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1.17

Abandonment of
Sewers

Disused sewers and drains have the great potential

to allow unwanted flows, such as groundwater to
enter the system through deteriorating faults in the
system fabric. They therefore need to be removed
from the system to prevent structural deterioration,
unauthorised use, and ingress of groundwater and
infestation by rodents.
Disused sewers shall be removed or, where this is
impracticable, they shall be filled in accordance with
the materials and details contained on the Standard
Drawings in Volume 8.

Pumping Stations

2.1

Standards

The standards and sources of information to be

used are listed in sections 1.1 and 1.2.

2.2

Hydraulic Design

The overall design philosophy of the pumping

system needs to be a balanced design with due
consideration of functional, environmental and
economic aspects. For pumping systems in the
vicinity of sensitive receivers, reliability of the system
is of key concern. Bypass or overflow of raw
sewage, even in emergency situations, should be
avoided where possible.
Particular attention should be paid to the following
issues:

Design flow;

Standby power supply or temporary storage;

Standby pumps;

Overflows and emergency bypass;

Twin rising mains;

Availability of QGWEC power supply;

Land area available and proximity to housing or

public areas;

Access to the proposed site.

Since the pumping station will probably be serving

an area of new development, it is likely that the
initial flows to the station will be much smaller than
those expected for the full design. Flows will
increase in the following years to reach the design
capacity of the station. If the inflows are greatly
below the pump output, the result will be excessive
periods of inactivity of the station, with the potential
for premature failure of equipment. Such infrequent
operation of pumps will also result in retention of
sewage in the rising main, raising problems with
septicity, corrosion and effects on the receiving
STW.

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Consideration should therefore be given to the

sizing and numbers of pumps to match the likely
build-up of incoming flows. Where possible, similar
pumps should be installed, on duty and assist basis,
with similar standby pump(s). The use of similar
pumps will avoid any changes in pumping regime
due to the rotation of duty pumps for operational
reasons.

Indicative values of k are given in Table 2.2.1below.

Consideration should also be given to installing twin

rising mains. One main would be used in the early
years of the scheme to achieve satisfactory
maximum flow velocities and hence minimise
siltation. When flows increase, then the second main
would be brought into use.
Although not strictly required for the early years of a
scheme, it would not be economic to construct one
rising main and then construct the second within a
short period, say five years. The additional costs
and disruption of digging a second trench, together
with operational and safety requirements of working
adjacent to a live rising main, would be avoided.

2.2.1

Hydraulic Principles

A pumping system may consist of inlet piping,

pumps, valves, outlet piping, fittings, open channels
and/or rising mains. When a particular system is
being analysed for the purpose of selecting a pump
or pumps, the head losses through these various
components must be calculated. The station loss
(i.e. the loss on the suction and delivery pipework
from the sump to the common header) should also
be considered. The frictional and minor head losses
of these components are approximately proportional
to the square of the velocity of flow through the
system and are called the variable head.
Friction losses should be determined using the
ColebrookWhite Formula.
Losses in fittings at the station, and outside of it
should be determined using the formula:
H = kv2/2g
Equation 2.2.1
Where H denotes the fitting headloss (m), k is the
loss coefficient, v the velocity (m/s) and g is the
gravitational constant, 9.81m/s2.

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Table 2.2.1 Indicative Minor Loss Coefficients,

k, for Various Fittings

Fitting

Coefficient k

Standard 900 bend

0.75

Long Radius 900 bend

0.4

Standard 450 bend

0.3

Tee - line to branch

1.2

Tee flow in line

0.35

Taper up

0.5

Sharp Entry

0.5

Bellmouth Entry

0.1

Sudden Exit

1.0

Non-return valve*

1.0

Gate Valve, fully open*

0.12

*Note that for valves it is advisable to obtain

manufacturers data on headlosses. System head
calculations would normally be carried out using valve
open figures.

It is also necessary to determine the static head

required to raise the liquid from suction level to a
higher discharge level. The pressure at the
discharge liquid surface may be higher than that at
the suction liquid surface, a condition that requires
more pumping head. These two heads are fixed
system heads, as they do not vary with rate of flow.
Fixed system heads can be negative, if the
discharge level or the pressure above that level is
lower than suction level or pressure. Fixed system
heads are called static heads.
The Total Dynamic Head (TDH) for a system is the
sum of the major and minor friction losses plus the
static head. The duty point for a pump selection will
be the required flow at the TDH.
A system head curve is a plot of total system head,
variable plus fixed, for various flow rates. It may
express the system head in metres and the flow rate
in cubic metres per second. Procedures to plot a
system-head curve are:

1. Define the pumping system and its length;

2.

Calculate the fixed system head;

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3.

Calculate the variable system head losses for

several flow rates;

4.

Combine the fixed head and variable heads for

several flow rates to obtain a curve of total
system head versus flow rate.

The flow delivered by a centrifugal pump varies with

system head.
Pump manufacturers provide
information on the performance of their pumps in the
form of characteristic curves of head versus
capacity, commonly known as pump curves. By
superimposing the characteristic curve of a
centrifugal pump on a system-head curve, the duty
point of a pump can be determined.
The curves will intersect at the flow rate of the
pump, as this is the point at which the pump head is
equal to the required system head for the same flow.
The recommended values for coefficient of
ColebrookWhite Roughness Factor (Section 1.5.1
above) ks for use in rising mains are contained in
Table 2.2.2 below. Note also the values indicated in
Table 1.5.1, which refer to gravity sewers.
Table 2.2.2 Recommended Values of
Colebrook-White Roughness Factors
(ks) for use in Rising Mains
Mean Velocity in m/s

ks (mm)

Up to 1.1m/s

0.3mm

Between 1.1m/s and 1.8m/s

0.15mm

The discharge capacity for multiple pumps will not

be simply the sum of the discharge capacity of
individual pumps because the system-head curve
for multiple pumps will be different from that of a
single pump.

