Sociology Notes

Sociology
Sociology is to study about social activities, action and about society. The other social sciences
study a particular aspect of the society but sociology studies all aspects i.e. society as whole.
What
is
Sociology?
It is a subject of social science. It has been coined by Augste Comte in 1839 as a separate discipline
and so he is called the father of Sociology. He was a French Philosopher and used this term first
time in his book Positive Philosophy. He used it as 'Social Philosophy" in 1838 but in 1839 he used
Sociology.
The study of Sociology as a separate discipline to study society as a whole spread slowly to all
countries. In 1876 it started in United States as a separate discipline.
1889

France

1907
Great
Britain
1919 - India it started hereafter World War I in the University of Bombay. After that it spread in
other
1924

universities

in

1930.
Poland

1925
1947 - Sweden

Egypt

and

Mexico

It is the youngest of the social sciences. This term has been derived from two words i.e. Societies
and logos. The 1st is Latin and the 2nd Greek. The 1st means society and logos means study or
science. As a result sociology is the science or study of society.
Why

there

was

need

to

start

Sociology?

Before this there were many social sciences which studied about society but they only studied a
particular aspect i.e. from different angles or point of view. A need to study society as a whole arose
and this is when Augste Comte used this term.
The term sociology has been criticized by J.S. Mill. It should be called Ethnology (to study of social
behavior). Hurbert Spencer supported the term sociology and did not quite agree with J.S. Mill.
Aristotle 'Man is a social animal" and he is bound to live in society. Both necessity and nature
impels man to live in society. Man is by nature social. At birth a human is a plastic and pliable
identity.
When we live in society we interact with each other and we have different relationships with different
people. Sociology tells us about the type of relationship we should have with others. As a social
being we have relationship with the economic, psychological or political aspect.

Define

Sociology:

(Nature

of

sociology)

It is very difficult to define sociology because it studies society as a whole but our society is on the
wheel of change and our behavior, society estimate many sociology in different ways according to
their views.
I.

Sociology as a study of society:

L.F. Ward "Sociology is a science of society and social phenomena".
Giddings : "Sociology is the systematic description and explanation of society as a whole.

II.

Sociology as a system of social relationship

According to Mc. Iver & Page:
"Sociology is the science of social relationship, the network of social relationship, we call it society".
A.W. Green "Sociology is the synthesizing & generalizing science of man, of all his social
relationship".
J.F.Cuber "Sociology may be defined as a body of scientific knowledge about human relationship".

III.

Sociology about Social Interaction & action:

Gillin & Gillin "Sociology in its broadest sense may be said to be the study of interactions arising
from the association of living beings".
Geore Simmel "Sociology is the science of the forms of human interactions".
Merris Ginsberg "Sociology is the study of human interaction & interrelations, their conditions and
consequences".
Max Weber "Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretative understanding and social
action".

IV.

Sociology about Social events, social life, social activities & social function Ogburn & Nimkoff
"Sociology is the scientific study of social life".
Bennet & Tumin "Sociology is the science of the structure and function of social life".
P.A. Sorokin "Sociology is a generalizing science of socio cultural phenomena viewed in their
general forms, types and many fold interconnections, i.e. it is the theory of the structure and
dynamics of social system, cultural system & personality".

V.

Sociology about social groups

H.M. Johnson "Sociology is the science that deals with social groups, their internal forms and
modes of organization, the process that tend to maintain or change this form of organization &
relation between groups.

VI.

Collective representation
Emile Durkhiem- "Sociology is the science of collective representation". By collective representation
he means these collective symbols that are accepted by the majority of the people. Since they are
social facts, they are instrumental in guiding and controlling the individual behavior.

Auguste Comte is called the father of sociology because he was the 1st man who sought to
establish a science which would embrace the totality of human life and activities. He is the 1st
French Philosopher used this term in 1839. According to Comte and other thinkers ignorance about
society is the root of all social evil and he believed that knowledge about society. Obtained by
scientific method would make possible the develop of a good society and he predicted that man
would become the master of his social destiny as soon as he develops a science of society. He said
that the science of society should be studied through scientific methods i.e. it should be observed,
examined, classified and so on.

