem and
JOURNAL, Pmceedings V. 76, No. 7, pp. 821-837.
Pmpenies of Concrete and Concrete Making Materials, STP-169B.
Davis, Raymond E.1963. Hisrorical Account
of Mass Concrete, S y m p
AS, Philadelphia, pp. 242-266.
sirun of M a u Concrete,SP-6, American Concrete Institute. Detroit,
pp. 1-35.
Roberts, H. H., June 1951. Cooling Materials forMass Concrete, AC1
Dusinbem, D. M., Nov. 1945, Numerical Methodsfor Transient Heat
JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 47, No. IO. pp. 821-832.
Flow: Tmrrcacriom, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, V. 67,
Ross, A. D., and Bray,J. W., Jan. 1949,The Prediction of Temperatures
PP. 703-772.
in Mass Concrete by NumericalCornputarion, Magazine of Concrete
Ginzburg, Ts. G.; Zinchenko, N. A.; and Skuomva, G. F., 1%. ConReseurch (London), V. 1, No. 1, pp. 9-20.
crete for Krasnoyarsk Dam. Gidrutekhnecheskoe QrofeLnvo(Moscow),
Saucier, K. L., June 1977, Dynamic Ropertiesof Mass Concrete, MisNo. 2, pp. 612. (
iRussian)
cellaneous Faper No. C-77-6.U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment
Graham J. R, 1978, Design and Analysis of Auburn Dam-Volume
Station, Vicksburg,24 pp.
Four, Dynamic Studies: U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver.
Silveira, J.; Carvalho, R, paterno, N.; and Kupennan, S., 1982, GroutHarboe, E. M., Dec. 1961, Pmpedes of M a s s Concrete in Bureau of
ing of Contraction Joints in ConcreteStrucmres at Aqua Vermelha DamLabomoly, U.S.
Reclamation Dams: Repon No.C-1009,Concrete
Instrumentation and Behavior, T-acrom.
14th Intemational Congress
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, 6 pp.
on Large Dams(Rio de Janeiro, 1982). Intemational Commission on Large
Hess, John R,1992, Rapid Load Strength Testing for Three Concrete
Dams, Paris.
Dams, Associationof State Dam S a f q Officials Annual ConferenceProSteinour, Harold H., Sept. 1960. Concrete Mix Water-How Impure
ceedings (Baltimot~),Lexington, pp. 187-194.
Can
It Be? Journal, PCA Research and Development Laboratories,V. 2,
Higginson, Elmo C.; Wallace, George B.; and
Elwood L., 1963,
No. 3, pp. 3248.
Effect of Maximum Size Aggregate on Compressive Strength of Mass
TennesseeValleyAuthority,
1939, The Noms Projq Technical
Concrete, Symposium on Mass Concrete, SP-6, American Concrete InstiReporr No. 1, Knoxville.
tute, Detroit, pp. 219-256.
Tuthill, Lewis H., July 1967, Advanced Concrete Practices,
Civil EngiHoughton, D. L., May 1972, Concrete Strain Capacity Tests-Their
V
.
37,
No.
7,
pp.
40-44.
neering-ASCE,
Economic Implications: Proceedings. Engineering Foundation Research
Tuthill, Lewis K.,Dec. 1980, Better Gradingof Concrete Aggregates,
Conference, Pacific Grove,
pp. 75-99.
Concrete International: Design & Construction. V. 2, No. 12, pp. 49-51.
Houghton, D. L., Dec. 1976, Determining Tensile Strain Capacityof
Tuthill, LewisH.. Sept. 1943, Developments in Methods
of Testing and
Mass Concrete: AC1 JOURNAL, Pmceedings V. 73, No. 12, pp. 691-700.
Specifying Coarse Aggregate, AC1 JOURNAL,Proceedings V. 39, No. 1,
Houghton. D. L.,IWO,Measures Being Taken for Reventionof Cracks
p ~21-32.
.
in Mass Concrete at Dworshak and Libby Dams,
Tmnracrions, loth InterTuthill, Lewis H., Jan. 1950, Inspectionof Mass and Related Concrete
national Congress on Large Dams (Montreal, 1970), International ComConstruction, AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 4 6 , No. 5. pp. 349-359.
mission on Large Dams, Paris.
Tuthill, LewisH.,June 1953, Vibration of Mass Concrete: AC1 JOURHoughton, Donald L.,Oct. 1969, Concrete Volume Change for DworNAL, Proceedings V. 49. No. 10, pp. 921-932.
shak Dam,Proceedings, ASCE, V. 95, PO2, pp. 153-166.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1949, Handbook for Concrete and
Houghton, D.L., and Hall, D, J.. Mar. 1972, Elimination of Grout on
Cemnr, WaterwaysExperimentStation,Vicksburg,
(with supplements
Horizontal Construction Joints at Dworshak Dam, ACI JOURNAL,Proissued quarterly).
ceedings V.69, No. 3,pp. 176-178.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, July 1959. July 1963, June 1966, InvesHouk, Ivan E., Jr.; Borge, Orville
E.; and Houghton, Donald L.,July
tigation of Methods of Preparing Horizontal Construction Joints in Con1969, Studies of Autogenous Volume Change in Concrete for Dworshak
crete, TechnicalReporr No. 6-518,WatenvaysExperimentStation,
Dam, AC1 JOURNAL,Proceedings V. 6 6 , No.7, pp. 560-568.
Vicksburg, 28 pp. Also, Report2, Testsof Joints in Large Blocks, 20 pp..
Hurd, M.K., 1989, Formworkfor Concrete, SP-4.5th Edition, American
and Report 3, Effectsof Iron Stain on Joints, 22 pp.
Concrete Institute, Detroit, 475
pp.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Aug.1994,Nonlinear,Incremental
ICOLD, 1964, Tmacrionr, 8th International Congress on Large
Dams,
Structural Analysisof Massive ConcreteStructures, ETL 11 10-1-365.
(Edinburgh. 1964),Intemational Commissionon Large Dams,Paris, V. 2.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Feb. 1994. Standard Practice for ConItaipu Binacional, Dec. 1981,
The Itaipu Hydroelectric Project, Design
crete for CivilWorks Structures,EM 11 10-2-2000.
and Construction Features.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Sept. 1990, Gravity Dam Design: EM
Klein, Alexander; Pirtz, David; and Adams,
Robert F., 1963, Ther11 10-2-2200.
mal Properties of Mass Concrete During Adiabatic Curing,Symposium
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Sept. 1980, Tnstrumentation for Conon Mass Concrete, SP-6, American Concrete Institute, Detroit, pp. 199crete Structures: EM 1110-2- 4300.
218.
Liu, T.C., McDonald, J. E., May 1978, Prediction
of Tensile Strain
U.S. BureauofReclamation,1975,
Concrere Manclal 8th Edition,
Capacity of Mass Concrete, AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V.75, No. 5, pp.
Revised, Denver, 627 pp.
192- 197.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1949. Cooling of Concrete Dams: Final
Ore.