2.2.2

Pump Arrangements

The number of pumps to be installed depends on

the station capacity and the range of flows. The
maximum discharge rate from a pumping station,
when all duty pumps and rising mains are in use
should be slightly greater than or equal to the
maximum incoming flow to the station. Pumps
should
be
selected
with
head-capacity
characteristics that correspond as closely as
possible to the overall station requirements.

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Standby capacity is required so that should any of

the pumps in the station be inoperable due to
routine maintenance or mechanical failure, the
operation of the station can still be maintained. For
instance, in a station where a single duty pump
provides the duty output, a second pump of equal
capacity is mounted. Where three duty pumps of
equal capacity are required to meet the maximum
design flow conditions, a fourth pump of similar
capacity is provided as standby.
It is not desirable to have pumps of different sizes
for operation and maintenance reasons, unless the
flow ranges vary widely throughout the day. To
cater for slow build-up of flow in the early years of
operation, phased installation of pumps, or the use
of a smaller diameter impeller should be considered.

2.3

Rising Main Design

2.3.1

Rising Main Diameters

The minimum diameter of pumping mains is

controlled by the need to avoid blockage, and
therefore should not be less than 100mm. Where
sewage is screened or macerated before pumping
the minimum diameter should not be less than
80mm.
The maximum and minimum diameters are sized to
maintain flow velocities for all stages of pumping
within the ranges specified in Section 2.4.

2.3.2

Twin Rising Mains

The use of twin rising mains should be considered

on a case by case basis. The main factors for
consideration include the design elements, risk
assessment and cost benefit analysis.
Considerations for the design elements comprise
the rate of build up of flow, the range of flow
conditions, the range of velocity in the mains, the
availability of land for the twin mains and associated
valve chambers as well as the complications in
pump operation.
A thorough risk assessment should be carried out
which should include the likelihood of mains
bursting, the consequence of failure, area affected,
sensitive receivers affected (such as beaches), and

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the feasibility of temporary diversion or tankering

away.
A cost benefit analysis should include all tangible
factors (such as cost of pipework, land cost, energy
cost, etc) and intangible factors (such as nuisance,
closure of beaches, etc).
Twin rising mains should be considered in the
following circumstances:

To accommodate a wide range of flow

conditions, such that the velocity in the mains
can be kept within acceptable limits. For
instance, a pumping system serving a new
development may have very low initial flows
with a slow build up of flow;

To provide continued operation for a major

pumping system when one of the mains is
damaged and where the failure of the system
would have serious consequence;

To minimise adverse environmental impacts to

sensitive areas;

To facilitate future inspection and maintenance

of major pumping systems, while the normal
sewage flow can be maintained.

When twin mains are found to be preferred, it is

advisable to use both mains as duty rather than one
as duty and the other as standby, from an
economical and operational point of view. Should
one of the duty mains be taken out of operation, the
remaining one would still be able to deliver a higher
quantity of flow at a higher velocity. The occurrence
of overflow or bypass can be minimised or even
eliminated. Septicity in the standby mains would
also pose an operational and maintenance problem.

2.3.3

Economic Analysis

As the size of the rising main increases, the velocity

and the system head will decrease, with savings in
the cost of pumping. The increase in the capital
cost of rising mains will be offset by the power cost
of pumping. However, it is also important that the
velocity in the mains should be within a suitable
range to minimise the deposition of solids.
Excessive hydraulic head losses are to be avoided.

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The selection of a suitable size for the rising mains

should be based on economic analysis of capital
cost and recurrent cost of the pumping system
including the power cost. A trial and error approach
should be adopted in order to arrive at an optimal
solution while maintaining the velocity within
acceptable limits.
Therefore, combinations of different sizes of rising
mains and the system head should be evaluated,
taking into account both the capital cost and the
energy cost of pumping.

2.3.4

Rising Main Alignment

The alignment of the rising main should discourage

surge in its flow conditions. Where possible the
rising main should be laid with continuous uphill
gradient of not less than 1:500, and with gentle
curves in both horizontal and vertical planes. Long
flat lengths of rising main should be avoided
therefore pipes should be laid with rise and falls of
1:500, rather than flat. Air release valves should be
provided at high points and as the profile of the main
dictates. Washouts should be installed at low points.
The arrangement and locations of valves should be
planned together with the alignment of the rising
mains.

2.4

Pipe Materials

Pipe materials for use in pumping stations should

always be Ductile Iron (DI).
Rising mains outside pumping stations may be
ductile iron or Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) with
concrete protection, however DI is preferred.

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Thrust Blocks

Thrust blocks are concrete blocks designed to

prevent pipes from being moved by forces exerted
within the pipe by the flow of water hitting bends,
tapers, and closed, or partially closed valves. In the
design of pressurised pipelines, thrust blocks are
essential on flexibly jointed pipelines where any pipe
movement would open up the joints in the line and
cause water leakage. Restraint straps may also be
required for above-ground pipework.
Thrust blocks are also necessary near valves where
a flexible joint is located to facilitate removal of the
valve for maintenance purposes. The size of block
is dependent upon the angular deflection, flow, size
of pipe and the pressure of water inside the pipe.
The designer should also refer to the pipe
manufacturers literature.
The following design assumptions are to be
adopted:

Thrusts developed due to changes in direction

of pipeline, dead end or change in diameter
should be considered. Force due to change in
velocity head can normally be assumed as
negligible unless there is a drastic change in
pipe diameter;

Thrust blocks should be designed for the

condition of no support being available from the
backfill, i.e. to be cast against undisturbed
ground;

For most cases, thrust blocks will be designed

to transfer forces directly onto undisturbed
ground using direct bearing, the acceptable
bearing pressure being confirmed by
geotechnical investigation. If the adjacent
ground has insufficient bearing capacity, the
block may need to be designed using ground
friction or piling to transfer thrusts to a more
competent soil layer. Consideration should also
be given to the presence of adjacent services
and the possibility of future disturbance during
maintenance operations. Complex thrust blocks
may be required to avoid transfer of forces and
consequential damage to adjacent services;

Maximum and
Minimum Velocities

The maximum velocity in rising mains should not

exceed 2.0 m/s, The desirable range of velocity
should be 1m/s to 2m/s with due consideration given
to the various combinations of number of duty
pumps in operation. (This is because lower
velocities cause siltation, and higher velocities
increase surge problems and power usage).