Scope of Sociology
If the social being etc are changing then it is difficult to find its scope. Due to its changing nature it is
difficult to say what the scope is moreover we cannot even define sociology.
V.F.
Cabberton:
"Social is an elastic science, it is very difficult to determine from where its boundaries begin and
end". As it studies the human life therefore the scope should be very wide. Some say it is a science
so some scholars say it should have a limited scope, because studying a vast scope can pose
difficulties (i.e. conducting experimentation), observation ect are necessary for a scientific study.
These

are

supporters

of:

Formalistic school Some scholars say it should have limited school because studying a vast
scope can face difficulties (i.e. conducting experiments) George Simmel supports this and is the
head
of
this
and
says
form
of
social
interaction
should
be
studied.
Synthetic school They say since this sociology studies so many aspects such as political,
biological, psychological etc. therefore we should have a wider scope.
I.Specialistic School the name is so because sociology is a special science to study society.
George Simmel is the supporter. Society has form and content according to him and there can be
no society without form and content and they can be separated i.e. form and content. He says
sociology only studies the form but not the content. Eg. Competition social studies the factor, result
and this is the form the area of competition is the content and it is not studied. Sociology does not
study the content because there are other social sciences which study the contents. Eg. By him
Tables 3 types of glass of similar forms fill them with different types of content but this does not
change the form of the glass. Then now you take one glass and fill it by 3 different liquids one by
one. Now the form does not change and the content too does not change and therefore these forms
and contents can be separated. Similarly sociology studies the form and if there is a change in the
content there is no change in the form and thus in the study
supporters of formal school
1.

Max Webber

2.

Vonwiese

3.

Vierkandt

4.

F.Tonnis

1.

He demarketed sociology from other branches of social studies. (Write the difference here)
when he says social is only the study of social action he limits it to the human's social behavioral
(action and interaction in society). An action is a social action when there is a meaning is it also
when there is an action and a reaction until unless there is a reaction to a particular action is aims a
social action sleeping is a an action but not a social action i.e. if you react in the nothing but this
reaction is towards your property but not with the thief. It will be a social action only when you get up
just when the thief is stealing and you chase him.

2.

He said it was a science and so should not be wide. He has divided society into many
groups (650) and said social should only study these groups.

3.

He defined social as, "Social is the study of the ultimate form of mental and psychic
relationship which link one to another". He gives important to emotional relationship.

4.

He believes sociology to be a pure science. He said that sociology is pure and independent.
He divided society into two groups 1. Society and 2. Community. He said society is urban society
whereas community is rural society and in sociological terms he called it as Gescelschaft and
Gescelschaft.
Criticisms:
Sociology is a science & it's new in origin and so not a pure science.
1. P.A. Sorokin says that it isn't necessary to say it is a science and not correct to study
scientifically.
2. What is society? There are difference aspects in society and all these combined make
society. These different social sciences are studied in different ways or by other social
sciences. These social sciences are specialized in studying these aspects.
3. George Simmel separated forms from content but this too is not correct. It may be correct in
other sciences such as the physical sciences. If the form changes the content also changes.
There is a difference in the ideas of the supporters of this group or school.
II.Synthetic School: It means mixed. The supporters of this school say that sociology is a general
science. They believe in the organic structure. When other aspects of the society combines together

then the society is formed. Sociology cannot be studied independently, it should be studied with
other social sciences. They study the organic structure of society.
Supporters: Durkhein, P.A. Sorokin, Hobhouse, Giddings
1. Durkhien: "Sociology is a science of collective representation". He believes in the collection
of people in society. When there is collection there must be wider scope for collective
representation there must be majority of people hence it will be social facts. Since it has a
social fact they are instrumental in guiding and controlling the behavior of society. (Those
collective symbols accepted by the majority and what they say become social facts. These
will help). These social facts will later become a part of society. When we study a collective
representation the whole picture of society comes before us.
2. P.A. Sorokin "Sociology is the generalizing science". He is the profounder of systematic
study. In his book 'contemporary sociology' he observes that social is a general science. It
studies the general characteristics of the society of the relationship of social and non-social
phenomena. He constructs a formula to describe his theory.
Sociology - a, b, c
Economics - a, b, c, d, e, f
Political Science - a, b,c,g,h,i
Religion - a, b, c, L, M, N
Constitutional - a, b, c, n, y, Z
A, b, c, are found in all social sciences.
3. Hobhouse "Social is the synthesis of various social sciences". He means social is a
general study which studies society as a whole from all aspects i.e. the combination of all
social sciences Sociologist must pursue his study from a particular part of society (social
friend). When he studies thus he must interconnect his result with the results arrived from
other social sciences and then he should interpret society as a whole.
Conclusions
Ginnesberg's
Conclusion:
Subject matter of social should have both the aspects because it is quite impossible to study society.
A specialist cures a special disease but that doesn't mean he knows nothing about other diseases.
Now a general doctor can cure a special disease likewise sociology studies some special aspects
which may not be studied in other social sciences. (Say we study all the aspects in details). To study
of society, life, relationship and behavior is the subject matter of sociology. Sociology is a science
and it should have experimentation, etc.
Robert Stead - "Sociology is a social science not a natural science". (The [ ] is only Martindal & best
is said by Robert Stead) [Martindal by Pure science we study old principle in the light of new
problems. Applied is we apply the rules. Pure is only theoretical whereas applied is practical. We
must apply what we know (after knowing we should apply it to improve society i.e. we must know &