~~
Reports. Boulder CanyonProject,F%t VII-Cement and Concrete Investigations, Bullcrin No. 3, Denver, 236
pp.
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553 pp.
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Properties of Mass Concrete in
United States and Foreign Dams, Reporr No. C-880. Concrete Laboratofy,
Denver, 3 pp.
US. Bureau of Reclamation, Oct. 1987, Concrete Dam Instrumentation
M
d Denver, 153 pp.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1981, Controlof Cracking in Mass Concrete Structures, Engineering Monogmph No. 34,Denver, 71 pp.
Wallace, GeorgeB., and Ore, Elwood L,1960, Structural and Lean Mass
Concrete a~ AEected by Water-RedUCing,Set-RetardingAgents, S~nrpos i m on Effectof War-Reducing Admirtum and Set-Rerarding Aah&ures
on Pmperties ofConcme, SV-266, ASTM, Philadelphia.pp. 3&%.
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6.3-Additional
references
ACI Committee 31 1, 1992, AC1 Manual of Concrete Inspection, SP2(92), 8th Edition, American ConcreteInstitute, Detroit, 200 pp.
Brazilian committee on Large Dams, 1982, Main Brazilian DamsDesign Construction and performance.
Carlson, Roy W., and Thayer, DonaldF?,Aug. 1959,SurfaceCooling of
Mass Concrete to Prevent Cracking, ACI JOURNAL, Pmceedings V. 56,
NO. 2. PP. 107-120.
Copen, M. D.; Rouse, G.C.; and Wallace. G.B., Feb. 1%2, *European
Practice in Design and Construction of Concrete Dams, U.S. Bureau of
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(New York, 1958), International Commission on
Large Dams,Paris, V.3.
ICOLD, 1962, Trunsmiom, 7th International Congress on Large D a m s
(Rome, 1961). International Commission on Large
Dams, paris,V. 1.
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of Dams, U.S. Committee on Large Dams, 3rd Edition, Denver.
Japan Dam Association, Oct. 1963. New Horizons-Topmost Dams of
the World
Memel. T.W.,Jan. 1963, Register of D a m in the United States, US.
Committee on Large Dams, p. 167. (Currently maintained in unpublished
fonn by U.S. Committee on Large Dams).
Rice, WalterH., Oct. 1982, Control of Cracking in Mass Concrete
Dams, Concrete International: Design & C o m m w n , V. 4, NO. 10, pp.
36-44.
Semenza. C., and Giuseppe, T., Sept. 1951, Le Barrage de Pieve di
Cadore, Travaux (Paris).
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Concrete Practices, AC1 JOURNAL, Pmceedings V. 69, No.8, pp. 481491.
TennesseeValleyAuthority,1950,TheKentucky
Project, Technical
Report No. 13, Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Aug. 1985, Eaahquake Analysis and
Design of Concrete Gravity Dams, ETL. 11 10-2-303.
US. Army Corps of Engineers, May 1994, Arch Dam Design, EM
1110-2-2201.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, May 1983,
Waterstops and Other Joint
Materials,EM111&2021.
U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers, June1 9 9 1 , Fracture Mechanicsof Concrete HydraulicStructures,ETL 1 1 10-8-16(FR).
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1992, Concrete Manual, Part 2, 9th Edition, Denver,900 pp.
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, 1977,Design of Arch Dams, Denver,
882 pp.
APPENDIX-METRIC
EXAMPLES
Ejvunpk A-1
At a certain elevation an arch
dam is 21.3 m thick andhas
a mean temperature of 38 C . If exposed to air at 18 C , how
long willit take tocool to 21 C? Assume h2 = O.111 m2 per