2.5

2.6

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For pipes with flexible joints such as DI pipes

with socket and spigot joints, all the thrust is
assumed to be taken up by the blocks.

Static thrusts may be calculated using the formulae

as follows:

2.7

Air Valves and

Washout Facilities

These facilities are required to minimise the adverse

effects of surge and to facilitate the operation and
maintenance of the rising main.

For blank ends:

2.7.1

Fs = 100 A P
Equation 2.6.1
Where:
Fs = the static thrust (KN)
A = the cross sectional area (m2)
P = the Pressure (bar)
For Bends:

Fs = 100 A P(2 sin /2)

Equation 2.6.2
Where is the angle of deviation at the bend.
Dynamic thrusts for water or sewage may be
calculated using following:

Fd = 2A V 2 sin /2
Equation 2.6.3
Where
Fd = the dynamic thrust (KN)

Air Valves

Air-relief valves are installed at locations of minimum

pressure. Air is sucked into the air-relief valve when
pipeline internal pressure is below atmospheric.
Upon subsequent pressure rise, the admitted air is
then expelled. Air valves should be installed at all
high points., Additional air valves should also be
placed at 800m spacings on long sections of straight
grade.
Each air valve will operate independently and
therefore several valves may be required along the
pipeline if there are numerous rises and falls in the
vertical profile of the rising main.

2.7.2

Vented Non-return Valves

An air valve combined with a vented non-return

valve allows air enter the pipeline freely on
separation of the water column, but controls the
expulsion of air as the column rejoins. This has the
effect of creating an air buffer between the column
interfaces, thus reducing the impact velocity of the
rejoining column and the surge potential of the
system.

V = the velocity (m/s)

As stated above, this force is negligible in normal
cases, but if significant, then the total thrust should
be taken as the sum of static and dynamic thrusts.
The above procedures will be satisfactory for most
routine applications. For further guidance, please
see CIRIA Report R128xxxviii. It is recommended that
this reference is used for more complex
applications, such as where thrust forces are in
excess of 1000KN or loose material is encountered.

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2.7.3

Wash Outs

The purpose of the washout system is to drain the

rising main for maintenance works. The washout
should be installed at low points of the pipeline
profile, and needs to be located carefully, taking into
account that sewage will be discharged. For long
rising mains with few low points, wash-outs should
be strategically located at suitable intervals,
generally 800m, to reduce the time required for
emptying the main in an emergency. Location
should be adjacent to a suitably sized gravity sewer
for draindown where possible If a direct connection
to a suitably sized sewer is not available, the
washout chamber should be provided with a sump

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so that the drained contents of the rising main may

be tankered away.

2.7.4

Isolating Valves

For long rising mains, isolating valves should be

included to allow sections of the rising main to be
isolated and emptied within a reasonable time. Inline sluice or gate valves are often used as isolating
valves. The isolating valve installation may
incorporate washout facilities.

2.8

Flow Meters

2.8.1

Application and Selection

The variety of choices facing the designer

confronted with a flow measurement application is
vast. For example, types of flow meter using the
positive displacement principle include rotary piston,
oval gear, sliding vane, and reciprocating piston.
Each type has advantages and limitations and no
single type combines all the features and all the
advantages.
Differential pressure meters have the advantage that
they are the most familiar of any meter type. They
are suitable for gas and liquid, viscous and corrosive
fluids. However their usable flow range is limited and
they require a separate transmitter in addition to the
sensor.
Some of the most important parameters for
flowmeters are accuracy, flow range, and whether
the medium is sewage or water. Meter selection
should be made in two steps. First by identifying the
meters that are technically capable of performing the
required measurement and are available in
acceptable materials of construction; and second, by
selecting the best choice from those available to
cover special measurement features such as
reverse flow, pulsating flow, response time and so
on.

2.8.2

Magnetic Flowmeters

Magnetic-type flowmeters use Faradays law of

electromagnetic induction for measurement. When a
conductor moves through a magnetic field of given
field strength, a voltage level is produced in the

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conductor that is dependent on the relative velocity

between the conductor and the field. Faraday
foresaw the practical application of the principle to
flow measurement, because many liquids are
adequate electrical conductors. So these meters
measure the velocity of an electrically conductive
liquid as it cuts the magnetic field produced across
the metering tube. The principal advantages include
no moving components, no pressure loss, and no
wear and tear in components.
Magnetic flowmeters offer the designer the best
solution for pumped sewage flow. With nothing
protruding into the flow of sewage, the chances of a
blockage, if installed correctly, are non-existent.
Magnetic flowmeters should always be installed with
full-pipe conditions.
Care should be taken during design to provide
sufficient straight lengths of pipeline up-stream and
down-stream of the flowmeter, in accordance with
the manufacturers installation instructions. As a
general guideline, 12 pipe diameters of straight pipe
on the inlet, and 6 pipe diameters on the outlet will
ensure that the flowmeter is able to achieve the
specified accuracy. If the amount of space available
is restricted then the minimum length usually
accepted by manufactures is inlet run of 5 pipe
diameters and outlet run of 3 pipe diameters.
The following International and British Standards are
a good source of information on flow meter selection
and installation, and can be quoted in specifications:

BS EN ISO 6817xxxix, 1997: Measurement of

Conductive Liquid Flow in Closed Conduits;

BS 7405xl, 1991: Guide to Selection and

Application of Flowmeters for the Measurement
of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits.

Flow meters should be pressure tested and

calibrated by the manufacturer, and certified to a
traceable international standard. As a minimum, the
overall accuracy should be better than 0.5% of the
flow range. The repeatability of the result should be
within 0.2%.
In addition to the calibration certificate, the flow
meter manufacturers should provide the following:
i.

