Aci 207.2R-95

A C 1 207.
2R
95 W 066271.19 0520873 787
AC1 207.2R-95
Effect of Restraint, Volume Change,

and Reinforcement on Cracking
of Mass Concrete
Reported by AC1 Committee 207
american concrete institute

BOX 19150, REDFORD STATION
DETROIT, MICHIGAN
COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

Licensed by Information Handling Services
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A C 1 2 0 7 . 2 R 75
0 b b 2 9 4 9 0520872 b L 3
First Printing, March 1995

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A C 1 207.2R
95
= 0662949 0520873 5 5 T
AC1 207.2R-95
Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and Reinforcement

on
Cracking of Mass Concrete
Reported by AC1 Committee 207
James L. Cope
chairman
Edward A. AMU-NIU
Fred A. Anderson
Howard L. B o g s
Dan A. Bonikowsky
Richard A. Bradshaw, Jr.
Fdward G. W. Busht
Robert W. Cannon*
vi chairinan
Luis H.Diaz
limothy P.Dolen
Kenneth D.Hansen
Mass*
Gary R.
A
l
f
d T. McCarthy
Terry
James E.Oliverson
Robert F.Oury
Raphaels
M.
Jerome.
Ernest K. Schrader
Stephen B. Tatrci*
L. West
*Members of the task group who prepad this report.

'Chairman of the task group who prepared the report.
becead.
Members of the committee voting on proposed revisions:

John M. Scanlon
Chairman
Howard L. Boggs
Dan A. Bonikowsky
Richard A. Bradshaw, Jr.
Robert W. Cannon
AhmedF.ChI;libi
James L.Cope
Luis H.Diaz
Timothy.'F Dolen
Michael I. Hammons
Kenneth D. Hansen
Allen J. Hulshizer
Meng K.Lee*
Gary R. Mass
Robert F.Oury
Ernest K. Schrade1
Glenn S.Tarbox
Stephen B. Tam
Terry L. West
*chairman,2072R Task Group.
This reportpresents adiscussion ofthe gects of heat generation and vol-
rise (i concrete); tensile strength; thermal expansion; volume change;

walls.
wne change on the design and behavior of reinforred mass concrete elements and structures. Particular emphasis is placed on the&ectsof
restmint on cracking and the Mects of controlled placing temperatures,

coltCrete strength requirements,and type and.fwness of cement on volume
change. Formulas are presented for determining the amounts of reinforcing steel neededto control thesize and spacing of cmcks to specified limits
under varying conditions ofrestmint and volume change.
Keywords adiabatic conditions; age; cement types; concrete dams; concrete slabs, cooling; cracking (fracturing); crackpropagation;crack
of
width andspacing; creep proprties; drying shrinkage; foundations; heat
hydration; heat transfer; machine bases; mass concrete; modulus of clasticity; moisture content; placing; portland ment physical prOpemes; portp o Z z 0 h S ; reinforced concrete; reinforcing steels;
land
cements;
Festrainh; shrinkage; stresses; structural design; temperature; temperature
AC1 Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and

Commentaries are intended for guidance in designing, planning, executing, or inspecting construction and in preparing
specifications. Referenceto these documents shall not be made
in the Project Documents.If items found in these documents
are
desired to be part of the Project Documents, they should be
phrased in mandatory language and incorporatedin the Project
Documents.
CONTENTS
Chapter 1-Introduction, p. 207.2R-2
1.1-Scope
1.2-Defmition
1.3-Approaches to control of cracking
Chapter %Volume change, p. 207.2R-3

2.1-Heat generation
2.2-Moisture contents and drying shrinkage
2.3-Ambient, placement, and minimum service temperatures
2.4-Placement temperature
2.5-Minimum temperature in service
2.6-Heat dissipation and cooling
AC1 2072-95 ~upersedcsAC1 207.2R-90 and beuune ~ f f e e tJanuary
i~
1,1995.
Copyright O 1990, American Comete
2072R-1
Institute.
The 1995 revisions c o n s i s t e d of many minor editorial and typographical corrections

thmghcub as well as some additionalexplanatory information.
All rights reserved i n c l d i g rights of repduaion and use in any form or by any
m a n s , including the making of copies by any photo process, or by any electronic or
mechanical device.printed, written, or oral, or IccMdingfor soundor visual repmduction or for use. in any knowledge or retrieval system device, unlcss permission in writing is obtained fmm the copyfight proprietors
AC1 COMMlllEE REPORT
2072R-2
2.7-Summary and
examples
Chapter %Properties,p. 2073R-8

3. l-General
3.2-Strength requirements
3.3-Tensile strength
3.AModulus of elasticity
3.5Creep
3 .&Thermal properties of concrete
Chapter 4Restraint, p. 207.2R-11
4. l-General
4.2-Continuous external restraint
4.3-Discontinuous external or end restraint
4.4-Internal restraint
1.2-Definition
Mass concrete is defined in AC1 116R as: Any volume
of concrete with dimensions large enough to require that
measures be taken to cope with the generation of heat
at- and
tendant volume change to minimize cracking. Reinforced
mass concrete inthis reprt refers to concretein which reinthat may be caused
forcement is utilized to limit crack widths
by external forces or by volumechange due to t h e d
changes, autogenous changes and
dryiig shrinkage.
1.3-Approaches
to control of cracking
All concrete elements and structures
are subject to volume
change in varying degrees, dependent upon the makeup, configuration, and environment of the concrete. Uniform volif the element or
ume change will not produce cracking
structure
is
relatively
free
to
change
volume
in
all directions.
Chapter F r a c k widths, p. 207.2R-16
This
is
rarely
the
case
for
massive
concrete
members
since
5.1-General
is
ofsize
alone
usually
causes
nonuniform
change
and
there
5.2-Limitations
ten sufficient restraint either internally
or externally to pro5.3-Calculations
duce cracking.
Chapter 6-Application, p. 207.2R-17
The measures usedto control cracking depend to a large
6.lGeneral
of the situation andthe seriousness
extent on the economics
6.2-Volume change plus flexure
of cracking if not controlled. Cracks are objectionable where
6.3-Volume change without flexure
their size and spacing compromise the appearance, service6.4-Recommendation for minimum reinforcement
ability, function,or strength of the structure.
6.5-Design procedure
While cracks should be controlled to the minimum practicable widthin all structures, the economics
of achievingthis
Chapter -References, p. 2073R-24
goal must be considered. The change in volume
be can
min7.1-Recommended references
imized by such measures
as reducing cement content, replac7.2-Cited references
ing
part
of the
cement
with
pozzolans,
precooling,
7.3-Additional references
postcooling, insulating to control rate
theof heat absorbed or
in
lost,
and
by
other
temperature
control
measures outlined
Appendix, p. 207.2R-25
AC1
207.1R
and
AC1
207.4R.
Restraint
is
modified
by
joints
Notation
intended to handle contraction
or expansion and alsoby the
Metric conversions
rate at which volume change takes place. Construction joints
may also beused to reduce the number of uncontrolled
CHAPTER 1-INTRODUCTION
cracks thatmay otherwise be expected. By appropriate considerationof the preceding measures,
it is usually possibleto
l.l-scope
This report is primarily concerned with limiting the width control crackingor at least to minimize the crack widths. The
of cracks in structural members that occur principally from subject of crackcontrol in mass concrete is also discussed in
Chapter 7 of AC1 224R and in Reference 1. The topic of
restraint of thermal contraction. A detailed discussion
of the
evaluation and repair of
cracks in concreteis covered in deeffects of heat generation and volume changes on the design
in
AC1
224.1R.
tail
andbehavior of mass reinforcedconcreteelementsand
In the design of reinforced concrete structures, cracking
is
structures is presented. It is written primarily to provide
presumed
in
the
proportioning
of
reinforcement.
For
this
reaof concrete materials,mix requireguidance for the selection
son, the designerdoes not normally distinguish between tenments, reinforcement requirements, and construction
proce
sion cracks due to volume change and those
due to flexure.
dures necessary to control the size and spacing of cracks.
many
of
the
previously
recommended
Instead
of
employing
Particular emphasis
is placed on the effect
of restraint to volmeasures
to
control
volume
change,
the
designer
may
ume change in both preventing and causing cracking and the
choose
to
add
sufficient
reinforcement
to
distribute
the
need for controlling peak concrete temperature. The quality
so
that
one
large
crack
is
replaced
by
many
smaller
cracking
of concrete for resistance to weathering is not emphasized in
cracks of acceptably small widths. The selection
of the necrecommendingreducedcementscontents;however,it
essary amount and spacing of reinforcement
to accomplish
be sufficiently
should be understood that the concrete should
this depends on the extent of the volume change to be exThe report can
durable to resist expected service conditions.
pected, the spacingor number of cracks which would occur
be applied to any concrete structure with a potential unfor
without the reinforcement, and the ability
of reinforcement
acceptable cracking; however, its general applicationis to
to distribute cracks.
massive concrete members18 in. or more in thickness.

A C 1 2 0 7 - Z R 95
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CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE
207.2R-3
The degree to which the designer will either reduce volume changes or use reinforcement for control
of cracks in a
given structure depends largely on the massiveness of the
structure itself and on the magnitude of forces restraining
volume change.No clear-cut line canbe drawn to establish
be taken to control the
the extent to which measures should
c h g e in volume. Design strength requirements, placing
restrictions, and the environment itself are sometimes so seto
vere that it is impractical to prevent cracking by measures
minimize volume change. On the other hand, the designer
normally has a wide range of choices when selecting design
strengths and structural dimensions.
In many cases, the cost of increased structural dimensions
required by the selection of lower strength concrete (within
the l i t s of durability requirements)is more than repaid by
the savings in reinforcing steel, reduced placing costs, and
the savings in material cost of the concrete(see
itself
Section
6.5, Example 6.1.).
CHAPTER %VOLUME
CHANGE
TIME IN DAYS
The thermal behavior of mass concrete

has been thoroughly discussedin Chapter 5 of AC1207.1R.This chapters purFirmo
m w
pose is to offer some practical guidance the
in magnitude of
ASTM C 116
Hrt of Hydration
c.mt
mhm
-I
TYP
volume change that can be expected in reinforced concrete
r
1180
87
structures or elements. Such structures utilize cements with
R
m
l
0
76
higher heat generation, smaller aggregate, more water, and
m
ZQW)
1
06
less temperature control than normally
used or recommended formass concrete indams.
Ip
1910
(10
In reinforced concrete elements, the primary concern is
Fig. 2.1-Temperature rise of mass concrete containing376
with these volume changes resulting from thermal and moislb of various types of cement per cubic yard of concrete
ture changes. Other volume changes, whichare not consideredinthisdocument,arealkali-aggregateexpansion,
autogenous shrinkage, and changes due to expansive cepends onm y variables.
is the volume change due
to the
ment. Autogenous shrinkage
Fig. 2.1 shows curves
for adiabatic temperature rise versus
chemical process that occurs during hydration.
time for mass concrete placed at 73 F and containing 376
The change in temperature be
to considered in the design
lb/yd3 of varioustypes of cement. These curves are typical
of reinforced concrete elements is the difference between the
of cements produced priorto 1960. The same cementtypes
peak temperatureof the concrete attained during early hydratoday may vary widely
from those because of increased finetion (normally within the first week following placement)
and the minimum temperature to which the element will beness and strengths. CurrentASTM specifications only limit
the heatof hydration directly of Type
IV cements orof Type
subjectedunderserviceconditions.Theinitialhydration
II
cements
if
the
purchaser
specifically
requests heat-of-hytemperaturerise produces little,if any, stressin the concrete.
dration
tests.
Heat-of-hydration
tests
present
a fairly accuAt this early age, the modulus
of elasticity of concrete is
so
rate
picture
of
the
total
heat-generating
characteristics
of
small that compressive stresses inducedby the rise in temcements
at
28
days
because
of
the
relative
insensitivity
with
perature are insignificant even
in zones of full restraint and,
age
of
the
total
heat
generating
capacity
of
cement
at
temperin addition,are relaxed by a high rateof early creep. By assuming a condition
of noinitial stress, a slightly conservative atures above70 F. At early ages, however, cement is highly
sensitive to temperature and therefore heat-of-solution tests,
and realistic analysis results.
which are performed under relatively constant temperatures,
2.1-Heat generation
do not reflect the early-age adiabatic temperature rise. The
The rate and magnitude of heat generation of the concreteuse of an isothermal calorimeter for measuring heatof hydepends onthe amount per unit volume of cement and poz- dration can provide data on the rate of heat
at early
output
agzolan (if any),
the compound composition and fineness
of cees? More accurate results for a specific cement, mix proment,andon
the temperatureduringhydration
of the
portions, aggregate initial placing temperature, and a set
of
cement. The hydration temperature is affected turn
in by the
environmental conditions can be determined by adiabatic
amount of heat lost or gained as governed by theofsize
the
temperature-rise tests carefully performed in the laboratory
member and exposure conditions. Thus, it can be seen that
in the
under conditions that represent those that will occur
the exact temperatureof the concrete at any given time de- field.
A C 1 207.2R 75
207.2R-4
0662747 0520876 267
AC1 COMMllTEE REPORT
IO 0
90
l90
?i8 0
RI
8
ro
c
5
80
70
20
IO
01
'
I
$$I
IO
I
2
28
T" IN DAYS
O ' ' ;
I4
2e
TIME IN M Y S
Fig. 2.2-Rate of heat generation as affected by Wagner

fineness of cement (ASTM C 115)for cement paste cured at
75 F
The fineness of cementaffects the rateof heat generation