dayInitial temperature difference,8, = 38 -18= 20 C
Final temperature difference,
0, = 21 18 = 3 C
The portion of the original heat remaining
is
-=em
e.
20
= 0.15
From Fig.5.4.1 using the slab curve, the value

of h2t&
correspondingto eJe0 = 0.15, is 0.18.
Then
t = -0.180
-
O.lE(21.3) = 740
0.111
days
Example A-2
A mass concrete bridge pier has a horizontal
cross section
C. Deterof 7.6 x 15.2 m,and is at a mean temperature of 27
mine the mean temperature at various times up
to 200 days
if the pieris exposed to water at4 C and if the diffusivityis
0.084 m2/day. For a prismaticbody such as this pier, where
heat is moving towards each of four pier faces, the partof
original heat remaining may be computed
by finding thepart
remaining intwo infinite slabs of respective thickness equal
the pier, and multiplying
to the two horizontal dimensions of
the total heat remaining
the two quantities so obtained to get
in the pier. Forthis two-dimensional use,it is better to find
for various times the heat losses associated with each
direction and then combine them to find
the total heatloss of the
pier.
Initial temperature difference,8, = 27 - 4 = 23 C

For the 7.6 m dimension
and for the 15.2 m dimension
Then calculate numerical values

of 0.00145t and 0.00036t
for timesfrom 10to 200 days. See Table A5.4.1. These valratios for
uescan be used withFig. 5.4.1 to obtain the
both 7.6-m and 15.2-mslabs. The product of these ratios indicates the heat remaining in the pier, andbecan
used to calculate the final temperature difference
e,. The valuesfor e,,
are added to the temperature of the surrounding water
to obtain mean pier temperatures at various
timesup to 200 days,
A.5.4.1.
as shown on Table
Example A-3
Granite aggregate at an initial temperature
of 32 C is to be
precooled in circulating2 C water for usein mass concrete.
The largestparticles canbe approximatedas 150-mm-diame-
Table A.5.4.1-Example
A-2: calculations in SI (metric) units
lime,
daw
10
20
30
40
60
100
200
0.0145
0.0290
0.0435
0.0580
0.0870
0.35
0.1450
0.2900
0.0036
0.0108
0.0144
0.0216
0.036
0.072
0.46
0.19
0.87
0.80
0.77
0.73
0.67
0.57
0.40
ter spheres. How long must the aggregate be immersed to