Isolated 4-20mA dc and pulse outputs;

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ii.

Programmable in-built alarm relays for

empty pipe, low and reverse flows;

iii.

In-built digital display for flow rate, totals

and alarms;

iv.

Transmitter enclosure shall be protected

to IP67;

v.

Calibration and programming kit.

2.9

Surge Protection
Measures

Surge (or water hammer) is an oscillating pressure

wave generated in a pipeline during changes in the
flow conditions.
There are four common causes of surge in a
pipeline:

The earthing rings should be included according to

the individual manufacturers instructions. The
sensor lining should be neoprene or an equivalent
material of similar or improved properties, suitable
for the application of pumped sewage flow. In belowground flow meter chamber installations, the
installed equipment should be submersible to the
maximum chamber depth.

pump starting;

pump stopping/power failure;

valve action;

improper operation of surge control devices.

2.8.3

A surge analysis should usually be carried out

unless the system is simple. This is best carried out
using approved software such as Flowmaster.

Ultrasonic Flowmeters

Ultrasonic meters are available in two forms:

Doppler and transit-time. With Doppler meters, an
ultrasonic pulse is beamed into the pipe and
reflected by inclusions, such as air or dirt. The
Doppler meter is frequently used as a clamp on
device which can be fitted to existing pipelines. It
detects the velocity only in a small region of the pipe
cross section and as such its accuracy is not good.
The single or multi-beam transit-time flow meters
project an ultrasonic beam right across the pipe at
an acute angle, first with the flow, and then opposite
to the flow direction. The difference in transit time is
proportional to flow rate. This type of ultrasonic
meter is considerably more expensive but offers
better accuracy. Unlike the Doppler meter, it
requires a relatively clean fluid.

The most likely one of these is the sudden stopping

of pumps caused by a power failure.

The main use of this type of flow meter in pumped

sewage flows is in retrospective installation where
the pumping main cannot be broken into for
operational reasons. A clamp-on ultrasonic flow
meter can be used to give reasonably accurate flow
measurement.
For new installations, the lower cost of in-pipe
ultrasonic flow meters could make them a viable
alternative to magnetic flow meters for large
diameter pipe installations.

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An approximate calculation for a simple pipeline is:

g
Equation 2.9.1
Where:
P = Pressure change (m)
a = pressure wave velocity (m/s)
V = flow velocity change in 1 cycle (m/s)
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81m/s2)
The above equation can be used for calculation of
both negative and positive pressures
The simple cycle time can be calculated with the
formula:
Cycle time = 2 x pipeline length
Wave velocity
Equation 2.9.2
Table 2.9.1 Indicative Surge Wave Velocity
Values for Selected Pipe Materials
Pipe Material
Velocity (m/s)
Ductile Iron

10001400

Reinforced Concrete

10001200

Plastic

300500

If the surge pressure approaches zero or the

pipeline maximum pressure, a full surge analysis
should be carried out. When surge analysis is
complete, suitable surge suppression devices
should be selected by consultation with the
manufacturer.

Surge Suppression Methods

Surge suppression could be achieved using one of
the following devices. The most appropriate device
will depend on the individual circumstances of the
installation:
Flywheel;

Pressure vessel with bladder;

Dip-tube surge vessel;

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Surge tower.

Air valves should not be depended upon as a sole

method of surge control, but their operation under
surge conditions should be carefully considered.

P = a x V

Flywheels
Flywheels absorb energy on start-up, slowing the
rate of velocity change in the pipeline. In reverse,
when the pump is stopping, the flywheel releases
energy again, slowing the rate of velocity change.
Together these two actions reduce the peak surge
pressure.
As the flywheel must be located on the drive shaft it
is not suitable for submersible pumps or closecoupled pumps. However, they are simple devices
for wet well/dry well pumps and are preferred where
possible.
If submersible pumps have been chosen, a larger
pump running at a slower speed may have the effect
of a flywheel.
Because the flow continues through the pump after
the stop signal, the effect on the stop and start
levels should be carefully considered.

Pressure Vessels
Pressure vessels for surge suppression are tanks
partially filled with a gas (air or nitrogen). Usually the
liquid is contained in a bladder with gas on the
outside to prevent the liquid absorbing the gas or
coming into contact with the inside of the pressure
vessel, and this is the preferred type. The bladder
material should be carefully selected for use in the
conditions experienced in Qatar.
Refilling is usually from a high-pressure cylinder and
care should be taken to avoid over pressurisation of
the bladder. Bladders should not lose pressure in
normal operation, but they can fail, leading to
absorption of the gas into the liquid, and a drop in
pressure.
Vessels without a bladder are charged with air
pressure from an air compressor, either manually or
automatically. There is therefore additional
machinery and an additional maintenance
requirement. This type of surge vessel is not
recommended.

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On pump start-up, liquid enters the vessel,

compressing the gas until it equals the liquid
pressure. When the pump stops, the gas pressure
forces liquid back out into the pipe system, both
actions slow the rate of pressure change, which
reduces the peak surge pressure.
To dampen oscillations, a non-return valve may be
fitted to the surge vessel outlet pipe, to allow
unrestricted flow into the pipeline, and a bypass
around the NRV fitted with an orifice plate to restrict
the flow back into the vessel.

If air is allowed into the rising main on pump stop/trip

through an air valve, the pump control system
should be designed to prevent a restart until the
transient pressures have stabilised.
Control of the pumps is usually by start/stop level
signals, but where surge on start-up may have a
significant effect, the use of soft starters should be
considered.

2.10

Screens

Dip Tube Surge Vessels

Screen Selection

A dip tube surge vessel is pressure vessel, the top

portion forming a compression chamber limited by a
dipping tube with a shut off float valve.

Screens should generally be provided for pump

protection, unless they are small (<20l/s)
submersible stations with small inlet sewers.
Screens should incorporate the following features:

This type of vessel is particularly appropriate for use

on rising mains with flat profiles.