more than it affects the total heat generation, in much the
same fashionas placing temperature. The rate
of heat generation as effected by cementfineness and placing temperature
is shown in Fig. 2.2 and 2.3, respectively. These two figures
are based on extrapolationof data from astudy of the heats
of hydration of cements
by Verbeck and Foster?
There areno maximum limitations on cement fineness in
current specifications.By varying both fineness and chemical composition of the varioustypes of cement,it is possible
to vary widelythe rate and total adiabatic temperature riseof
the typical types shown in Fig. 2.1. It is therefore essential
that both the fmeness and chemical composition of the cebe considered in estimating the temperature
ment in question
rise of massive concrete members.
For a given fineness, the chemical composition
of cement
has a relatively constant effect on the generation of beheat
yond ?he first 24 Lu. As shown in Fig.2. l , the concrete temperam rise for all four cernent types is similar between 1
and 28 days. The 28-day adiabatic temperature rise in degrees F may be calculated by
Fig. 2.3-Effect of placing temperature and time on adiabatic temperature rise of mass concretecontaining 376
lb/yd of Type I cement
For low and medium cement contents, thetotal quantity of

heat generatedat any ageis directly proportional to the quantity of cement in the concrete
mix.
However, for high cement-content structural mixtures, the
amount of cement may be sufficiently high to increase the
temperature
very early age heat to a point where the elevated
in turn causes a more rapid rate of heat generation.flyWhen
ash or other pozzolans used, the total quantity
of heat generated is directly proportional to an equivalent cement content
Ceq.which is the total quantity of cement plus a percentage
to total pozzolan content. The contributionof pozzolans to
heat generationas equivalent cement varies with of
age
concrete, type of pozzolan, the fineness of the pozzolan comparedtothecementandpozzolanthemselves.
It is best
determined by testing the combined portions of pozzolan and
cement for fineness and heatof hydration and treating the
blend in the same fashion astype
a of cement.
In general, the relative contribution of the pozzolan to
heat generation increases with age of concrete, fineness of
pozzolan comparedto cement, and with lower heat-generating cements. The early-age heat contribution of fly ash may
conservatively be estimated to range between
15 and 35 percent of the heat contributionfrom same weight of cement.
1.8hgWc
Generally,thelowpercentagescorrespondtocombined
H, =
0.22 ( 150) (27)
finenesses of fly ash and cement as low as two-thirds to
three-fourths that of the cement alone, while
the higher perWhere 0.22in d g m - d e g C and 150 in lb/ft? are the specificcentages correspond to finenessequal to or greaterthan the
heat and density, respectively, of the concrete.
is the
1.8concement alone.
version factor from Celsiusto Fahrenheit, 27 is the converas affected by initial temperaThe rate of heat generation
sionfactorfromyd3to
ft?.hg in d
g
m is the28-day
ture, member size, and environment
is difficult to assessbeof the cement by heat ofhydration
measured heat generation
cause of the complex variables involved. However, for large
concrete members,it is advisable to compute their temperaas per ASTM C 186, andW C is the weightof cement inlb per
ture history, taking into account the measured values of heat
yd3 of concrete. For a concretemix containing 376lb of cegeneration, concrete placement temperatures, and ambient
ment per yd3 of concrete: H, = 0.76 in degrees Fahrenheit.

A C 1 207.2R
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0662949 0520877 IT5
207.2R-5
VOLUME M SURFACE RATIO

IN FEET
Fig. 2.4-Effect of placing temperature and surface exposure on age at peak temperature for Type Z cement in concrete. Air temperature = placing temperature
1
temperature.The problem maybe simplified somewhat

if we
air temperassume that the placing temperature and ambient
VOLUME TO SURFACE RATIO
IN FEET
ature are identical. We can then make a correction
the ac- for
tual difference, considering the size or volume-to-exposed
Fig. 2.5-Temperature rise of concrete members containing
surface ratio(V/S)of the memberin question. TheV/S ratio
376 lbs of cement per cubic yardfor diflerent placing temactually representsthe average distance through which heat peratures
is dissipated from the concrete.
DIFFUSIVITY 12q. *Jdy
Usually, peak concrete temperatures for concrete structures may occur at any time duringthe first week. Fig. 2.4
shows the effectof placing temperature and member
V/S on
conthe age at whichpeak concrete temperatures occur for
crete containingType I cement. Time would
be shortenedor
lengthened for cements of higher or lower heat-generating
characteristics.
For comparative purposes, the early-age heat generation
of a TypeIII cement is approximately equivalent to a IType
cement at a 20 F higher placing temperature. In a similar
II and IV
fashion, the heat-generating characteristic of Types
cement correspond closely
to that of Type I cement at 10and
20 F lowerplacingtemperatures,respectively.Fig.
2.4
shows that for U S less than 3 ft, peak temperature will be
reached within 1 day under normal placing temperature(80
F or higher).
Fig. 2.5 gives the approximate maximum temperature rise
for concrete members containing4 bags (376 lb) of Type I
cement per yd3
for placing temperatures ranging from
50 to
VOLUME TO SURFACE RATIO
100 F, assuming ambientair temperatures equal to placing
IN FEET
temperatures. Corrections are required for different types
Fig. 2.6-Heatjiow between air and concretefor digerenee
and quantities of cementitious materials.
A correction for the between placing temperature and ambient
air temperature
difference inair and placing temperatures can be made using
Fig. 2.6 by estimating the time of peak temperatures from
have the greatest effect
on the chemical reaction. Their presFig. 2.4. The effect of water-reducing, set-retarding agents
in the
ence
does
not
alter
appreciably the total heat generated
on the temperature rise
of concrete is usually confinedto the
24
hr
and
no
corrections
are
applied
concrete
after
the
first
first 12 to 16hr after mixing, during which time these agents
9

A C 1 2 0 7 . 2 R 95 W 0662949 0520878 O31 W

2071R-6
AC1 COMMIITEE REPORT
herein for the use of these agents.

A diffusivityof 1.2 f?/day has been assumed in the prepof higher or lower
aration of Fig.
2.4 through 2.6. A concrete
difisivity will, respectively, decrease or increase the volume-to-exposed surface ratio, andcan be accounted for by
multiplying the actualV / ,by 1.2 divided by the actual concrete diffusivity.
While the rateof drying and heat dissipation differ, their average path lengths(V/s) are the same. Thereis, however, a
limitation on the lengthof moisture migration path affecting
external restraint and
its impact on total volume change.
This
limit has been assumedas 15 in. maximum in determining
equivalent temperature change
contents and drying shrinkage

For tensile stress considerations, the volume change resulting from drying shrinkageis similar to volume change
where
from temperature except that
the loss of moisture from hardened concrete is extremely slow compared with the loss of
= equivalenttemperaturechange due to drying
heat. Drying shrinkage therefore depends on the length of
shrinkage, in deg F
moisture migration path and often affects the concrete near a
W,
= water content of fresh concrete, lb/yd3, but not
surface. When the length of moisture migration or VB is
less than 225 lb/yd3
small, drying shrinkage addsto the stresses inducedby extotal volume, in.3
v
=
ternal restraintand shouldbe considered in the design
of the
area of the exposed surface, in?
s
=
reinforcement. When the V B is large, the restraint to drying
shrinkage is entirely internal andthe result is tension on the
2.3-Ambient, placement, and minimum service tempersurface or an extensive pattern of surface cracks extending atures
only a short distance into the concrete.
When surface cracks
In many structures, the most important temperature conof this nature do occur, theyare small and reinforcementis
siderations are the averageair temperatures during and imnot particularly effective in altering the size or spacingof
mediatelyfollowing the placement of concrete,andthe
for surface
these cracks. Reinforcement
is also not a solution
minimum average temperature
in the concrete that be
canexcracks in fresh concrete which are referred to as plastic
pected during the lifeof the structure. The temperature rise
cracking (seeAC1 116R).
due to hydration may be small, particularly in thin exposed
A 24 in. thick slab will lose approximately 30 percent of members, regardless of type
the or amount ofcement used in
its evaporable water in 24 months of continuous exposure
the mix, if placing and cooling conditionsare right. On the
with both faces exposed
to 50 percent relativehumidity! If
other hand, the same member could have a high temperature
we assume a total drying shrinkage potential at the exposed rise if placed at hightemperature in insulated forms.
faces of 300 millionths, then the average drying shrinkage
be 90 millionths
for a 24 in. slab.under this exposure would
2.4-Placement temperature
in 24 months. Concreteis not usually exposed
to drying conSpecifications usually limit the maximum and minimum
ditions this severe.
placing temperatures of concrete. AC1 305R recommends
Drying shrinkageis affected bythe size andtype of aggrelimiting the initial concrete placement temperature to bein shrinkage often con- tween 75 and 100F. The temperature of concrete placed durgate used. In general, concretes low
tain quartz, limestone, dolomite, granite,
or feldspar, whereing hot weather may exceed the mean daily ambient air
as those high in shrinkage often contain sandstone, slate, ba- temperature by 5 to 10 F unless measures are taken to cool
shrink considerably
salt, trap rock, or other aggregates which
be
the concrete or the coarse aggregate. Corrections should
of themselvesor have low rigidityto the compressivestressmade for the differencein air temperature and placing temes developedby the shrinkage of paste.5
In this discussion,
perature, using Fig.2.6. For example, if the temperature of
an aggregate low in shrinkage qualitiesis assumed. Drying
the concrete, when placed, is 60 F during the first 24 hr, a
used herein deshrinkage may vary widely from the values
concretesection having aV Bof 2ft would absorb 60percent
pending on many factors whichare discussed in more detail of the difference, or 12 F. The maximum placing temperain AC1 224R.
ture in summer should bethe highest averagesummer tem23.1 Equivalent temperature change-In the designof reperature for given
a
locality, but not more than 100 F.
inforcement for exterior restraint to volume change, it is
at placMinimum concrete temperature recommendations
more convenient to design only
for temperature changerathing are given in AC1306R Table 3.1. These minimums eser than for temperatureandshrinkagevolumechanges;
tablish the lowest placing temperature to be considered.
in terms
therefore, it is desirable to express drying shrinkage
Placing temperaturesfor spring and fall can reasonably be
TDp Creep can
of equivalentchange in concrete temperature
considered to be about halfway between the summer and
be expected to reduce significantly thestresses induced by
winter placing temperatures.
of the long period
required for full
drying shrinkage because
2.5-Minimum temperature in service
drying shrinkageto develop. We have thereforeassumed an
The minimum expected finaltemperattms of concrete elequivalent dryingshrinka e of 150 millionths andan expanements are as varied as their prolonged exposure conditions.
sion coefficientof 5 x 10!l per deg F as a basisin establishing
Primary concern is for the
find or operating exposure condithefollowingformulaforequivalenttemperaturedrop.
2.2-Moisture

A C 1 207.2R
95
Ob62949 0520879 T74
207.2R-7
of heat dissipation(see AC1 306R). Each inch of wood has

tions, since cracks which may form or open during colder
20 in. ofconcrete but
construction conditionsmay be expected to close during op- an equivalent insulating value of about
can, for convenience,be assumed equivalent to ft2 of addiremain in the elaserating conditions, provided steel stresses
tional concrete. Any faces farther apart than 20 times the
Minimum concrete
tic range during construction conditions.
thickness of the member can be ignored as contributing to
temperatures can be conservativelytaken as the average
heat
minimum exposure temperature occurring during a period of flow. Therefore,for a long retaining wall,the end surfaces are normally ignored.
approximately 1 week. The mass temperature of earth or
rock against concrete walls or slabs forms a heat source,
The VBcan best bedetermined by multiplying the calcuwhich affects the average temperature
of concrete members,
lated volume-to-exposed surface ratio of the member, exdepending upon the cooling path
or V B of theconcrete. This
cluding the insulating effect of forms by the ratio of the
heat source canbe assumedto effect a constant temperature minimum flow path including forms divided by the miniat some point8 to 10 ft from the exposed concrete face.
mum flow path excluding forms. For slabs, V/S should not
exceed three-fourths of the slab thickness. While multiple
The minimum temperature of concrete against earth or
lift slabs are not generally classedas reinforced slabs, V/S
rock mass, Trnin,can be approximatedby
should not exceed the height
of lift if ample timeis provided
for cooling lifts.
The temperature rise for other types of cement and for
mixes containing differing quantities of cement or cement
as per Section
plus pozzolan from 376 lb can be proportioned
where
2.1.
Fig. 2.6 accounts for the difference in placing temperaTA = averageminimumambient air temperatureover
tures and ambient air temperatures. The V B for Fig. 2.6
a prolonged exposure period of one week.
In all previous
should be identical to those used with2.5.
Fig.
TM = temperature of earth or rock mass; approximatetemperaturedeterminationstheplacingtemperaturehas
ly 40 to 60 F, depending on climate
been assumed equal to ambient air temperature. This may
V/S = volume to exposed surface ratio, in.
not be the caseif cooling measures have been taken during
the hot-weather periodor heating measures have been taken
2.CLHeat dissipation and cooling
during cold weather. When the placing temperature
of conof heat frombodies
Means of determining the dissipation
air temperature, heat
crete is lower than the average ambient
of mass concrete are discussed AC1
in 207.1R and can readi- will be absorbed bythe concrete and onlypropodon
a
of the
elly be applied to massive reinforced structures, Reinforced original
temperature difference will
be effective in lowering
q
u
i
r
e thesame
ements or structuresdonotgenerally
the peak temperature of the concrete.
When the placing temdegree of accuracyin determining peak temperatures as unperature is higher,the opposite effectis obtained. As an exreinforced mass concrete. In unreinforced mass concrete,
F that the
ample, assumefor an ambientair temperature of 75
peak temperatures are determined
for the purpose of prevent- placing temperature of a ft4 thick wall 12ft high is 60 F ining cracking.In reinforced concrete, cracking is presumed tostead of 75 F. TheVIS would be 3.4 ft, assuming 1 in. woodoccur and the consequences
of overestimating or underestien forms. The agefor peak temperature would be 2.3 days
mating the net temperature isrise
usually minor compared
to
from Fig. 2.4. From Fig. 2.6, 50 percent of the heat differthe overall volume change consideration. Sufficient accura- ence will be absorbed or 7.5 F; therefore, the base temperacy is normally obtained by use of charts or graphs such as
ture or the effective placing temperature for determining
Fig. 2.5 to quickly estimate the net temperature rise for con-temperature rise will
be 68 F. In contrast, if no cooling methcrete members cooling in a constant temperature environods are used, the actual placing temperature
of the concrete
ment equal to the placing temperature,byand
use of Fig. 2.6
will be 85 F, the age of peak temperature would be 1 day, and
to account for the difference in the actuala s sand
u m e d coolthe base temperature
or effectiveplacing temperature for deing environment.
termining temperature rise will
be 8l F.
Fig. 2.5 gives the maximum temperature rise for concrete
containing 376 lbof Type I portland cement per cubic yard 2.7-Summary and examples
of concrete in terms of V/Sof the member. V/S actually repThe maximum effective temperature change constitutes
resents the average distance through which heat is dissipated
the summation of three basic temperature determinations.
from the concrete.
This distance will always
be less than the
They are:(1) the difference between effective placing temminimum distance between faces. In determining the V B
perature and the temperature of final or operating exposure
consider only the surface
area exposed toair or cast against
conditions, (2) the temperature ofrise
the concretedue to hyforms. The insulating effectof formwork must be considered dration, and (3) the equivalent temperature change to comin the calculation of volume the
of member. Steel forms are pensate for drying shrinkage. Measures for making these
poor insulators; without insulation, they offer little resisdeterminations have been previously discussed, therefore,
of
tance to heat dissipationfrom the concrete. The thickness
the following example problems employ most of the calcuwood forms or insulation in the directionof principal heat
lations required in determining the maximum effective temflow must be considered in terms of their affecting the rate
perature change.
A C 1 207.2R
207.2R-0
75
AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT
ExumpZe 2.1-A 2 ft wide retaining wall with rock base