4
bring its mean tempemture to C?
For granite havinga diffusivity h2 of 0.096 m'/&y
Final temperature difference,0, = 4 - 2 = 2 C
From the solid sphere curve of Fig. 5.4.1

the value ofh2rlD2
corresponding to e,,&, = 0.07 can be found tobe 0.055.
19
0.64
0.49
0.41
0.34
0.23
0.1 1
0.02
15
11
9
8
5
3
O
15
13
12
9
7
4
contractionjoints.How long willit take to cool themass by

circulating water at 3 C through cooling pipes spaced1.40
horizontally and 1-50m vertically. Assume concrete to be
made withgranite aggregate having
a diffusivity h2 of 0.096
m2/day.
Cross section handled by each pipe is (1.40)(
SO) =1 2.10
m2
The diameter of an equivalent cylindercan be calculated
as x02/4 = 2.10 m2
Therefore
Therefore
and
D = 1.63 m
or approximately 19 minutes.
Example A-4
A 15.2-m-diameter circular tunnel is to be plugged with
mass concrete witha diffusivity of 0.1 11 m2/day. The maximum mean temperature in the concrete43
is C, and the surrounding rock is at18 C.
Without artificial cooling, how long will it take for the
C, assuming the rock retemperature in the plug to reach 21
mains at 18C?

Final temperature difference,8, = 21 -18 = 3 C
From the solid cylinder curve of Fig. 5.4.1, the value of

h*@ corresponding to @J,@,
= 0.12 can be found to be
0.075.
Therefore
Example A-5
A closure block of concreteinitially at 41

C is to be cooled
to 7 C to provide ajoint opening of0.64 mmprior to grouting

Final temperature difference,0, = 7 - 3 = 4 C
Referring toFig. 5.4.1 and using thecurve for the hollow

cylinder (since cooling isfrom within the crosssection), for
,,
h2tlD2 can be foundto be 1.O.
the calculated valueof e&
Therefore
About the same results can

be achieved with greater economy if the natural cold water
of the river is used for part of
the cooling. Controlof the rateof cooling must be exercised
to prevent thermalshock, and in many cases postcooling is
conducted intwo stages.
Assume river water is available at C,
16 cool to 20C,and
then switchto refrigerated waterat 3 C. How much timewill
be taken in each operation, and what
is total cooling time?
For initial cooling, 0, = 41 - 16 = 25 C and 0, = 20 16=4C
From Fig. 5.4.1 for a hollow cylinder
Therefore
Normally where there are several stations considered in

each life, the temperature distribution within the lift at any
given time canbe obtained with sufficientaccuracy by calculating onlyhalf of the points at anyone time, as shown in the
tabulated solution,Table A.5.4.3(b).
Table A.5.4.3(ab For Example A-6, adiabatic

temperature increments read from Table 5.3.1
Adiabatic temperature rise
Forfinalcooling,Oo=2O-3=17Cand8,=7-3=4C
above concrete placing tempera-
Time, days
m e ,c
0.0
AO
0.5
12
12
1.o
18
22
24
1.5
2.0
2.5
4
2
1
25
26
3.O
Total timeis 23 + 18 = 4 1 days, but

of this, the time for using refrigerationhas been cut byone third.
Example A-6 (see 5.4.3)
Determine the temperature rise throughout
two 1.8-m lifts
of mass concrete placed at two-day intemals. The concrete
contains 223kg/m3of Type II cement andhas a diffusivity of
0.093 m2/day.Take the space intervalas 0.3 m.
Then the time interval needed for the temperature at the
center of the space to reach a temperature which
is the average of the temperatures of thetwo adjacent elementsis
In Table A.5.4.3(a), the adiabatic temperaturerise (above

the temperature the
of concrete whenit was placed) 0.5day
in
intervals for a three-day investigation
is taken from Fig. 5.3.1
(except that the temperature
rise at 0.5-day ageis estimated).
The change in temperature AO is determined by subtracting
the preceding
the temperatureat any time interval from ofthat
time interval.
In the tabular solution,Table A.5.4.3(b), the space interval of 0.3 m divides each lift into six elements. Note that
the
adiabatic temperature rise is taken as just one-half of the
concrete rise since the rock is not generating heat. At the
construction joint, the rise is the average of the two lifts,
which are generating heat at different rates at any given
time. At the exposed surface, theadiabatic rise is zero because the heat is dissipated as quickly as it is generated from
the concrete below.