Screen chambers should be separate from the

wet wells;

Coarse screens should be fitted in the screen

chambers at the inlet to pumping stations to
protect the pumping equipment. They should
remove coarse screenings, but allow
screenings less than 75mm to pass forward to
the STW;

L-shaped or coarse basket screens should be

provided;

Due to the design of a surge tower, there is no

routine maintenance required to ensure the surge
tower keeps operating correctly.

The screens should be set in guides with lifting

facilities at ground level so they can be
manually removed and cleaned;

It is unlikely that surge towers would be appropriate

for use in Qatar.

Minimum of one duty and one standby screen

should be provided;

Air Valves

Air valves are required on the pumping mains to

release air, but they should not be used as a surge
protection measure.

Mechanically raked screens should be

considered for large pumping stations, typically
>1000l/s;

However, air valves, particularly if fitted with a

vented non-return valve or in-flow check valve, may
assist in surge control, and their operation must be
carefully considered.

Fine screening is not required at the pumping

station, but is required at the treatment works
to remove debris that may affect the sewage
treatment process.

Screen Installation

Surge Towers
A surge tower is a vertical tank or pipe fitted into the
pipeline, open to atmosphere and the energy
storage is by the static head of the liquid in the
tower.
Surge towers are only practical for systems with
relatively low heads and surge pressures, but can
pose an odour risk.

Air valves require regular maintenance because if

the air valve does not function correctly, large or
negative surge pressures could result, with
consequent damage to equipment or personnel.

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The manual duty and standby screen should be

installed in the incoming channel, so that the
standby screen can be lowered into position to

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Drainage Affairs

protect the pumps while the duty screen is removed

and cleaned.
Mechanically raked screens should be installed in a
channel or similar flow-line, which can be completely
isolated from the rest of the system and drained for
maintenance. A manually raked bypass screen
shall be provided.
Mechanical screens shall be housed in ventilated
and odour controlled enclosures.
Screens should be provided with actuated
penstocks (or valves) before and after each screen
for operational and maintenance isolation.
All mechanically raked screens should have an
automatic cleaning mechanism, which will clean the
screen of accumulated debris and screenings,
depositing them in a collection trough or channel
above the highest possible water level.

Space available for pumping station

(submersible stations usually require less
space);

Proximity of housing or public areas (opening

submersible pump wells may create odour
nuisance).

An alternative to wet well submersible pumps and

dry well pumps is the dry well submersible. These
should normally be considered only where an
existing dry well installation is being uprated and
there is insufficient space to install a conventional
dry well pump and motor.
Particular attention should be paid to motor cooling
and cabling if dry well submersibles are to be
considered.
The designer should present three alternative pump
suppliers for tender purposes.

Screenings Handling

Submersible pumping stations

Manually removed screenings should be placed in a

covered container until removed from site to avoid
odour problems.

Submersible pumping stations should incorporate

the following features:

Mechanically removed screenings should be

washed, compacted and deposited into a covered
container to avoid odour problems.

2.11

Pumping Station
Selection

Minimum of one duty and one standby pump;

Non-return valve and gate valves for isolation

of each pump;

Valves to be in a separate, easily accessible

chamber adjacent to the pump sump;

Air reaction operation level controls as follows:

Sewage pumping station type selection should be

carefully considered for each scheme. In general,
submersible pumping stations are generally selected
for flows up to 100l/s, and wet well/dry well stations
for larger flows. However, each station should be
treated on its own merits and the following
considerations assessed:

Initial and final design flow;

Total head on the pumps;

Rising main profile and the requirements for

surge protection (dry well pumps usually have
a greater moment of inertia than submersibles);

Requirement for Variable Speed Drive (VSD):

(submersible motors are not always adequately
rated for use with VSD);

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High level alarm (also float);

Pump start;

Pump stop;

Low level pump protection (also

float).

Ultrasonic level controls should not be used for

sewage;

Air reaction level equipment should include

stainless steel dip pipe and duty/standby
compressors.

Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties

for the full range of flows, the use of variable speed
drives should be considered. However, due to the

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additional heat generated in the motor, the approval

of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before
variable speed drives are used.

Submersible Pump Sump Design

Submersible Pump Installation

The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump

sumps and intakes by M. J. Prosserxli should be
referred to when designing pump sumps. Some
pump manufacturers also provide guidance on the
design of sumps for their pumps. Sump design
should be in accordance with the following criteria:

When submersible pumps are installed, the

following should be considered:

Sumps should be designed so that the

dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
minimum sump volume to ensure the maximum
rated pump starts per hour for the motor and
switchgear are not exceeded;

Sumps should be designed to provide a

uniform steady flow of water into any pump
without creating swirl or entraining air.
Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency. It can also result in local vortices that
introduce air into the pump, also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
premature failure;

Sumps should be designed to prevent the

accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
flotsam;
Sump corners should be benched to 45.
Minimising the sump floor area and residual
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
and improve scouring;
The use of flushing devices to improve scour in
pump sumps should be considered;
The velocity in the pump riser pipe at the
design duty should be as high as practicable to
reduce the risk of solids deposition. However,
the velocity should not normally exceed 2.5m/s
to avoid significant headloss and risk of pipe
erosion;
The water surface in the sump should be as
free from waves and turbulence as possible to
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic
level controls;

Page 50

At the designed stop level there should still be

sufficient water surface area without
obstructions to provide a good echo return.

There should be sufficient space between them

to prevent interaction between the pump
suctions. This will depend upon the type of
pump being used and the manufacturer should
be consulted on configurations at draft design
stage; A rule of thumb is to use an initial
spacing between pump centres of twice the
pump diameter. Further guidance is given in
table 2.11.1 below.