and backfillon one side; 20ft high by 100 ft long placed in
two 10-ft lifts, wood forms; summer placing with concrete
cooled to 60 F; concrete mix designedforaspecified
strength of 3000 psi or average strength of 3700 psi at 90
days contains 215 IbType
of II cement (adiabatic'curve same
as Fig. 2.1), 225 lb of fly ash, and 235 lbs of water per yd3.
The insulating effect of1 in. thick wood forms on each
face
would be to effectively increase the thickness by 2(20)/12
=
3.34 ft (assuming 1 in.-thick wood formis equivalent to 20
in. concrete).
1. Determine theV/S
2.Determinethedifferencebetweeneffectiveplacing
temperature and final exposure temperature:
a. Establish ambientair temperature for summer placement based on locality. Assume 75 F average temperature.
b. Concrete peaks at 2 days from Fig. 2.4. Using Fig.
2.6, the heat absorbed for
V / . = 2.4 is approximately
60 percent.
c. Net effective placing temperature
Tpk= 60 + 0.6( 15)
= 69 F.
d.Establishminimumexposuretemperaturefor1week duration. Assume 20 F.
e. For final exposure conditions V/S equals approximately 24 in., since heat flowis restricted to onedirection by the bacW1ll. For two faces exposed, V B
would qual approximately 12 in.
f. Tmin= 20 F+ z/, (a-20) J m 6 = 33.5 F, say34 F.
g. Difference = 69 - 34 = 35 F.
3. Determine the temperature rise:
a. From Fig. 2.5, the temperature
rise for TypeI cement
for dry surface exposure and an effective placing
temperature of 69 F and V/S of 2.4 ft = 30 F.
b. From Fig. 2.1, correction Type
for II cement peaking
at 2 days= T, = (40/50)(30) = 24 F.
c. Correction for mix. Ceq= 215 + 22514 = 272 lb,Tc +
F = 24 F (272)/(376) = 17.4 F, say 18F.
d. Temperatureof the concrete at the end
of 2 days= 69
+18=87F.
4. Determine the equivalent temperature for drying
shrinkage. Since V B for final exposure conditionsis greater than
15 in., no additional temperature considerations required
are
for external restraint considerations.
5. The maximum effective temperature changeTE= 35 +
18 = 53 F.
Exumple 2.2"same wall as Example 2.1, except that no
mix contains
cooling measures were taken and the concrete
470 lb/yd3of a Type I cement, having a turbidimeter fineness of 2000 cm2/gm and 28-day heat
of solution of 94
cal/gm.
Ob62949 0520880 77T
1. a. With no cooling measures the placing temperature

could be as much as O1 F above the ambient temperature of 75F or Tp = 85 F.
b. From Fig.2.4, the concretepeaks at three-fourthsof
a day for 85 F placing temperature. From Fig. 2.6,36
percent of the difference in placing and
air temperature is dissipated: 0.36 (85-75)= 4 F.
c. Effective placing temperature= 85 4 = 8 1F.
d. Minimum temperature of the concrete against rock
=
34 F.
e. Difference = 81 - 34 = 47 F.
2. a. The temperature rise from Fig. 2.5 dry
for exposure,
V/,of 2.4, andTp of 81 Fis 37 F.
b. Correction for fineness and heat of solution of cement.
From Fig. 2.2, the difference in fineness for 2000
versus 1800at three-fourths of a day (18 hr)
= 45/38
= 1.18.
From Eq. (2.1), the temperature difference due to
heat of solution: H, = 0.76 (94- 87) = 5 F. Note that
87 cal/gmis the 28-day heat of hydrationfor TypeI
cement with a fineness of 1790 as shown in Fig. 2.1.
rise for TypeI cement at
From Fig. 2.1, the adiabatic
18 hr= 30 F.
Combining the precedingtwo corrections, the adiabatic rise of the cement at18 hr would be 1.18 (30 +
5) = 41 F.
=
Temperaturerisefor376lWyd3ofcement
41(37)/30 = 51 F.
c. Correction for cement content
= 470(51)/376 = 64 F.
3. No addition for drying shrinkage.
4. The peak temperature of the concrete at 18hr 81 + 64
= 145 F.
5. The drop in temperature affecting volume change: 145
- 34 = 111 F.
In comparing the preceding two examples, the effect of
mix difference and cooling measures combined for a difference inpeak temperature of 145- 87 = 58 F. This constitutes
a volume change in Example 2.2 of about twice (-209 percent) that in Example 2.l for the same wall.
CHAPTER ?PROPERTIES
3.1-Gemeral
This chapter discusses the principal properties of massive
concrete that affect the control of cracking and provides
guidance to evaluate those properties.
3.2"strength requirements
The dimensions ofnormal structural concrete are usually
determined by structural requirementsutilizing28-day
strength concrete of 3000 psi or more. When these dimensions are based on normal code stress limitations for concrete, the spacing of cracks willbe primarily influenced by
flexure, and the resultant steel stresses induced by volume
change will normallybe small in comparison with flexural
stresses. Under these conditions, volume control measures
do not have the significance that they bave when concrete
A C 1 2 0 7 - 2 R 75
= 0bb2949
0520881 626
207.2R-9
stresses in the elastic range are low and crackis conspacing
trolled primarily by volume change.

The dimensions of massive reinforced concrete sections
4sdt
are often set by criteria totally unrelatedto the strength of
Ir
concrete. Such criteria often arebased on stabiity requirements where weight rather than strength
is of primary imporh = W
tance; on arbitrary requirements
for water tightness perft of
water pressure;on stiffness requirements for the support
of
large pieces of vibrating machinery where the mass itself
is
of primary importance; or on shielding requirements, as
found in nuclear power plants. Once these dimensions
are established they are then investigated using an assumed concrete strength to determine the reinforcement requirements
to sustain the imposed loadings.
In slabs, the design
is almost
always controlledby flexure. In walls, the reinforcement requirements are usually controlled by flexure
or by minimum
requirements as load-bearing partitions. Shear rarely controls except in the case of cantilevered retaining walls or
P"
structural frames involving
beams and columns.
RATIO OF TENSILESTEEL IN PERCENT
In flexure, the strength of massive reinforced sections is
controlled almost entirely
by the reinforcing steel. The effect
Fig. 3.1-Effect of concrete strengthon ultimate capacity;
of concrete strength on structural capacityis dependent on
fy = 60,OOOpsi
the quantity of reinforcing steel (steel ratio) and the eccentricity of applied loads.If the eccentricityof the loading with
Most massive reinforced concrete members subjected to
respect to member depthd d is greater than 2, Fig. 3.1 shows
flexural
stress will have steel ratios in the ofrange
0.0015 to
the relationshipof required concrete strength
to structural ca0.002 in the tensile face. Fig. 3.1 shows that
this range,
in
repacity for steel ratios
up to 0.005 using 3000 psi
as the base
is capable of sustaining up to 85
inforced concrete in flexure
for strength comparison. For steel ratios less than
0.005,
percent of the structural capacityof 3OOO-psi concrete with
there is no significant increase in structural capacity with
concrete strengthsas low as 1OOO psi. Construction loading
higher strength concretes within the eccentricity oflimits
the
rarely controls design. The decrease
in load factors normally
chart. Most massive concrete walls and slabsfallwill
within
than acapplied for temporary construction loads will more
the chart limits.
count for the15 percent lossin capacity associated with the
The principal reason for consideration of the effects of
lower strength concrete at the time of loading. Therefore, for
lower concrete strengths concerns the early loading
of masmassive reinforced sections within these limits a simple
resive sections and the preeminent need
in massive concreteto
control the heatof hydration of the concrete. If design load- striction of limiting imposed flexural loads until the concrete
achievesaminimumcompressivestrength
of lo00 psi
ing is notto take place until the concrete is90 or 180 days
should be adequate.
old, thereis no difficulty usingpozzolans in designing lowit should be obvious that massivereheat-generating concrete
of 3000 psi at those ages. Such con- From the preceding,
inforced
concrete
with
low reinforcement ratios can tolerate
crete may, however, havesignificantly lower early strengths
substantially
higher
percentages
of below-strength concrete
forsustainingconstructionloadingsandcouldpresenta
than
can
normal
structural
concrete
with high reinforcement
practical scheduling problem, requiring more time priorto
form stripping and lift joint surface preparation. Normally, ratios. From Fig. 3.1 a minimum strength of 2000 psi results
in lessthan an 8.5 percent lossin ultimate capacity compared
thedesignerinvestigatesonlythoseconstructionloads
with 3000 psi strength.
which exceed operational live loads and usually applies a
lower load factor for these loads because
of their temporary
As previously mentioned, shear strength may control the
be seen that for members thickness of a cantilevered retaining wall. The strength of
nature. From Fig. 3.1it can readily
subject to pure bending (dd= 00). less than 13 percent loss
concrete in shear is approximatelyproportional to
and,
of capacity will be experienced
in loading a member contain- therefore, the loss in shear strength for a given reduction in
compressive strength has a greater impact
on design than the
ing 0.5 percent steel when it has a compressive strength of
loss in flexural strength.The design loading for a wall sized
only 1000 psi. Note that while structural capacity
is relativeon the basis of shear strength
is the load of the backfill; rarely
ly unaffected by the 1OOO-psi strength, short-term load and
will
construction
schedules
allow the lower
lifts to attain90
creep deflection will be significantly larger than
3OOO-psi
for
to 180-day strengths beforethe backfill mustbe completed.
concrete. This is usuallynotsignificantforconstruction
Since the shear at the base
of the wall upon completion the
of
loadings, particularly since members with
this low steel ratio
on
2000
psi
will
require
an
backfill
controls,
a
design
based
to offset the increase
in deflection
have enough excess depth
approximately
22
percent
wider
base.
tapered
For
walls,
this
due to lower modulus
of elasticity.
ml