Table A.5.4.3(b)For ExampleA-6, calculated

temperature rise in concrete above placing
temperature, C
T i e r, days
Distance
0.0 0.5
1.5
1.0
above
2.0
2.5
Ael = 2C A&
3.6
3.3
3.0
2.7
2.4
2.1
1.8
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.3
0.0
O
O
12
12
12
12
12
6
6.3
6.6
-0.9
-1.2
-1.5
-1.8
O
O
O
O
O
O
12
12
I8
12
12
18
-15
16
19.4 20.4
17.6 18.6
16.818.8
13
7.2
14
1.5
O
20.3
21.2
9
3
12.2 I 8 2
19.8 21.8
IS
3.0
A&2=6C
AOl = 1C
16.6 17.6
16.5
9.5 11.5
12
15
12
= IC
5.8 12.2
ae,= 12c
2.2
0.8
O
0.4
0.2
O
O
~~
S T D - A C 1 207-1R-ENGL 1 7 7 b
Obb27q9 0531210 77b
Mass Concrete
The AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

was founded in 1905 as a nonprofit membership organization dedicated to
public service and to representing user interests in the field
of concrete. It
gathers and distributes information on the improvement of design, construction, and maintenance of concrete products and structures. The work of the
Institute is done by individual members and by volunteer committees.
The committees, as well as the Institute as a whole, operate under a
consensus format, which assures all members the right to have their views
considered. Committee activities include the development of building codes
and specification standards; analysis of research and development results;
presentation of construction and repair techniques; and education.
Anyone interested in the activities of the Institute is encouraged to seek
membership.Therearenoeducationaloremploymentrequirements.Engineers, architects, scientists, constructors, and representatives from a variety of companies and organizations form the Institute membership.
All members are eligible and encouraged to participate in committee activities that relate to their specific areasof interest. Membership information,
a publications catalog, and listings of educational activities are available.
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AC1 207.

american concrete institute

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

First Printing, June 1997

AC1 Manual of Concrete Practice

American Concrete Institute

This document may already contain reference to these

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

Members ofCommittee 207 who voted on the 1996 revisions:

ACI committee reports, guides, standard practices, design

cause excessive seepageand shortening of the service life of the st-,

Keywords: admixtures; aggregategradation; aggregate size; aggregates; air

AC1 COMMITIEE REPORT

CHAPTER 1"INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL

1963).* Tremendous progress

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

concrete. The mixture for interior concrete contained

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

CHAPTER 2-MATERIALS AND MIX

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

more importantly, because experience has shown that in

entrainment in lean mass concrete

No. 16 (1.18 mm)

2 5 A o a r s e aggregateis definedas gravel, crushed gravel,

crushing and grinding equipment

Obb29q9 0531177 b1q

Obb2747 0533378 550

Maximum Size Aggregate,mm

Maximum Sire Aggregate, in.

Fg. 2.5.6-Efect of aggregate size and cement contenton

Grading requirements for coarse

Table 2.5.9- Ranges in each size fraction

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

AC1 COMMIITEE REPORT

fine aggregate to total aggregate by absolute volume

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

Table 3.2.1-Cement/water requirements and strengths

* smgth at 180 days

Compressive strengthand elastic propertiesof mass concrete

5.8 5.4 3950

3.2.6-Concrete thatisstrong in compressionisalso

may be increased up to30 percent

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

Elastic properties of mass concrete

Instantaneous and sustained modulus of elasticity,* psi x 106 (MPa x 104,

AC1 COMMillEE REPORT

E2 = sustained modulus aftcr l o o 0 days underload

containing large-size aggregate. Modem electronic devices

discusses the prediction

Volume change andpermeability of mass concrete

depending on the chemical composition and the degree of

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

pacity rather than to strength. When this

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leach from concrete. Surfaces of tunnel linings, retaining

tion. X and Y are normal and shear stresses, respectively.

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

stant reading of approximate moisture content of sand, (6)

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

(b)High-pressure water-blast treatment