Table 2.11.1 Approximate Minimum

PumpSpacingsxlii
Flow (l/s)
Spacing (mm)
100

700

200

1000

300

1200

400

1350

500

1500

600

1700

700

1800

800

1900

900

2050

1000

2175

There should also be sufficient space for

someone to stand beside each pump, should
work be required in the sump;

Pump mounting stools and duckfoot bends

should be securely bolted to the structural
concrete of the sump and not the benching;

Discharge non-return and isolating valves

should be located outside the sump in a valve
chamber;

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Pump guide rails should rise close to the

underside of the sump covers above the
pumps;

The covers should have a clear opening large

enough to allow the removal of the pump while
on the guide rails;

Support points for the pump power cables and

lifting chain should be provided under the pump
covers, which should be easily accessible from
the surface.

Wet Well Design

The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump
sumps and intakes by M. J. Prosser should be
referred to when designing wet wells, which should
incorporate the following features:

Wet wells should be designed to provide a

uniform steady flow of water into any pump
without creating swirl or entraining air.
Unsteady flow can lead to fluctuating loads,
vibration, noise and premature failure. Swirl
can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency, it can also result in local vortices that
introduce air into the pump also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and
premature failure;

Wet wells should be designed to prevent the

accumulation of sediment, scum and surface
flotsam;

Wet well corners should be benched to 45.

Minimising the sump floor area and residual
volume will increase the velocity into the pumps
and improve scouring;

The use of flushing devices to improve scour in

wet wells should be considered;

The water surface in the wet well should be as

free from waves and turbulence as possible to
provide a strong and reliable echo for ultrasonic
level controls;

At the designed stop level there should still be

sufficient water surface area without
obstructions to provide a good echo return;

Wet wells should be designed so that the

dimensions satisfy the requirements for the
minimum sump volume to avoid excessive
pump starts;

The pump suction pipes should be installed

through the wet/dry well dividing wall with a
downward bend and bellmouth to position the
pump suction as close to the sump floor as
possible to assist in sediment removal;

There should be sufficient space between the

bellmouths to prevent interaction between the
pump suctions.

Wet/Dry Well Pumping Stations

Wet well/dry well pumping stations
incorporate the following features:

should

Normally, two sumps with 2 duty and 1 standby

pump for each sump, for the ultimate flow;

Non-return and two gate valves for each pump

isolation;

Where possible, the discharge manifold should

be below ground level to minimise additional
pipework and friction losses;

Where wet well/dry well pumping stations are

being uprated, dry well submersible pumps
could be considered;

Operation level controls (air reaction) as

follows:

High level alarm (plus float);

Pump start;

Pump stop;

Low level pump protection (plus

float).

Air reaction level equipment should include

stainless steel dip pipe and duty/standby
compressors.

Where the available pumps have unsuitable duties

for the full range of flows the use of variable speed
drives should be considered. However due to the
additional heat generated in the motor, the approval
of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before
variable speed drives are used.

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Dry Well Design

Dry well design should incorporate the following
features:

For the most compact arrangement, a close-coupled

pump can be mounted horizontally with the
discharge upward, however this results in the motor
being low in the dry well and at risk from flooding.
The most common arrangement is for a vertical
pump shaft with the motor above. This will require a
bend between the suction valve and the pump
suction. The bend should be fitted with a handhole
and valve to enable the pump to be drained prior to
maintenance. Further bends may be required to
direct the pump or manifold discharge upwards.
Where space allows, installation of the discharge
manifold at the pump level, with the discharge
directly through the side wall should be considered.

The pumps should be installed along the

wet/dry well dividing wall with sufficient space
between them to allow access for maintenance
and repair;

The pump distance from the dividing wall will

be set by the length of the protruding stub pipe,
suction valve and pump inlet pipe;

Drive shafts should be supported from concrete

beams spanning the dry well;

Consideration should also be given to access

around the pumps and valves. Platforms and
walkways should be installed to provide access
to all equipment at a suitable level for safe
operation, maintenance and repair;

Pipes should be sized to achieve sensible velocities,

and the risk of cavitation through insufficient NPSH
should be considered when designing suction
pipework. Pumps must be selected to ensure
satisfactory operation when only one pump is
operation in a new rising main.

The general floor level should be higher than

the sump level to reduce the size of pump
plinths and the need for access platforms;

2.12

Careful thought should also be given to the

shipping route for removing equipment;

Access to the dry well and machinery should

be by staircase so that tools and equipment
can be carried in and out safely;

Lifting arrangements for the pumps and valves

shall be provided (see also section 2.21 and
2.22);

The dry well floor should slope gently towards

the dividing wall and then to one side where a
sump pump should be installed to keep the
floor as dry as possible;
The sump pump should be installed in a small
well, large enough to accommodate the pump
and should discharge back through the wall
into the wet well. Consideration should be
given to the sump pump discharge to avoid
backflow from the wet well to the dry well;
A high level alarm should be installed in the dry
well to give a warning of flooding before
damage to machinery occurs.

Pump Installation

Page 52

Pumps and Motors

Centrifugal Pumps
These are the most common type pumps for foul
sewage and are available in a variety of forms. The
pump operates by passing the liquid through a
spinning impeller where energy is added to increase
the pressure and velocity of the liquid. Submersible
pumps are centrifugal pumps.
Sewage pumps should have an open type impeller
with a minimum passage of 100mm. Impellers with
smaller passages are likely to suffer from frequent
blockage due to the nature of sewage debris.
Dry well centrifugal pumps should normally have a
maximum running speed of 980rpm. Submersible
pumps may run at 1450rpm (4 pole motor), but
pumps operating at 2900rpm (2 pole motor) will
suffer excessive wear and premature failure, and
should not be used.

Pump Motors
Motors on submersible pumps should be certified for
use in Zone 1 explosive atmospheres unless
operating continuously submerged. Pumps
operating in dry conditions should have a casing
designed to provide adequate cooling in the
operating conditions.

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Pump motors should normally be fed from 415 volts,

50 hertz, 3-phase power supply. For larger motors
690V or 3.3KV motors can be used.
Because additional heat is generated in the motor
when used with a variable speed drive, the approval
of the pump manufacturer should be obtained before
VSDs are used.
For dry well and screw pumps where the motors are
installed vertically or at a steep angle, they should
be specifically designed for that purpose, with
adequately rated end thrust bearings.
Where flywheels are installed, the motor rating shall
be suitably uprated.