207.2R-1 O
The most commonly used test to determine the tensile

This test
strength
of concrete is the splitting tensile test.
W E I[CEMEM
to
force
the
failure
to
occur
within
a
narrow
band
of the
tends
e
specimen rather than
occurring in the weakest section.
If the
7
occur away fromthe center section,the calfailure does not
E
culations will indicate a higher than actual strength.
The tensile strength for normal weight concreteis usually taken as
2
6.7
and dryinghas little effect on the relationship.
; 5
t
V
Direct tensile tests made by attaching steel base plates
g 4
with epoxy resins indicate approximately 25 percent lower
tl
strengths. Such tests are significantly affecteddrying6
by
$ 3
If the concrete surface has been subjected to drying, a
i
Z 2
somewhat lower tensile strength than 6.7
should be
I
used to predict cracks initiating
at the surface. Where drying
I
shrinkage has relativelylittle influence on section cracking,
O
I
2
3
4
5
atensilestrengthof 6
appearsreasonable. The design
m MY STRENGTH IN ~OOOPSI
tensile strength of concrete has a direct relationship to the
calculated amountof reinforcing needed to restrict the size
Fig. 3.2-Comparison of 28, 90, and 180-day compressive
ofcracks.Under
theseconditions,aminimumtensile
strength
is recommended where drying shrinkage
strength of 4
would mean only an
11percent increase in total volume.
The
may be considered significant.
22 percent increase in base wall thickness would allow
30 a
In the preceding expressionsit is more appropriate to use
to 35 percent reduction in flexural reinforcement requirethe probable compressive strength at critical cracking rather
ments (using strength design), which would directly offset
than the specified strength. For normal
structural concrete it
in
the costof the added concrete volume, possibly resulting
is therefore recommended that at least 700 psi be added to
a lower overall cost for the By
wall.
restricting the placing
of
the specified strength in the design of concrete mixes. For
backfidlagainstany lift until it has obtained a minimum
massive reinforced sections (as described in Section
it is3.2)
strength of lo00 psi and restricting completion of bacMill
recommendedthatmixesbedesignedforthespecified
2OOO psi, a reasonable schedule strength. The strength of concrete that controls the critical
until the first lift has attained
be esfor bacMi11 with respect to concrete construction can
volume change for proportioning crack-control reinforcetablished. A 2000 psi strength requirement at 28 days com- ment may occur either during the fvst 7 days following
plies with thesetypes of construction requirements and will placement or after a periodof 3 to6 months, depending priprovide sufficient strength for durability under most expomarily uponpeak temperatures. If the cracking potential ocif 90 day strengths exceed 3000 curring upon initial cooling exceeds the cracking potential
sure conditions particularly
psi.
occurring during the seasonal temperature drop, the critical
volume change will occur during
the first week.
3 S T e n s i l e strength
When the critical volume change
is seasonal, some allowance should be made for the strength gain beyond 28 days at
In conventional reinforced concrete designit is assumed
that concretehas no tensile strength and a design compres- the time of cracking, particularly wherefly ash is utilized.
to 90 and 180days of ageas
sive strength appreciably below average test strength is uti- The strength gain from 28 days
a percentage of the 28-day strength varies with the 28-day
lized.Neitherapproach is acceptable indeterminingthe
fly of
strength, depending on the cement and the proportions
reinforcing steel requirement
for volume-change crack conash or other pozzolans used. For concrete mixes properly
trol, The actual tensile strength
is one of themost important
proportioned for maximum strength gain, Fig. 3.2 gives a
considerations and should be determined to correspond in
typical comparison for mixes with and without fly ash that
time to thecriticalvolumechange.Sincecompressive
strength is normally specified it is desirable to relate tensile use Type II cement
and compressive strength.
When the critical volume change occurs during the first
week,
it is probably prudent to use 7-day standard-cured
Tensile strength of the concrete will be affected by the
strengths
in proportioning crack-control reinforcement. The
type of aggregates used.A restrained concrete ofequal wastrength
of concrete normally ranges from 60 to 70
7-day
ter-cement ratios (w/c)made from crushed coarse aggregate
cured specimens of
percent
of
28-day
strengths for standard
will withstanda larger dropin temperature without cracking
Types
II
and
I
cements,
respectively.
Slightly
lower
than concrete made from rounded coarse aggregate. For a
strengths
may
be
encountered
when
fly
ash
or
other pozgiven compressive strength, however, the type
of aggregate
are
utilized.
In-place
strengths
will
vary
depending on
zolans
does not appreciably affect tensile strength. The age at which
section
mass
and
curing
temperatures.
concrete attains its compressive strength does affect the tensile-compressive strength relationship such that the older the
concrete, the largerthe tensile strength for a given compres- 3.4-Modulus of elasticity
Unless more accurate determinations
are made, the elastic
sive strength.
*PROrORTIONED F M I LUXINUM STRENGTH GAIN
fl
fl

A C 1 2 0 7 - 2 R 95
0662949 0520883 4 T 9
modulus in tension and compressionfor hardened concrete

33
(inpsi)whichfor
may be assumedequalto
n o d weight concrete 57,000 It also shouldbe based
on probable strengthas discussed in Section 3.3. The modulus of elasticity in mass concrete can depart significantly
from these values, and should be based on actual test results
whenever possible.
E
E.
2079R-1 1
35"creep
Creep is related to a number of factors, including elastic
of time under
modulus at the timeof loading, age, and length
load. Althoughcreep plays a large partin relieving thermally
induced stresses in massive concrete,
it plays a lesser role
in
t h i i e r concrete sections where temperature changes occur
short time period.Its primary effectas noted
over a relatively
in Section 2.2, is the relief of drying shrinkage stressesin
smallelements. In general,whenmaximumtemperature
period, creep can
changes occur over a relatively short time
only slightly modify temperature stresses.
3.6-Thermal properties of concrete
The thermal properties of concrete are coefficient of expansion, conductivity, specific heat, and diffusivity.
The relationshipof diffusivity, conductivity, and specific
heat is defined by
KR
Fig. 4.1-Degree
of tensile restraintat center section
All concrete elements are restrained to some degree by

volume because thereis always some restraint provided either by the supporting elements or by different parts of the
'h.
element itself. Restrained volume change can induce tensile,
compressive, or flexural stresses in the elements, depending
where
on the type of restraint and whether the change
in volume is
h* = difisivity, ft2/hr
an increase or decrease. are
Wenormally not concerned with
stresses in conrestraint conditions that induce compressive
K = conductivity, Btu/ft.hr.F
crete because of the ability of concrete to withstand comc, = specific heat, Btuflb-F
pression.
We
are primarily
concerned
with
restraint
W C = weight of concrete, lb/@
conditions which induce tensile stressesin concrete which
These thermal properties have a significant effecton the
can leadto cracking.
be expected and should
change in concrete volume that may
In the following discussion, the types of restraint to be
be determined in the laboratory using job materials in adconsidered are external restraint (continuous and discontinuvance of design, if possible. AC1 207.1R and AC1 207.4R
ous) and internal restraint. Both types are interrelated and
discuss these properties in detail and present a broad range usually existto some degree inall concrete elements.
I
of measured values.
are not available,it is recommendWhere laboratory tests
4.2-Continuous external restraint
CTbe assumed
ed that the thermal coefficient of expansion
Continuous restraint exists along the contact surface of
as 5 x
in./in./F
for
calcareous
aggregate,
6 x
concrete and any material against which the concrete has
in./ii./F forsiliciousaggregateconcrete,and
7 x
been cast. The degreeof restraint depends primarilyon the
in./in./F for quartzite aggregate.
relative dimensions, strength, and modulus of elasticity of
the concreteand restraining material.
CJ3APTERAD"STRAINT
4.2.1 Stress distribution-By definition, the stress at any
point
in an uncracked concrete member
is proportional to the
4.l-General
strain
in
the
concrete.
The
horizontal
instress
a member conTo restrain an action is to check, suppress, curb, limit,
or
tinuously
restrained
at
its
base
and
subject
to
an otherwise
restrict its occurrence to some degree.
The degree of restrain,
KR,is the ratio of actual stress resulting from volume change uniform horizontal length change varies from point to point
in accordancewiththevariationindegreeofrestraint
to the stress which would result if completely restrained.
Nuthroughout the member. The distribution of restraint varies
merically, the strainis equal to the productof the degreeof
with the length-to-height ratio (IA)of the member. The
restraint existing atthe point in question and the change
in
unit length which would occur
if the concrete were notrecase of concrete placed without time lapseslifts
foris shown
test data regraphically in Fig. 4.1, which was derived from
Strained.
K
h2 = -

A C 1 207=2R 95
= 0662947 0520884
335
207.2R-12
where
A,
A,
= gross area of concrete cross section
= area of foundation or otherelementrestraining

shortening of element, generally takenas a plane
surface at contact
EF = modulus of elasticity of foundation or restraining
element
For mass concrete on rock, the maximum effective restraining mass area AF can be assumed at 2SA, and the values of the multipliersare then shownin the following table.
Multipliers forfoundation rigidity

I
20 O0
UH
Fig. 4.2-Zntemal forces at initiation of cracks at restrained

bare
EF
E,
2
1
0.5
0.2
ported in 1940 by Carlson and Readh1g.4.~

For UTI equal to or greater than 2.5, restraint KR at any
point at a heighth above the base may be approximated by
O.1
Multipliers
1.o
0.83
0.71
0.56
0.33
0.20
4.2.2 Cracking pattern-When stress in the concretedue

to restrained volume change reaches the tensile strengthof
the concrete, a crack will form.
If a concrete member
is subt
o
a
uniform
reduction
in
volume
but
is
restrained
at its
ject
KR = [ (L/H-2)/(L/H+ l)]hH
(4.1)
base or at an edge, cracking will initiate at the base orrestrained edge where the restraint is greatest and progress upFor UTI less than2.5, restraint KR at any point may be apward or outward until apoint is reached where the stress is
proximated by
insufficient to continue
the crack. Afterinitial cracking, the
tension causedby restraint in the region of the crack
is transferred to the uncracked portionof the member, thereby inI%HFor
greater
creasing the tensile stresses above the crack.
than
about
2.5,
Fig.
4.1
indicates
that
if
there
is
enough
tenUsing the degree of restraint
KR,from Fig. 4.1or calculatstress
to
initiate
a
crack,
it
should
propagate
to the full
sile
ed from Eq. (4.1) or (4.2), the tensile stress at any point on
block height because ofthe stress-raising featurejust menthe centerline due to a decrease
in length can be calculated
tioned. It has also been found from many tests that
once befrom
gun, a crack will extend with
less tensile stress than
required
to initiate it (see AC1 224R).
(4.3)
unreinforcd wallsor
Fromtheprecedingdiscussion,
to sufficient
slabs, fully restrained at their base and subject
where
volume change to produce full-section cracking, will ultimately attain full-section cracks spaced
in the neighborhood
K R = degree of restraint expressed as a ratio with 1.0=
of
1.0
t
o
2.0
times
the
height
of
the
block.
As each crack
100 percent
forms,
the
propagation
of
that
crack
to
the
full
height of the
A, = contraction if there were no restraint
block
will
cause
a
redistribution
of
base
restraint
such that
E, = sustained modulus of elasticity of the concrete at
each portion ofthe wallor slab will actas an individual secthe time when
Ac occurred and for the duration inEq. (4.3) andKR values from Fig.
tion between cracks. Using
volved
4.1 or Eq.(4.1) or (4.2) to determine thestress distribution at
the base centerline, the existing restraining force and moin direct
The stresses in concrete due to restraint decrease
of cracking canbe determined from the inproportion to the decrease in stiffness
of the restraining foun- ment at initiation
stress
block
for various,?/Hand
, is shown in Fig. 4.2.
ternal
dation material.The multiplier to be usedin determiningKR
Since
cracks
do
not
immediately
propagate to the full block
from Fig. 4.1 is given by
height throughout the member, a driving force
conrinuhg
of
1
volume change must
be present.
Multiplier =
stress at evA propagating crack will increase the tensile
1+-A, Ec
ery section above the crack
as it propagates. Throughout the
A, E ,

A C 1 2 0 7 = 2 R 95
Ob62949 0520885 2 7 1
2072R-13
section the stress increase is the same proportion

as the proportional increasein stress that occurred at the present crack
position in propagatingthe crack from its previous position.
From Fig. 4.3,the maximum restraining forcein the stress
block, corresponding to maximm base shear, occurs with
maxithe volume reduction producing initial cracking. The
mum moment of the internalstress block, corresponding to
maximum baserestraint,does not occur until the crack propof section. At
agates to a heightof 0.2 to 0.3 times the height
that point, the crack is free to propagate to its full height
without a further reduction in volume. From Fig. 4.3 the
maximum base restraint atthe centerline of a block having
an Lm of 2.5 is approximately 0.2&'BH? This may be assumed as the minimumbase restraint capableof producing
full-block cracking.
The corresponding spacing
of full-block
cracking in unreinforced concrete would therefore be approximately 1.25 H.
Prior to cracking, the stress in the reinforcementof nonflexural members subjectedto shrinkage depends primarily
on the differences in coefficients of expansion between steel
RESTRAINT
and concrete. Where
the coefficients are equal, the reinforcement becomes stressed as crack propagation reaches the
of the concrete
steel. The tensile
force of the cracked portion
is thus transferred to the steel without significantly affecting
O
at
0.2
a3
os
base restraint. The momentof the steel stressed throughout
the height of the crack adds directly to the restraining
moment of the internal stress block at the centerline between
Fig. 4.3-Effect of crack propagation on internulforces
cracks. When the combined internal stress moment and steel
stress moment equals0.2&'BH2 then the combined restraint
theatcenis sufficient to produce full block height cracking
B = widthofblock
terline between cracks.
For L/Hvalues less than 2, Fig. 4.1 indicates negative rethis would mean in- 43-Discontinuous external or end restraint
straint at the top. For decreasing volume,
ducedcompressionatthetop.Therefore,full-section
When the contact surface of the concrete element
re under
cracking is not likelyto occur.
straint and the supporting element is discontinuous, restraint
At any section, the summation
of crack widths and exten- to volume change remains concentrated at fixed locations.
sion of concrete must balance the change in concrete volume
This is typical of all concrete elements spanning between
due to shrinkage. To control the width of cracks it is thus
supports. It is also typical for the central portionsof memnecessary to control their spacing, since extensibility
of conbers supportedon materials of lowtensile strengthor of lowcrete is limited. If the change in volume requires a minimumer shear strength than concrete, which require substantial
W,
then reinforcement must be add- frictional drag at the ends to develop restraint.
crack spacing less than
if the reed to assurethis spacing. From these postulations,
43.1 Stress distribution of members spanning between
quired spacing is L' then the restraining moment of the
is notverticallysupported
supports-Amemberthat
reinforcing steelat the existing crack spacing
of 2L' would
throughout its lengthis subject to flexural stress as well as
be 0.2&'BH2 minus the restraining moment of Fig. 4.2 for
stress dueto length change. When a decreasein volume or
Lm = 2 L'IH.
length occurs in conjunction with flexural members spanA linear approximation of this difference can be deterning between supports, additional rotationof the cross secmined by
tions must occur.
If the supports themselves
are also flexural
members, a deflection will occur at the topof the supports
and this deflection will induce moments at the endsof the
MRH = 0.2f:Bd 1 (4.4)
member undergoing volume change. These flexural stresses
will be in addition to the tensile stresses by
induced
the shear
in the deflected supports (see Fig. 4.4). The end moments
where
thus induced will increase tensile stresses in the bottom face
and decrease tensile stressesin the top faceof the member
M m = restraintmomentrequired of reinforcingsteel
for full-height cracking
undergoing volume change. The magnitude of induced stress
depends on the relative stiffnessesof the concrete element
J'
= tensilestrength of concrete
under restraint and the supporting members and may be deH
= height of
block
2)