2.13

Sump Design

The CIRIA guide The hydraulic design of pump

sumps and intakes by M.J. Prosserxli should be
referred to when designing sumps or wet wells.
Sumps should be designed to provide a uniform
steady flow of water into any pump without creating
swirl or entraining air. Unsteady flow can lead to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature
failure. Swirl can affect the flow capacity, power and
efficiency. It can also result in local vortices that
introduce air into the pump also leading to
fluctuating loads, vibration, noise and premature
failure.
Sumps should also be designed to prevent the
accumulation of sediment and surface scum.
Most sumps and wet wells at standard pumping
stations will probably be uniform in section and can
be designed to avoid turbulent flows.

Modelling
For non-standard pumping stations, which may have
high flows, multiple pumps or complex shapes, or
where turbulent flows, vortices, swirl or air
entrainment are more likely to occur, modelling
should be considered.
For pumping stations, a physical model built to scale
can be very effective in identifying flow problems
and in some cases modelling by computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) methodology may have benefits.
Modelling is the process of replicating the hydraulic

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performance of drainage, pumping and treatment

systems by constructing models of the intended
installations. These models need to be verified
before use to provide confidence that they
adequately represent the actual performance of the
system.
The verified model is then used to test system
performance under its proposed use. The model
must be capable of modification to test various
physical configurations and operating regimes for
the installation, to produce the optimum solution for
actual construction.
Traditionally, physical models were favoured,
especially for coastal/estuary/river systems and
complex pumping installations. In recent years
mathematical models have superseded physical
models. Mathematical models are exploiting
increased computer hardware and software
capability, and are more efficient than physical
models in time and effort.

Physical Models
Physical modelling consists of constructing a
reduced scale, geometrically similar model of a
proposed system, and operating the model to
simulate full-scale flow conditions. Model tests can
provide the designer with the assurance that the
proposed scheme operates satisfactorily, or allows
him to improve the flow conditions and achieve a
better design.
Changes in the model can be made by trial and
error, and are usually based on the experience and
intuitive understanding of the engineer conducting
the tests. The amount of modification which can be
undertaken on a physical model is limited, and
therefore the initial model should be as accurate as
possible.
Factors to be considered in deciding on the need for
physical models include:

The similarity of the proposed scheme to

existing satisfactory designs. As well as the
designers own experience, much information is
available from manufacturers published reports
and design guides. However, it should be
recognised that most large scale and/or
complex designs will be unique, and hence
modelling will be needed;

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The size and cost of the proposed scheme.

Bearing in mind that physical modelling can
take many months with corresponding high
costs, then designers of small schemes should
seek to adopt standard and well-proven
designs for small schemes. Large schemes,
such as terminal pumping stations with multiple
pumps and complex inlet arrangements would
merit modelling;
The time available for modelling. In some
cases the scheme can be well under way to
completion before the possible need for
modelling is realised. Even at such late stages,
modelling can save much time and cost in
modifying construction works.

For pumping stations, all of the intake should be

modelled, including the approach works, the inlets
and the sump itself. Upstream pipelines may need to
be included.
All hydraulically significant details such as screens,
penstocks, support channels and benching, should
be included in the model. No components above
maximum water level need be modelled.
Model construction should be in durable and
waterproof materials, with clear perspex being the
best for viewing purposes. Model size should be as
large as costs allow. Scales can vary from perhaps
1:4 for very small sumps, up to 1:50 for large intakes
to reservoirs or tanks. For sump models, 1:25 would
be the smallest desirable scale.
Physical testing could typically take between one
and six months for construction, testing and
reporting.

Sump Volume
Pump sumps should have a minimum sump volume
calculated to ensure that in the worst flow conditions
any pump installed does not exceed the maximum
allowable starts per hour. The CIRIA guide The
hydraulic design of pump sumps and intakes by
M.J. Prosserxli should be referred to when designing
sumps or wet wells.
The minimum sump volume is the volume between
the start and stop levels of the duty pump and for a
single pump the worst case occurs when the inflow
is exactly half of the pumping rate.

Page 54

To calculate the minimum sump volume for a

specific pump the formula contained in the above
CIRIA guide is:

T = 4V/Qp
Equation 2.13.1
Where:
T

is the cycle time for the pump, e.g. if the

recommended maximum starts per hour for
a pump is 10, then the cycle time will be 6
minutes (60/10 = 6)

is the volume of sump between the start and

stop levels in m3

Qp

is the pumping rate in m3/minute

Therefore if Qp is 1.2m3/min (20l/s) and the

maximum number of starts is 10/hour, the volume
required will be:
V (m3) = 6(min) x 1.2(m3/min) / 4
V = 1.8m3
For 10 starts per hour this could also be expressed
as:
V = 1.5 x Qp
The sump volume when multiple pumps are installed
is calculated as for a single pump, where the
minimum sump volume is the capacity between the
start and stop level for each pump. However,
additional capacity is required to allow a vertical
distance of 150mm between the start or stop levels
of consecutive pumps.
With sewage there is a possibility of septicity,
therefore there are restraints on the maximum
volume of the sump related to the retention time of
the liquid in that sump.

Maximum and minimum start / stop

levels
The minimum stop level should be the level at which
the pump can be stopped and restarted without
losing suction or as specified by the pump
manufacturer.
To avoid turbulence and odour release at foul
sewage pumping stations, the lowest pump stop

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level is usually set at the invert of the incoming

sewer, the last section of which is laid to a steep fall
to avoid the sewer being used as the sump.

Pumps should also operate within their performance

curve at both top and bottom water levels under
single or multiple pump operation.

The minimum start level should be the required

distance above the stop level to provide the
minimum sump volume.