A C 1 2 0 7 . 2 R 95
0662949 0520886 108
207.2R-14
Kf = stiffness of beam or floor system undergoing volume change

Kc = averagestiffness of verticalrestrainingelements
subject to deflection by volume change
A*
TIC
FIXED-END DEFLECTION
COLUMN
MDMENT DIARUI
1-1
WIC
MC
BEAM MOMENT MAGRAM
d i
"eMAI
For complicated frames and members spanning continuously over more than two supports, the stress induced
in the
member from the change
in volume shouldbe determined by
a frame analysis considering
the effects of sideway, member
elongations under direct load, and shear deflections ofthe
members.
support
supporting
members
If the
torelative
stiff
are very
the
member undergoing volume change, the deflection at the top
of the supporting members will
be essentially a shear deflectionandnoendmomentswillbeinducedin
the member.Under these
conditions
the
change
in
steel
stress
throughout
the
1
C
BALANCEDDEFLECTION
COLUMN
W E N T DIAGRAM
Fig. 4.4-Flexure of a simple frame induced by beam shortening
nt
ofdegreethe termined
when
deterbeen
KR has
mined for
the
support
system.
For
members
spanning
two
supports, the degree
of restraint canbe approximated by
1
KR =
1+-
(4.5)
A , h3
4L I,
where L and A, = the length and area, respectively,of the

member undergoing volume change, Zcand
and h = the average momentof inertia and height respectively
of the two supporting endmembers.
The change in bottom face steel stress for members spanning flexural supports can
be approximated by
Afs
+)
K C T E
= R 2pnj
T E
d K +Kc
'[i"( + 4 p j ]
(4.6)
where
C, = linear thermal coefficientas defined in Section 3.6
TE = design temperature change including shrinkage effects

Es = elastic modulus ofsteel
A temperature gradient through a wallor slab with ends

fmed orrestrainedagainstrotationwillinducebending
stresses throughout the member. When the restraint to rotation is sufficient to crackthe member, cracking will be uniformly spaced throughout. Rotational stiffness
is dependent
of
on the momentof inertia of the cracked section. The ratio
the moments of inertia of cracked to uncracked sections in
for a
pure bendingis 6jk2. Using this, the fixed-end moment
cracked section wouldbe
2
FEM = ( T , - T z ) C F c b d k % )
(4.8)
where Tl - T2 is the temperature difference across

the member, andC, = the expansion coefficient of the concrete.
4.33 Stress distribution of vertically supportedmembers-The distribution of stresses due to volume change in
members subject to a discontinuous shear restraint
at the
base, but vertically supported throughout
its length, is dependent on theU H of the member, whichfor all practical purposes is the same as Fig. 4.1 where L is the distance between
As the LLU appoints of effective shear transfer at the base.
proaches infinity, the distributionof stress approaches uniformityoverthecrosssectional
area at any appreciable
distance from the support.
For slabs placed on the subgrade material of little or no
tensile strength and lower shear strength than the slab concrete, the distance between points
of effective shear transfer
depends on the frictional drag of the slabA decrease
ends.
in
of the slab upward. Cracking
slab volume will curl the ends
will initiate at approximately the center
of the base when
the
full depth of the member
has a parabolic tensile stress distribution (see Fig.4.5) with the stress at the base equalto the
tensile strength of the concrete. The crackin moment for
this internal stress distribution will be f;BH /lo. (Fig. 4.6
shows internal restraint.)
The balancing external restraining
moment depends entirely on the weight
of the concrete and
~~
A C 1 2 0 7 = 2 R 95
0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0520887 044
L:
207.2R-15
L -JOINT SPACING
SECTIONAL PLAN
TEMPERATURE CHANGE
Ac = UNR-AINE0
CHANGE IN VOLUME
= INTERNALLY RESTRAINEDA c
Fig. 4.5-Internal smss distribution of slabs on bwstrength subgrade
TENSION
COMPRESSION
the distribution of the base pressure. Assuming a parabolic

base pressure distribution over two-thirds
of the curling slab
base, as shownin Fig. 4.7,the restraining moment will equal
0.075 wcEHL2, or
tt
SrRESSDlAGRAM
Fig. 4.6-Inteml restraint
Forft' = 300 psi W, = 144 lb/ft?, and L = 20 f i (for L and H

in ft).
When
overall
length
exceeds
slab
the
20 distributhe
tion of stress in the central portion of the slab will approximately equal that of continuously restrained base having an
of (L 2 0 f i ) / H . When the spacingof cracks must be
less than 20 .&,reinforcement mustbe provided. When the
)/H
i is less than2, a minimum tensile force
ratio of (L - 20 $
off;lprm must be provided bythe reinforcing steel to provide multi le cracks between the end sections.
If the ratioof
(L - 20 H )/H is greater than2.5 the reinforcement must be
capable of developing the full drag force
of the end sections.
This would be the full tensile force
T of Fig. 4.2for Z f H corresponding to (L 20.&)/H. Thus the reinforcement requirements are
a,
(".T)
~
54
- ,
*8
A , = - T ,f,'EH
fs - 3fs
(4.9)
where h' = tensile strength of concrete and f, = allowable

steel stress.
4.3.3 Cracking pattern of vertically supported members2
When the stress of a member subject to discontinuous restraint or restrained at its ends exceeds the tensile strength
of
the Concrete, a SingleCrackWill form between the Points of
Fig. 4.7-Pressure distribution and restraining moments of
restraint.Anyadditionalcrackingofthemember
must be
curling slab
A C 1 207.2R
207.2R-16
95
0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0520888 T 8 0 W
member if its endsare restrained as previously discussedin

Section 4.3.1.
The plane of zero stress of the tensile stress block for projecting portions of concrete walls or slabs may be determined by a heat-flow analysis orby trial as just described.
4.4-Internal restraint
Internal restraintexists in members with nonuniform vol- The proportion of cold volumeto total volume is larger for
members ofthis type than for dams or otherlarge concrete
ume change on a cross section. This occurs, for example,
masses. The penetration ofthe daily temperature cycle
may
withinwalls,slabs, or masseswith interior temperatures
greater than surface temperatures
or with differential drying therefore be a s s u m e d somewhat more than the 2 to 2.5 ft
penetration previously mentioned for
dams. Restraint at the
shrinkage from outside
to inside. It also occurs in slabs procases h m Fig.
jecting through the walls of buildings with cold outside edg- free edge may also be determined for these
4.1 by setting the depth of the tensile stress block d, as a
es and warm interiors and in walls with the base or lower
fixed plane3 ft inside the exterior surface.
ir.
portions covered andthe upper portions exposed ato
Internalrestraintdepends
on the differentialvolume
CHAPTER L U C K WIDTHS
change within a member. Its
effects add algebraically tothe
effects of external restraint, except that
their summation will
5.1-General
never exceed the effects of 100 percent external restraint.
Reinforcement is utilized to restrict size
the of cracks that
Therefore, where high external restraint conditions the
exist
wouldotherwiseoccur.Large-sized,randomlyspaced
effects of internal restraint
may be negligible.
may indicate that the
rehforcecracks are objectionable and
4.4.1 Stress disrribution and cracking-Internal restraint
This
may
be cause
ment
transverse
to
the
crack
has
yielded.
is similarto continuous edge restraint, except that the effecfor
concern,
depending
on
the
structure
in
question
and the
tive restraining plane
is the planeof zero stress in the internal
primary
purpose
of
the
reinforcement.
Surface-crack
widths
stress block andis dependent onthe actual temperature graare
important
h
m
an
esthetic
viewpoint,
are
easy
to
meadient in the concrete
(see Fig. 4.6). For section stability,the
sure, and are the subject of most limitations. the
While
width
summation of tensile stress induced by the temperature or
of
a
crack
at
the
surface
may
initially
be
larger
than
the
crack
be balanced by an
moisture gradienton a cross section must
width
at
the
reinforcement,
the
difference
may
be
expected
equal compressive force.This balance line locates the depth
to decrease with time.
d, of the internal stress block.
If the depth of the tensile stress
Forwater-retentionelements,verynarrow,just-visible
block d, is large in comparison to the spacing of joints L,
cracks
(0.002 in.) will probably leak, at least initially; howthen thestress induced by volume change will not be signifever,
nonmoving
cracks to
up0.005 in.may heal in the presat
icant. As an example,if the annual temperature range the
be expected
ence
of
excess
moisture
and therefore would
not
ft thick
surface is four times the range in concrete, then a 100
be
expected
to
stain the
to
leak
continually.
Any
leakage
may
dam would have a 15 ft deep tensile stress block using the
exposed
concrete
face
or
create
problems
with
surface
coatin Fig. 5.3.5 of AC1 207.1R.
If we assume
distribution shown
ings.
a 50 ft spacing ofjoints, the Ud, ratio wouldbe 3.3 and the
degree of restraint at the surface wouldbe 25 percent using
Most thermal cracks transverse to reinforcement do not
appear to have significant impact on corrosion. (AC1
224R
In contrast, fromthe
Fig. 4.1 of this report andUd, as M.
a penetration of only 2 to
same chart the daily cycle shows
AC1 224.1R).8
2.5 ft. Using 2ft as d,, the degree of restraint at the surface
Fiberreinforcement is of somebenefitincontrolling
85 percent and assuming a concrete cracks butmay not becost effective.
would be approximately
of 3 x lo6psi
tensile strengthof 300 psi, a concrete modulus
5.1.1 Controlled cracking-It has been common practice
and a coeficient of thermal expansion of5 x lo6 in./in./F,
for manyyears to use expansion and contraction
joints to rein surface
cracking wouldoccur at theface with a 24 F drop
In sidewalk
duce the size
and number of uncontrolled cracks.
temperature. For equal stressthe annual temperature variaalso been
and pavement construction, formed grooves have
tion would have be
to 82 F. Cracking from the daily temper- used to create planes ofweakness and thereby induce crackature cycle is notusuallysignificant in dams and large
ing to coincide with the straight lines of the grooves. This
masses, particularly in moderate climates, because of the
concept has been expanded in the United Kingdom as a
limited penetrationor significance of such cracks. The F24 method of controlling cracks
in massive walls and slabs. The
drop in mean daily temperature corresponds
to normal winBritish install plastic
or metal bond breakers
to induce cracks
tertemperaturefluctuations
for moderateclimates. See
at specific locations. The British research indicates that a
Chapter 5 of AC1 207.1Rfor a more complete discussion
of
cross-sectional reduction as
of little as 10 percent has proved
surface cracking.
successful in experiments, but20 percent is recommended to
Temperatures onthe opposite facesof a wall or slab
may
assure full section cracking
in practice9 The depth of surface
not be equal because of a difference
in exposure conditions.
grooves is obviously limited by any continuous reinforceThe variation of temperatures throughthe slab or wall may
ment; therefore, some form
of void must be cast
into massive
be assumed to be parabolic or exponential.
sectionstoachieve the neededsectionreduction.These
Temperature distributionof this sort will curl the slabor
voids can be formed with plastic pipes or deflatable duct
wall if unrestrained, or induce bending stresses along the
tubes. Alternately, the reduction
may be accomplishedby usprovided by enough reinforcing steel at a controlled stress
level to equal the total restraint
force induced at the member
ends.

A C 1 2 0 7 - 2 R 95
0662749 0520889 717
207.2R-17
ing proprietary crack-inducing water barriers that have been A = average effective concrete area around a reinforcdesigned to act as both bond breakers and water stops, The
ing bar(Ucx spacing), in.2
principal advantageof a crack-control systemis that crackB = distance form neutral axis to the tensile
face dividing can essentially be hiddenby the formed grooves. Also,
ed bydistance from neutral axis to steel
the crack size (width) loses its significance
when there is a
calculated steel stress, ksi
water banier and the reinforcement crossing the crack is
principally minimum steel thatis not required for structural In the preceding formula, the -ratio
is taken as 1 for massive
integrity.
sections.
L =
The maximum crack widthfor tension membersis gener5.2-Limitations

ally accepted as larger than the just-given expression for
It is desirable to limit the width
of cracks in massive strucflexure. AC1 224R suggests the followingto estimate maxitures to the minimum practical size, in keeping with the
mum tensile crack width
function of the structure. Reinforced mass concrete structures are generally designed in accordance with AC1 318.
The crack-control provisions AC1
of 3 18 develop reasonable
details of reinforcement, in terms of bar size and spacing, for
= o.lof, 3@
lo5
(5.2)
to the AC1
general conditions of flexure. The Commentary
Building Code says that the code limitations are based on
The preceding expressions formaximum crack width for
crack widths of 0.016 in. for interior exposure and 0.013 in.
flexure and tensionare based on appliedloads without confor exterior exposure. The permissible crack widths versus
siderationforvolumechange.
Any restraintofvolume
exposure conditions in Table 4.1 of AC1 224R represent a
change will increase directly the actual crack width over that
historical viewpoint of tolerable crack width. While they
estimated by these formulas. Thus, any procedure which
may not represent a current consensus, theydo offer guidmakes a reasonable estimation
of expected volume change in
ance to what has been considered acceptable.
AC1 350R esits analysis will improve predictability.When the expected
tablishesminimumpercentages
of shrinkage andtemchange in volume has been accounted for, Committee 207
perature reinforcement for sanitary engineering structures
believes
the application of
the Gergely and Lutz expression
based onthe spacingof construction joints from
20 to 60 ft.
in determinfor
crack
width
provides
sufficient
limitations
In addition, itrestricts the working stress and z-value Eq.
of
ing
crack
reinforcement
without
additional
conservatism.
(1 0-4) of AC1
318, based onthe thicknessof cover andtype
this expression to apply
Committee207 has therefore chosen
of exposure. For an 18 in. thick member with
2.5 in. cover,
its
procedures.
The
designer
is
always
atliberty to chose a
exposed to liquids, the crack width corresponding AC1
to the
more
conservative
expression.
318 Commentary would be 0.01 1 in. for flexure and
0.009
in. for direct tension.
CHAPTER &APPLICATION
Limiting crack widthby utilization of reinforcement becomes increasingly difficultas member size increases. The
6.1-General
most effective means to control thermal cracking in any
Determination of restraint, volume change, appropriate
member is to restrict its peak hydration temperatures.This
concrete
properties, and crack widths have
been discussed.
becomesincreasinglyimportantwithincreasingmember
of steel areas.
They
will
now
be
combined
for
calculation
size. For massive structures, the amount
of reinforcementreExterior
loads
that
induce
tensile
stress
in
the
concrete in adquired to restrict crack width less
to than 0.009 in. becomes
dition
to
those
induced
by
volume
change
must
also be acimpractical when any of the accepted formulas to predict
counted
for
in
steel
area
calculations.
crack width are used. Cracks of this width will allow some
leakage; however, leakage willbe minimum and controlla6.2-Volume
change plus flexure
ble.
Forbothnormalstructuralandmassivemembers,the
change
instress& induced by a decreasein volume of flex5.3-Calculations
u
r
a
l
members
(discussed in Section 4.3.1) should be added
A number of crack-width equations
are proposed in the
litdirectly
to
the
seNice-load stress, and crack width should
be
erature. AC1 318 adopts an expression based on one develas
per
Sections
5.2
and
5.3.
checked
oped in a statistical study
by Gergely and Lutz reported
in
3 18 can be followed.
For normal structural members, AC1
ACI SP-20.
This requires a valueof z, a quantity limiting distribution
of
flexural reinforcement
W = 0.076 3
s fs10-3
(5.1)
z =fs3F8
where
W
= maximum crack width at surface, in.
dc = cover to center of bar, in.