2.14

Allowable pump starts per hour

The maximum allowable starts per hour should be
as specified by the pump or motor manufacturer. In
the absence of any specified figure the following are
suitable guidance figures:
Less than 100kW

- 15 starts/hour

100kW < 200kw

- 10 starts/hour

>200kW

- 8 starts/hour

Pipework
Only superior materials are acceptable for use in
pumping station pipework. The pipework installation
should incorporate the following features:

Sufficient bends and flange adapters to allow

easy dismantling and removal of pumps, nonreturn valves or other major items of
equipment;

Each dry well pump should be installed with

suction and discharge isolation valves to permit
isolation of the pump from the wet sump and
discharge pipework for maintenance;

Each submersible pump should be installed

with a discharge isolation valve to permit
isolation of the pump from the discharge
pipework for maintenance;

Each pump should also be fitted with a nonreturn valve to prevent reverse flow back
through the pump when stopped;

Valves should be positioned to permit the

removal of each pump and non return valve
without draining either the wet well or discharge
manifold, and allow the other pumps to
continue operating normally;

Suction isolating valves for dry well pumps

should be bolted directly to a flanged pipe
securely fixed through the sump wall;

Discharge isolation valves should be bolted

directly to a flange on the discharge pipe or
manifold;

Discharge non-return valves should be bolted

directly to the discharge isolation valve. They
should be installed in horizontal pipework with
a short length of pipe and a flange adapter on
the pump side to allow dismantling;

Stop / start levels for single and

multiple pump operation
The start and stop levels for single pump operation
should be set within the maximum and minimum
start / stop levels defined in the previous section,
provided that the minimum sump volume is
attainable.
The start level for each additional pump should be
set a suitable height above the previous pump to
prevent accidental pump starts caused by surface
waves or level sensor errors.
The stop level for each additional pump should be
set at the required distance below the start level to
provide the minimum sump volume for that particular
pump. The stop level will normally be just above the
previous duty pump stop level.
The effect of flywheels should be considered in
determining stop/start levels because the flywheel
increases the pump start-up and stop times.

Pump duty level

The pump duty level for a single pump should be the
midpoint between the pump start and stop levels.
For multiple pump installations it should be the
midpoint between the top water level (last duty
pump start level) and the bottom water level (first
duty pump stop level).

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Suction/Delivery
Pipework, and Valves

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Where the pump delivery pipework joins the

pumping station discharge manifold, the entry
should be horizontal;

At the opposite end of the pumping station

discharge manifold, a valved connection back
to the sump should be provided for draining the
discharge pipework, or flushing the sump;

Consideration should be given to providing an

isolating valve on the pumping main before it
leaves the pumping station/chamber and
before any over pumping connection, to allow
the pumping station to be fully isolated and the
fixed pipework drained for repair;
All flexible couplings should be restrained on
both sides by securely fixed equipment, thrust
blocks or tie straps across the coupling to
prevent displacement of the coupling under
pressure.

Valves
Valves should incorporate the following features:

Isolation valves for sewage should be of the

double-flanged wedge-gate type with a bolt-on
bonnet. When fully open, the gate should be
withdrawn completely from the flow. The valve
should have an outside screw rising stem and
the handwheel direction of operation should be
clockwise to close. Station valves should have
metal seats;

The non-return valves should have proximity

switches to prevent dry running and allow a
change of duty (standby on high level will then
start);

All reflux valves should be installed in the

horizontal plane;

Butterfly valves should not be used with

sewage.

2.15

Pumping System
Characteristics

NPSH, Vibration, Cavitation and Noise

Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is used to check
the pumping installation for the risk of cavitation.
Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapour
bubbles in a liquid. Vapour bubbles are formed
when the static pressure at a point within a liquid
falls below the pressure at which the liquid will
vaporise. When the bubbles are subjected to a
higher pressure they collapse causing local shock
waves, if this happens near a surface, erosion can
occur.
Cavitation will typically occur in the impeller of a
centrifugal pump, where it can cause noise and
vibration as well as affecting the pump efficiency. If
allowed to persist it can lead to damage to the pump
or even breaking away of foundations.

Valves greater than 350mm diameter should be

fitted with actuators. Where installed in
chambers they could be fitted with non-rising
stems to limit the headroom required;

NPSH is the minimum total pressure head required

in a pump at a particular flow/head duty. It is
normally shown as a curve on the pump
performance sheet.

Reflux valves for sewage should be of the

double flanged, quick action single door type,
designed to minimise slam on closure by
means of heavy doors, weighted as necessary.
The door hinge pin/shaft should extend through
the side of the body and be fitted with an
external lever to permit back flushing;

NPSH = Pa Vp + Hs Fs

Reflux valves should be provided with covers

for cleaning and maintenance without the need
to remove the valve from the pipeline. The
covers should be large enough so that the flap
can be removed and the valve can be cleaned;

Page 56

Equation 2.15.1
Where:
Pa = atmospheric pressure at liquid free surface
Vp = vapour pressure of liquid
Hs = height of supply liquid free surface, above eye
of pump impeller
Fs = suction entry and friction losses

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In order to avoid cavitation, the NPSH available

should be at least 1m greater than the NPSH
required by the selected pump at all operating
conditions.
When calculating NPSH, absolute values for
atmospheric and liquid vapour pressures are used.

Pump Duty Point

Each pump has a performance curve where the flow
is plotted against head.
Each pipework system has a friction curve where
the friction head is plotted against flow.
The system curve is obtained by adding the static
head to the friction losses and plotting the total head
against the flow.
The pump duty point is where the pump
performance curve and the system curve cross. It
shows the flow that a particular pump will deliver
through the pipework system at a particular total
head at the pump duty level.
In multiple pump installations, it is essential that the
operating conditions of a single pump running are
carefully checked to ensure that the pump will
operate at maximum and minimum static heads
satisfactorily, and without risk of cavitation.
The duty point should be used when considering the
suitability of alternative pumps for a particular duty
by comparing the efficiency and power requirements
for each pump at the duty point.

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Characteristic curve for

new pipe

Figure 2.15.1 Characteristic Curve for Multiple Pumps

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