where
f, =
calculatedstressinreinforcement
A C 1 2 0 7 - Z R 95
0662949 0520890 b39
207.2R-18
o
4 3
CONTINUOUSMSE RESTRAINT
SEWENCE OF CRACK PROPAGATION
width.
permissible
crack
where
the W is
6.3.1 Continuous external restraint-Members subject to
continuous restraint at their bases or on
one or more edges
will crack under continuing volume change
as described in
in width
Section 4.2.2. Cracks are not uniform and will vary
throughout the height of the member.
Fig, 6.1 shows the sequenceof crackingfor a membersubject to uniform volume change and continuous base restraint.
As each new crack forms at approximately the midpointof
uncracked
the portions
of the base,
previously
the formed
cracks will extend vertically. The maximum widthof each
crack will occur at vertical locations
just above the top
of the
previously formed cracks. Below this point there are two
of cracks to balance volume change.
more times the number
The concrete at the top of the partially extended crack
is assumed stressed to h'. Therefore the summation of crack
widths on any horizontal plane must approximately equal the
total volume change(KRLCTTE)minus concrete extensibili-
sibility of concrete is affected significantly by

creep; therefore, the time required for a given volume change
S T R E S S DIAGRAM AT NO. 2 CRACK
to &curwill directly affect the
temperaire drop TE,producRESTRAlNTm)MENT-xTc+llz/,'f h
h, HEIGHT OF CRACK .' ' c
ing cracking.
Hognestad" found that for the normal range of serviceFig. 6.I-Sequence of crack propagation and distribution
load
stressforhigh-strengthreinforcement,whichisbeof stress ut No. 2 crack
tween 30 and40 ksi, a mean valueof the ratioof maximum
crack width to average crack width 1was
S. If N is the number of cracks and W is the maximum crack width then the
d, = thickness of concrete cover measured from the
N . W /1.5willbethe summation of crack widths in a given
concretesurfaceatwhichcracks are beingconsid-lengthand
ered to the center of the nearest reinforcing bar
A = effectivetension area of concretesurroundinga
wN
= 12L ( KRC,TE -&'/Ec)
(6.3)
group of reinforcing bars and having the same cen1.5
troid as that of reinforcement, dividedby the numIf ft.
L in
average
thecrack
spacing
equals
L'. then N
L
'=
bars
ofber
for
L and
to be checked in lieu of crack width (notationAC1
as 318).
in
The value of z should be limited to
normal
for
interior
175
W
L' =
(6.4)
exposure, and 145for normal exterior exposure.
l8 (KRCTTE -f:lEc)
For reinforced mass concrete, the combined stress should
be limited by crack width based on Chapter5. In addition,
For most structures,
the hydration heat effects are dissipatthe minimum ratio of tensile-steel reinforcement for massive
ed during the first week
after placement. Atthis age, the exconcrete membersin flexure shouldbe based on steel stress
tensibilityortensile
strain capacityoftheconcrete
is
not to exceed 0.9 fy, where4 is the specified yield stressof
generally less than 100 microstrains and the effective temsteel in ksi.
perature drop would constitute only hydration heat. For hot-
6.3-Volume change without flexure

The spacing of cracksis largely dependent on the conditions of restraint when a decrease in volume occurs in
a
member not subject
to flexure. Stress in the reinforcing steel
can be determined usingthe Gergely-Lutz crack width formula witha of 1.O by assuming a bar cover and spacing
calculating the stress
in reinforcement& from
fs
lo3
0.076 3 K A
(in ksi)

weather placements,the maximum temperature drop will not

occur until the concrete is 3 to 6 months old. At this age,
strain capacity may be improved to provide
creep and tensile
more crack resistance. The age of critical volume change
will be the age which requires theminimum average crack
spacing L' from Eq. (6.4). For most parts of the United
and
States, the critical volume change will occur for summer
placement. A value for tensile strain capacityf,'lE, of O.OOO1
seasonal cracking is
for early-age cracking and 0.00015 for
recommended.
It is necessary to calculate the required average crack
spacing to determinethe required restraining momentto be
A C 1 207-2R 95
= Obb2949
0520893 5 7 5

L
suppliedby the reinforcingsteel.Crackingthroughouta

member may or may not extend the full height of the member, depending on the UH relationship (see Fig.6.1). When
cracks
extend
for
justportion
a
of the
height,
only
the
reinforcing steel below the topof the crack is effective in contributing to the internal restraint moment. (From 6.1,
Fig.the
= T9+
internal restraint moment between full-block cracks
A,'f$J2.) Even when somecracks do extend the full height,
others extend only part way,so that the same situation applies between full-height cracks. Forthis reason, reinforcement is more effectively distributed if the wall
is examined
at several locations above
the base to determine the average
crack spacing required at each location corresponding
to the
The
degree of restraint KR at each distance h from the base.
(A,' f&J2 required of the readditional restraining moment
restmined
inforcing steel between the point h and
the base to
L' at h can be conservaproduce the required crack spacing
tively determinedby substituting h for H in Eq. (4.4)
-I
&-
FIXED BASE
0.3
0.1
10
The degree of restmintKR to be used in the ~ i k d a t i o nof

L' at h can be calculated as indicated in section 4.2.1 or Can
207.2R-19
20
30 40
SO
80
70
BO
90 1 0 0
kig. 6.2-walI height requiring m i m u m temperature and

shrinkage reinforcement as a ratio of base length
beread directly from Fig. 4.1 as the proportional height

above thebase (")
corresponding to the actualUHcurves.
It is conservative and usually convenient to assume the
distance has the free edge distanceH and readKR in Fig.4.1 at
the freeedge using Uh as L M .
In determining the volume change reinforcement required
in eachface of walls with continuous base restraint, calculations atlift intervals or at some arbitrary intervals above the
should
base
be made as follows
ALL0WAMEMAXI~QUCKIllUT"OAW'
0.007
?Z
0006
OD05
0004
y1
A'Bh
A, = 0.4--(
1f s NH
&)
(6.6)
oms
aooe
0.001
O
interval distance above the base being considered

total number of bars in the h distance above
the base
area of bars required in each of
face
the wall
Ab
As the distance h from the base increases, steel requirements will first increase and then decrease. Maximum steel
requirements depend on base length, effective temperature
of thermal expansion. Fig.
6.2 gives the
drop and coefficient
point of maximum steel requirements in ofterms
base length
and design temperature for a coefficientof thermal expansion of 5 x in./in./F. The same curve can be used for other expansioncoefficientsbyusinganotherdesigntemFig. 6.2 alsoprovidesthe
peratureequal to CTTE/5 x
is required. Recompoint habove which only minimum steel
mendations for minimum steel requirements are given in
Fig. 6.3-Maximum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement for walls withfixed bases
Section 6.4. Only minimum steel is required where L$ is

greater than2h. Fig. 6.3,6.4, and 6.5 give themaximum steel
requirements in terms of crack width, effective temperature
drop, and base length for concrete walls having aCT= 5 x
10%. These figures can be used to proportion steel requirements in place of the multiple calculations described above
with only slightly higher
total steel quantities being required.
A C 1 2 0 7 - 2 R 95
0 6 6 2 9 4 9 0520892 401
207.2R-20
A
3
The maximum height

h over which these steel quantities
are
required can be determined from Fig. 6.2. Above h, only
minimum steel is required. Requirements for concrete properties and cover distances other than noted can be proportioned as shown.
For slabs with continuous base restraint
or walls withone
side continuously restrained
where NB = total number of bars in the free face of the slab

or wall.
In the case of relatively thick slabs, the amountof reinforcement requiredin the top faceof the slab may be reduced
by including theeffect of the reinforcement in the sides. For
this
FOR OTHER COEFFICIENTS

OF THERMAL EXPANSION:
T ( ~ )
+(r)
T/S
Fig. 6.4-Maximum temperature
io4
and shrinkage reinforce-
ment for walls withjxedbases

ALLOWABLE MAXIMUM CRACK WIDTH = 0.016''
Only minimum steelis required whereL' is greater than2H

(see Section 6.4).
In applying W.(6.7) and (6.8) to relatively large masses,
the amountof reinforcement required will make
it quite obvious that additional measures to control volume change
should be used to control crack widths. Reinforcement is not
practical in controlling the crack widths of very large externally restrained masses, and for these structures the princiin 207.1R
ples of mass concrete construction described AC1
must be followed to control cracking.The preceding formulas for crack spacing, however, can
be utilized to establish a
drop than normally
somewhat higher allowable temperature
used for mass concrete by acknowledginganacceptable
crack. This can be seen in the design temperatures corresponding to zero steel requirements for the lengths of wall
shown in Fig. 6.3 through 6.5.
Design temperatures in umeinforced sections should be
kept approximately10F less than indicated for
zero s e l reof crack
quirementsbecauseoftheapparentsensitivity
widths to temperature
in the crackingtemperaturerange. Table 6.3.1 is based on this criteria.
When the expected temperature drop
for the planned contraction joint spacing exceeds the design temperature
limits
Table 6.3.1-Design temperature limits for unreinforced

concrete walls (for limiting cracks to 0.009 in.
FOR OTHER COEFFICIENTSOF TnEn-uL EXPAIWOW:

* ( a ) %(r) Y S x Io4
Fig. 6.5-Maximum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement for walls withfired bases
Contraction
joint spacing,
ft
coefficient of thmnalexpansion xlod

6
7
5
1WJ
5u r
24 P
ZU k
1.m
60
40
37 F
30 F
35 F
50 F
25 F
29 F
42 F
21 F
25 F
20
44F
62F
36 F
A C 1 207-ZR 95
0662947 0520893 348
of Table 6.3.1,
or when a larger spacing of contraction joints
is desired,the utilizationof crackcontrol measures discussed
used
in Section 5.1.1 in conjunction with these limitsbemay
to controlthe width of cracks in between contraction joints.
6.3.2 Discontinuous externalor end restraint4racking
will occur when the
stress induced in the concrete by volume
change exceeds the tensile strength
of concreteas described
in Section 4.3.3. When more than one crack is required to
control crack widths, the total force in the reinforcing steel
must equal the total restraint force induced at ends of the
member. For members with continuous base support, this
will require a minimum steel ratio
of
207.2R-21
6.4-Recommendation for minimum reinforcement

The minimum requirements AC1
of 3 18 should apply
to all
superstructure slabs and beams. The minimum total quantity
of temperature and shrinkage reinforcement recommended
for walls, slabs, and footings less than 48 in. thick, which
have been investigated for crack control by the measures
outlined herein,is 0.0015 times the cross sectional areaAg
of
the member. When shrinkage-compensating cement
is used,
the recommendation of
AC1 223 for design of reinforcement
should be followed. Not less than one-half nor more than
two-thirds of the total quantityof reinforcement should be
placed in any one face. For crackcontrol themaximum bar
spacing should be limited to 12 in. on center. For members
minium temperature andshrinkmore than 48 in. thick the
age requirements in each face should
be limited by depth of
cover d, and bar spacing such that
More than one crack be

will
required when the permissible
crack widthis less than the volume change
LCTTE
A,' = &'A or A (aslimit
For members spanning between supports, the change in
a
for&'&)
(6.11)
f, 100
stress of the bottom face reinforcement due
to thermal cracking may be determined from (4.6) of Section 4.3.1.
The minimum bar size and spacing for members
of this size
When the volume change is less than the permissible crack
#6 bars at 12 in. on center.
should not be less than
as may
width, no steel is required for volume change except
No minimum temperature and shrinkage reinforcement is
be requiredas minimum (see Section 6.4).
required
for members ft6 or more in thickness that are con6.3.3 Internal restraint-For relatively large masses, the
structed
by
the principles and practices of AC1 207.1R to
spacing of surface crackswill be controlled by internal recontrol
the
cracking of
mass concrete provided the environstraint as described in Section 4.4. These cracks, indepenmental
conditions
are
such
that cracking from internal reare not deep enough to
dent of external restraint conditions,
straint
as
discussed
in
Section
6.3.3is not significant.
require more than nominal amounts of reinforcing near the
In the example givenin Secsurface to control crack widths.
6.5-Design procedure
tion 4.4, the surface tensile stress due to daily temperature
The basic procedurefor problem solving is:
fluctuations was more than the surface stress due to the annual changein temperature. The depth of tensile stress block 1. Determine the maximum effective temperatureas outlined in Section 2.6.
in
for the daily temperature fluctuations was less thanft 2.5
2. Determinethe restraint characteristics
of the elementor
the example.If this is assumed asthe maximum depth of the
structure as outlined in Chapter4.
critical restraint plane for internal restraint, then a maximum
3. Determine the physical properties of the concrete; tensurface crack spacing in large masses of approximately
5 ft
of thermal excaa be expected. If LCTTE, usingthe maximum normal daily sile strength, elastic modulus, and coefficient
pansion as outlined in Chapter
3.
temperature fluctuation forTE,is less thanw/12L', for L' in
ft, then no surface reinforcementis required (noteL' should
4. Determine the allowable maximum crack width from
Section 5.2 or by some other established criteria.
5 ft). If CTTE> w/12L', then the
not be taken as more than
minimum steel requirementsof Section 6.4 should probably
5. Determine the area
of steel required to maintain crackbe utilized.
ing at the acceptable level.
a. For members subject to continuous external edge reWhen internal restraint results from exposure
of projecting
straint determine the required average crack spacing for the
elementsfromwarminteriors,suchasslabsprojecting
height of slab or height intervals
of 5 to 10 ft above the base
through exterior walls or walls projecting
of the
out ground,
the required crack spacof wallsas per Section 6.3.1. Where
determine the depth of the tensilestress block and restraint
ing is less thanthe spacing of joints, provide reinforcement
factor as outlined in Section 4.4.1. If the required average
crack spacingis less than twice the depth
of the tensile stress as per Section6.3.2. In lieu of this the reinforcement in walls
may be proportioned using Fig.
6.2 through 6.5. When the elblock determine the size
of barsto be distributed throughout
ement or member is of sufficient size to require more than
the tensilestress block by
1.5 in?/ft of temperature reinforcementor when its cost exceeds one-thirdthe cost of concrete (excluding formwork),
be apadditional measures to control volume change should
(6.10)
plied as recommended in AC1 207.1R.
b.Fordiscontinuousexternal
or endrestraint,reinwhere NH = the totalnumber of bars distributed throughout
forcement will be required if W I LCTTE If the member is
subject to flexure, determine the change instress
steelas per
d,.
- -
a.

A C 1 2 0 7 - 2 R 95
0662949 0520894 289

207.2R-22
Section 6.2. If not, determine

requirements
steel
the
as per
0.009
L' =
= 1.58 ft
Section 6.3.2.
18 (0.95 x 5 x 98 - 150) x loa
c. For members subject
to internal restraint, provide
reinforcement as per Section 6.3.3 if therequiredaverage
Eq. (6.6) at 5 ft
crack spacingis less than twice the depth of the tensile stress
block.
Ab =
1
= 1.40 in?
The following example problems illustrate
thisdesign pro22,000
CedUre.
From Fig. 6.3, p = 0.007 and p2 = 53p (402/22,000), or
Example 6.1-Basement wall of power plant
30 ft high by
p2
= 0.0068, since tensile strength is 402 psi and not 420
200 ft long is to be designed to retain bacW1ll as a cantile
psi,:. Ab = 0.00688 X 12/2 = 0.0408 B and ath = 5 ft, Ab =
vered wallfor construction conditions.
The wall is subject to
0.0408x 38 = 1.55 in?
ground waterfor its full height, with base
slab on rock. It will
be placed in 80 F ambient temperatures. Minimum finalor
operating air temperature will be 50 F. Assume the wall
Wlth
the
tapers fromits maximum thicknessat the base to 18 in. at
KR (L
adjusted p
Ab
kinforc
Ab
Average 200 ft) L'
top. Maximum thickness at the base is controlled by shear
h, ft
B, in. ng.4.1 6.4'
L ' / a 6.6'
ement
Fig. 6.3
and is 40 in. for 3000 psi concrete and 48 in. for 2000 psi
5
I
38 I 0.95 I 1.58 I 0.16 I 1.40 I 1.55
1#1Oat10
concrete. Designfor limited leakage by limiting crack width
10 I 34 I 0.86 I 1.84 I 0.09 I 1.35 I 1.39
I
to 0.009 in. and determine required wall thickness and rein15 I 31 I 0.79 I 2.11 I 0.07 I 1.26 I
1.26
I M a t 10
forcement for the following conditions:
20
2.35 0.74
0.06 27 1.11
1.10
2.53 0.71
25
0.05 23 O.%
0.94
mat 12
a. Design for3000 psi (3700 psi average strength) 28
at
30
20
0.66 2.88 0.05
#8 at 12
days and use the
470 lb/yd3 mix of Example 2.2.
* Formula:
b. Same as (a) except contractionjoints spaced 67 f ft
Concrete = 537 yd3 @ $ 7 0 , ..................................
$37.600
Temperaam reinforment = 27 m
o
n
s @ $800 ....................
apart.
Cost (excluding forms). .....................................
$59,200
c. Designfor 2000 psi at28 days using mix
of Example
2.1, no contractionjoints and concrete cooled
to 60 F placing
d.l(b)
temperature.
Everything
same as (a) except L = 67 ft. From Fig. 6.2;
6.I (a)
maximum
steel
requiredonly for thefmt 20 ft.
Step 1.2-Volume-to-surface ratio (assume 10-ft lifts
first two lifts = 33
and woodenforms).Average thickness for
in. = 2.75 ft.
Wooden forms= 1.67 ft.of concrete
)(
-T)
~~
0.82 0.83
Step 1.2-Following Example 2.2 in Section 2.7, the

F concrete without cooleffective placing temperature 80
for
ing measures wouldbe approximately 84 F.
Step 1.3-The minimumtemperatureT[inflmin]of
*F d a
concrete againstearth, using Eq. (2.3), is 54 F.
A@~o. =A,X 0.00151Nb(see Section 6.4).
Tempcrahlnreinforcamnt=14.49tons@$SO
.................... $11.590
Step I.&The temperature rise following Example
2.2
is 68 F.
Note savings in reinforcing steel
of $10,000to be weighed
Step I.5"The design temperature equals
84 + 68 - 54
of two joints and addedconstruction time.
against the cost
= 98 F.
d.I(c)-For
2000 psi (2500 psi average strength) concrete,
Note: Seasonal temperature controls, since [5 (98) f ,at 6 months (using Fig.3.2 and C + Fa)= 6 &, %
or 416
1501 > [5 (68) - 1001, as discussed inSection 6.3.1.
psi.
Step 2-Restraint (Fig. 4.1).
Steps 1.1-1.5-VB for the first
two lifts = 2.81.
Step 3-Physical properties from Fi 3.2; f
,' at 6
For a 60 F placing temperature, the concretepeaks at 2
months = 4500 psi, tensile
strength&' = 6 4500 = 402 psi;
days from Fig. 2.4.
andtensile strain capacity = 150 x
inJin., assume C
,=
5 x lo6inJin./F.
Approximately 12 F is absorbed using Fig.2.6.
Step &Limiting crack width = 0.009 in.
The temperature rise would
be 19 F using Fig.2.5. and accounting for cement type and
quantity.
Step S(b)-- = 22 ksi for 2-1/2-in. cover and 12-in.
The design temperature equals
60 + 12 + 19 - 54 = 37 F.
spacing of bars from
Eq. (6.2). Using Fig.6.2 and 6.3, maximum temperature and shrinkage reinforcementis required
From Fig. 6.3, p2 = 53 (Q&) = 53 (0.003) x (416/22,000)
for full height of wall for average thickness of33 in.
= 0.0030
Examples:-Eq. (6.4) at h = 5 ft
Ab = p2B x 1212 = 0.018 B
F-

A C 1 2 0 7 - 2 R 75
Obb27117 0520875 110
Steps 2-&Assume same as (a).

Step 5(b)-From Fig. 6.2 and 6.3 maximum steel ratio
equals 0.003 for first25 fi of wall.
Wlth
Average R@= mft) L'
h, ft B, in.
6.4' L72h
Fig.4.1
I
5 I 46 I
0.93
I 39ft I 1+ I
10
41
0.86
55ft 1+
15 I 36 I
0.79
12OOftl 1+ I
0.73
31
20
0.67
26
25
23
0.61
30
* Conat& = 612yd'
Reinp
mum
forCeAb
stet') Fig. 6.3 ment
0.41 I 0.83
I%at
12
0.37
0.74
0.32 I 0.65 l#5 at 12
0.28
0.56
0.23
0.47 #4 at 12
0.41
0.21
.....................................
@ $70.
Tanpaature reinfmc.mcnt = 6.5 tons O 5800.
P = - -1-20 - 0.003, n = 9,j = 0.94, h = 20 ft

12 (33)
$42.500
..................... _zyM
4
8
o
,o
o
Savings in stress steel 3 tolls for 8 in. additional depth ................ - 2 . W
.....................................
Net cost (excluding forms).

$45,600
cost of oooling c m c m c a
s
dqualto savings in cernent costp.Note Example c
is $13,600 less than fiample a for the same. design requinmnts.
Example 6 . 2 4 l v e r t roof 36 in. thick supporting

20 ft of
fill, spanning20 ft between 4 ft thick walls,20 ft high by100
ft long resting on a rock base, placed in 80 F ambient air,
minimum finalair temperature 20 F, no coolingof concrete,
mix same as Example 2.1, stress steel #9 at 10 stressed to
24,000 psi in bottom face.
Step 1.1-The volume-to-surface ratio
Kf = (3) /20 = 1.35, Kc = (4) /20 = 3.2
Af, =
adjusted
9b (mini-
2072R-23
0.0175( 5x lo4) (68) 29 x 10'1

2 (0.003) 9 (0.94)
Note: This is less than allowable of 34,300 psi; therefore

no additional steelis requiredfor volume change
in the stress
direction.
6.2(a)
6.2 find the temperature
steel
For the roof slab of Example
parallel to the wall. Assume3 4 in. cover to center of temf, = 26,000 psi for bar at12 in. spacing.
perature steel or
Note: Since the temperature
rise of the slabis only 20 F the
wall does not offer enough restraint to crack slab
the therefore design the slabanasextension of the wallwith a design
temperature drop of 68 F.
Step 2-Restraint at 5 ft from the wall forUh = 100125
= 4, K f z 0.40.
Step 5-From Eq. (6.4) Note: KRCTTEof 0.4(5)(68) is
less thanfllE of 150:. No cracking willoccur and only minimum steel is required
A, = 0.0015 (12) (32.5) /2 = 0.29
in?/ft
Reinforcement = #5 at 12 in.each face.

Example 6.3-A 6 ft thick power-plant base slab supporting widely spaced walls. Construction
joints but no contraction or expansion joints. Assumed placed in 75 F average
of 50 F.
ambient air temperature with final unheated interior
#11
Slab is designed foroperating uplift conditions requiring
bars at 12 in. O.C. stressed to 24,000 psi.
a. Assume same concrete mix and conditions
as ExamStep I#.-From
Fig. 2.5, the temperature rise for a wet
ple
2.2.
surface condition= 34 F.
b. Assume same concrete mix
and conditions as ExamFor the same concrete placed
at 69 F, the temperaturerise
2.1.
ple
for Example2.1 was 30 F.
6.3(a)
Considering adjustmentsfor cement type and proportions,
Step I-The maximum V& for a slab shall
be 75 perthe actualrise for Example 2.1 was 18 F.
See
paragraph
2.6.
Therefore,
V/S
cent
of
the
slab
thickness.
Therefore, the actual rise= 34( 18)/30 = 20 F.
=
0.75
(6
ft)
=
4.5
f
t
maximum.
Step 2.5-Design temperature = 84 + 20 36 = 68 F.
a. Effective placing temperature using Fig. 2.6 and
Step 2-Restraint for end supports[Eq.(4.5)]
temperature peak of 1.5 days from Fig.2.4.
Step 1.2-Effective placing temperature = 90- 0.6(10)

= 84 F (Using Fig.2.6).
Step I.3-Final temperature is
TPE= 85 F - 0.03(10) = 82 F f
Step 3"'
= 405 psi CT= 5 x
in./in./F
Step &Assume W = 0.013 in., d, = 2 in.:. Adc = 125
for #9 bars at 10 in. O.C.
n
:. f,
Step 5-Steel
x 'OJ = 34.3 ksiallowable
3m
0.076
requirements [Es. (4.6)]

b. Temperature rise using Fig.

2.5 for wetsurface conditions.
For VIS = 4.5 at TpK= 82 F; temperature rise= 41 F.
From Example2.2: Adjustments for cement type= 41/30
= 1.38; adjustments for cement content
470/376 = 1.25.
:. Net temperature rise= 1.38(1.25)(41)= 71 F.
c. Final temperature usingQ. (2.3)
TF = 5 0 + (2/3(60-50))../=
= 55F
A C 1 2 0 7 a 2 R 95
Obb29LI9 052089b O57 W
207.2R-24
d. Design temperature drop
82+71-55=98F
318
Building
Code
Requirements
for Reinforced
Concrete
350R EnvironmentalEngineeringConcreteStructures
ASTM
Step 2-Restraint (Fig. 4.1)without contraction or
C 496StandardTestMethodforSplittingTensile
expansion joints the lengthis unspecified therefore assume
Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens
U H is greater than20 or KR = 0.9 maximum.
C 186 Standard Test Method for Heat of Hydration of
Step 3-Physicalproperties,$
=6
= 405 psi.
Hydraulic Cement
Step &Limiting crack width = 0.013 in. For bars at 12
in. O.C. and cover of
2V2in. the allowable steel
stress from Eq.
(6.2) is 32,200 psi.
7.2-Cited references
Step 5 4 t e e l requirements
1. Carlson, Roy W.; Houghton, Donald L.; and Polivka,
Milos, Causes and Control of Cracking in Unreinforced
Mass Concrete, AC1JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 76, No. 7,
(0.013)
L =
= 2.5 ft (Eq.6.4)
July 1979, PP. 821-837.
18 [0.9 ( 5 ) (98) - 1501 lo4
2. Milestone,N.B., and Rogers,D. E., Use of an Isothermal Calorimeter for Determining Heats of Hydration
Ear-at
0.20 (405) 12 (72)
ly Ages,World Cernent Technology(London), V. 12, No.8,
(Eq.
6.7)
Ab = 32,000
1
Oct. 1981, pp. 374-380.
3. Verbeck, George J., and Foster,Cecil W., Long-Time
Study of Cement Performancein Concrete. Chapter &The
= 1.73 in.
Heats of Hydration of the Cements, Proceedings, ASTM,
V. 50,1950, PP. 1235-1262.
Check
4. Carlson, Roy W., Drying Shrinkage of Large Concrete
A f, for flexure (Eq.4.7)
Members, AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 33, No. 3, Jan.Af, = 2(0.9) (5 x 10-6, (98) (29x lo6)= 25,600 psi
Feb. 1937, pp. 327-336.
Zf,= 24,000 + 25,600 = 49,600
5 . Troxell, George Earl, and Davis, Harmer
E., ComposiSince combined stressis greater than the allowable, additional steelis needed, however, maximum steel requirements tion and Properties of Concrete, MacGraw-Hill Book Co.,
New York, 1956, p. 236.
will be lessthan 1.56 + 1.73 = 3.29 in.% or #11 at6 in.O.C.
6. Raphael, Jerome M., Tensile Strength of Concrete,
Assume final bar spacing of 7 in. O.C. for an allowable steel
AC1 JOURNAL, Proceedings V. 81, No. 2, Mar.-Apr. 1984,
stress of 38,500 psi.
pp. 158-165.
7. Control of Cracking in Mass Concrete Structures,
En24
= 2.90 in.% #11 0 6:.OK
As = 1*56(38.5 - 25.6
gineering MonographNo. 34, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation,
Denver, 1965.
6.3(b)
8. Darwin, David; Manning, David
G.; Hognestad, Eivind;
For Example b the design
temperature would be 34 F and
Beeby, Andrew W.; Rice, Paul F.; and Ghowrwal, Abdul,
A f , = 8900 psi so that combined stress equals 32,900 psi
Debate: Crack Width, Cover, and Corrosion,
Concrete Znwhich exceeds allowable of 32,200 psi by less than 3 perternational: Design & Construction,V.7, No. 5, May 1985,
cent; therefore,no additional steelis needed for temperature.
pp. 20-35.
CHAPTER 7-REliXRENCES
9. Turton, C. D., Practical Means of Control of Early
ThermalCracking in Reinforced Concrete Walls, Paper
presented at theAC1 Fall Convention, New Orleans, 1977.
7.1-Recommended references
The documents of the various standards-producing organi10. Gergely, Peter, and Lutz, LeRoyMaximum
A.,
Crack
zations referred to in this document are listed below with
Width in Reinforced Concrete Flexural Members,Causes,
Mechanism, and Control of Cracking in Concrete, SP-20,
their serial designations.
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, 1968, pp. 87-1 17.
American Concrete Institute
73-Additional references
116R Cement and Concrete Terminology-SP- 19(85)
207.1R Mass Concrete
1. Hognestad, Eivind, High Strength Bars As Concrete
Reinforcement, Part 2. Controlof Flexural Cracking,Jour207.4R Cooling and Insulating Systems for Mass Concrete
nal, PCA Researchand Development Laboratories,
V. 4,No.
223-83 Standard Practice for the Use of Shrinkage-Com- 1, Jan. 1962,
pp. 46-63. Also, Development DeparhnentBulpensating Concrete
letin D53, Portland Cement Association.
in Con224.1R Causes, Evaluation, and Repair of Cracks
of Reclama2. Concrete Manual, 8th Edition, U.S. Bureau
tion, Denver, 1981,p. 17.
crete Structures
305RHotWeatherConcreting
3. Tuthill, Lewis H., and Adams, Robert F., Cracking
306RColdWeatherConcreting
Controlled in Massive, Reinforced Structural Concrete by
( 52).

Application of Mass Concrete Practices, AC1

JOURNAL,
Proceedings V.69, NO.8, Aug. 1972, PP. 481-491.
4. Houghton, D.L.,Determining Tensile Strain Capacity
of Mass Concrete, AC1JOURNAL,
Proceedings V. 73, No.
12, D=. 1976,PP. 691-700.
he
207.2R-25
= 28 day heat generationof the cement by heat of
hydration, caVgm
4
= momentof inertia of gross concretesectionsubjected to flexureby the restraining forces
j
= ratio of distancebetweencentroid
of compression and centroidof tension to the depth d of a
flexural member.j = 1 - W3
APPENDIX
K
= conductivity,Btu/fhr/F
Notation
KC
= stiffnessofverticalrestrainingelementsubjected to flexure by the restraining forces
A = effectivetension area ofconcretesurroundinga
= stiffness of floorsystembeingtensionedbyregroup of reinforcing bars and having the same cen- Kf
straint
troid as that reinforcement, dividedby the number
KR
=
degree
of restraint.Ratioofactual stress resultof bars
stress which
ing
from
volumechangetothe
A , = area of a member subject to volume change
restrained.
In most
would
result
if
completely
Ab = area of reinforcing bar
calculations,
it
is
convenient
to
use
the
ratio of
AF = areaoffoundation
or otherelementrestraining
f
r
e
e
length
change
and
actual
the
difference
in
shortening of element
free
length
change
length
change
to
the
A, = gross area of concrete cross section
k
= ratio ofdepthofcompressiveareatothedepth
d
A, = area of steel for a given width
of
flexural
member
using
the
straight
line
theory
A, = area of steel perft of length for a given width
of stress distribution
B, b = width of cross section
L
= distancebetweencontractionorexpansionjoints
C = weight of portland cement per yd3 of concrete, lb
in the directionof restraint or overall lengthof a
Ceq = weight of portland cement plus a percentageof the
member undergoing volume change
weight of pozzolan per yd3 of concrete,
lb
L
= calculatedaveragedistancebetweencracks
Ch = specific heat, B M b . F
N
= number
of cracks
C, = linear thermal coefficient, 5 x IO& per F for limeNB
= numberof reinforcingbarsinthe
free (unrestoneaggregate, 6 x
per F forsiliceousriver
strained) faceof a slab or wall
gravel aggregate
NH
= numberof reinforcingbarsspacedalongthe
H
d = depth of member from compressive face to the cenface or faces perpendicular to the plane of retroid of the reinforcement
straint
dc = thickness of concrete cover measured fromthe conn
= ratio of modulusofelasticityof
steel to that of
crete surface at which cracks are being considered
concrete
to the center
of the nearest reinforcing bar
P
= area of steel divided by theappropriatearea of
d, = assumed depthof tensile stress blockfor internal reconcrete
straint considerations
Mm
= restrainingmomentto be suppliedby the stress
e
= eccentricity of a load with respect to the centroid of
reinforcing steelfor full height cracking
the section
MRh = sameaspreceding for partialheight
E, = modulus of elasticity of concrete
S
= surfacearea of aconcretememberexposedto air
EF = modulus of elasticity of foundation or restraining elT
= tensile
force.
lb
ement
=
average
minimum ambientair temperature over
TA
E, = modulus of elasticityofsteel
a prolonged exposure period of1 week
Fa = weight of fly ash per yd2 of concrete, lb
= temperature generated by the total quantity of
TC
f, = specified compressive strength of concrete, psi
cementitious materials if all were portland c e
f, = calculatedstressinreinforcement,psi
ment
fr = tensilestress,psi
=
temperature
generated by the mixture of
portTC+F
ft = tensilestrengthofconcrete,psi
land cement and pozzolan
fy
= designyieldstress of steel
= effectivetemperaturechange in membersinTE
H = perpendicular distance from restrained edge to free
to
cludinganequivalenttemperaturechange
edge. Where a slab is subject to edge restraint on
compensate for drying shrinkage
two opposite edges,H is one-half the distance be= equivalent temperature drop to be used inoflieu
tween edges. Forslab on grade,H is the slab thickdrying shrinkage
ness in feet
= temperature of eartb or rock mass
TM
H, = adiabatic temperature rise of the concrete
Tmin = minimum temperature of concrete against earth
h = heightofverticalrestrainingelement,columnor
or rock mass, F
wall, above fixed base
or elemental heightof a wall
=
placing temperatureof the fresh concrete
TP
h2 = diffusivity in ft2 per hour
= effectiveplacingtemperatureafteraccounting
TPK
for heat gained from or lost to the air,
F
h, = elemental height of crack above base

A C 1 2 0 7 = 2 R 95
207.2R-26
Tl
Tz
V
W,,
W,
0bbZ.949 0520898 92T
= high temperahue in a temperature gradient
= low temperature in a temperature gradient

= volume of a concrete member
= the water contentof the fresh concrete lb per yd3
= weight of cement perCU yd of concrete, lb
W = maximum surface crack width, in.
W, = weight of concrete, lWft3 Section4.3.2
x = distance between resultant tension
force and the compression face, in.
z = quantity limitingdistribution of flexural reinforcement, psi,see AC1 3 18
= ratio of the distance from the neutralaxis to the tension face of a flexural member to the distance from
is
the neutral axis to the tension steel. Where flexure
not involved,R = 1
= ratio of distance from neutral axis to the tensile face
to the distance from neutral axis to steel
Ac = contraction of the concrete, in./in.
1 in.
lft
Metric conversions
= 25.4 mm
= 0.3048 m

1 in.2
lft2
1 in3
1 ft3
1 yd3
1 lb
1 lb/in? (psi)
1 k i p h 2 (ksi)
1 lb/ft2
1 lb/ft3 (pcf)
1 lb/yd3
1 Btdlb-F
1 Btdlb*hr*F
1 in./ii./F
Temperature
= 645.1 mm2
= 0.0929 m2
= 16.39 x 1 0 3 ~
= 0.0283 m3
= 0.7646 m3
= 0.4536 kg
= 6895 Pa
= 6.895 MPa
= 41.88 Pa
= 16.02 kg/m3
= 0.5933 k@m3
= 4.87 J/(kg*K)
= 1.731 W/mK
= 1.8 mm/mm/C
tc
= (tF - 32)/1.8
Difference in temperature
tc
= td1.8
This report was submiw to letter ballot of the. committee.and approved in BCCOIdance wirh ACI balloting procedures.
A C 1 2 0 7 - Z R 95
0662949 0520899 8 6 6
Cracking of Massive Concrete
The AMERICAN CONCRETE INSTITUTE

was founded in 1905 as a nonprofit membership organization dedicated to
public service and to representing user interests in the field of concrete. It
gathers and distributes information on the improvement of design, construction, and maintenance of concrete products and structures. The work of the
Institute is done by individual members and by volunteer committees.
The committees, as well as the Institute as a whole, operate under a
consensus format, which assures all members the right to have their views
considered. Committee activities include the development of building codes
and specification standards; analysis of research and development results;
presentation of construction and repair techniques; and education.
Anyone interested in the activities of the Institute is encouraged to seek
membership.Therearenoeducationaloremploymentrequirements.Engineers, architects, scientists, constructors, and representatives from a variety of companies and organizations form the Institute membership.
All members are eligible and encouraged to participatein committee activities that relate to their specific areas of interest. Membership information,
a publications catalog, and listings of educational activities are available.
american concrete institute

BOX 19150, REDFORD STATION
DETROIT, MICHIGAN
48219


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A C 1 207.

95 W 066271.19 0520873 787

Effect of Restraint, Volume Change,

american concrete institute

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

First Printing, March 1995

American Concrete Institute

AC1 Certification Programs

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

Enhancement of AC1 Documents

Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and Reinforcement

*Members of the task group who prepad this report.

Members of the committee voting on proposed revisions:

*chairman,2072R Task Group.

This reportpresents adiscussion ofthe gects of heat generation and vol-

rise (i concrete); tensile strength; thermal expansion; volume change;

restmint on cracking and the Mects of controlled placing temperatures,

AC1 Committee Reports, Guides, Standard Practices, and

Chapter %Volume change, p. 207.2R-3

The 1995 revisions c o n s i s t e d of many minor editorial and typographical corrections

AC1 COMMlllEE REPORT

Chapter %Properties,p. 2073R-8

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

0662949 0520875 322

CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE

The thermal behavior of mass concrete

0662747 0520876 267

AC1 COMMllTEE REPORT

Fig. 2.2-Rate of heat generation as affected by Wagner

The fineness of cementaffects the rateof heat generation

For low and medium cement contents, thetotal quantity of

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

0662949 0520877 IT5

CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE

VOLUME M SURFACE RATIO

temperature.The problem maybe simplified somewhat

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

A C 1 2 0 7 . 2 R 95 W 0662949 0520878 O31 W

AC1 COMMIITEE REPORT

herein for the use of these agents.

contents and drying shrinkage

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

Ob62949 0520879 T74

CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE

of heat dissipation(see AC1 306R). Each inch of wood has

AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

ExumpZe 2.1-A 2 ft wide retaining wall with rock base

Ob62949 0520880 77T

1. a. With no cooling measures the placing temperature

CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE

stresses in the elastic range are low and crackis conspacing

trolled primarily by volume change.

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

The most commonly used test to determine the tensile

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

CRACKING OF MASSIVE CONCRETE

modulus in tension and compressionfor hardened concrete

of tensile restraintat center section

All concrete elements are restrained to some degree by

COPYRIGHT American Concrete Institute

AC1 COMMITTEE REPORT

= gross area of concrete cross section