apply)]. Sociology is a political science (a factual study meaning sociology is the study of society
as it is) and not a normative science (i.e. telling what society is to be). "Sociology is a general
science whereas other social sciences specialize". "Sociology is based on imperial science (there
are some techniques or method to study which in sociology is to collect data and then classify we
find out the causes and effects to and then interpret the result.
Uses of Sociology:
1.

Sociology is the youngest of the social sciences. Augusta Comte's efforts enabled sociology
to be recognized as a separate social science, which is why he called the father of sociology. It was
he, who first coined the word 'Sociology'. Sociology comes from the Latin words 'socialism and
'loges', the first meaning study of science. Therefore Sociology literally means the science of society.
Japan literally, this would mean a very big scope of study for sociology which is not practical,
therefore sociologists have defined in various ways limiting its scope to a manageable extent. But
defining sociology is in itself a difficult task leading to a variety of definition.

2.

F.Ward and W.C. summer define it as 'the science of society', Giddings calls 'the science of
social phenomena to Auskhiem it is the science of institution for park' it is the science collective
behavior' and for Macdum & Pagi it the study of society which is a web of human relationship."
These definition are mostly traditional, indicating the different methods of approach to the study of
human relationships. Modern devp. in knowledge have adhered the attitude & approach to the study
of different sciences. Even in socio, viz. the study of human society as a whole, to the segmental
interpretation of social macroscopic analysis of social factors & the infrastructural analysis of human
society in different forms.

Relation of Sociology with other social sciences

It is necessary to understand other social sciences to study society and the others should also study
sociology. To understand social life in a particular aspect one must know society. Therefore sociology
and other social sciences are interdependent.
1.Sociology

&

Anthropology:

Anthropology derived from 2 words Anthropos & logos 1st means man and 2nd means science
of study. Anthro is the study of development of the human race. Sociology is study of present society
and Anthro is of past man. Anthro is divided into 3 parts (1) physical (2) prehistorical or cultural (3)
social. 1 deals with the bodily characteristics of early man. 2 It studies about the cultural remains
of the primitive people, the origin and development culture and also the culture of the living primitive
people. 3 What types of social institutions were there in primitive society and their development.
Anthro helps sociology to study past material so sociology is dependent on Anthro because the
knowledge of the old enables us to study the present day situations better. Anthro too depends on

sociology Malinonisky Morgan studied about primitive commission based on private property of our
modern times.
Anthro studies about the primitive society of man and culture of old. It studies of society which small
and static but sociology studies about man and society of the present which has a vast area and
its dynamic (studies the dynamic changing society). They are all anthropologists. Kroeber says
"Anthro and Sociology are twin sisters". Hoebel "Sociology and Social anthro are in line, broadest
senses one and the same". Even Pritchard "Sociology is a branch of social Anthro". Every social
science must be related to society or else they would not be social sciences and now since social
studies society therefore every social science must be related to society. "The Sociological attitude
has tended towards practical and present. The anthropological towards pure understanding and the
past" Kluckhonh.
2.Society
&
Psychology:
Psychology studies the mental process of behavior i.e. the effect of the individual mind on the
behavior of group of man and vise versal.
Society is related to psychology because what it studies is a important part of society & social
studies society.
Psychology depends on society and social studies. Society and psychology has to get the
knowledge of society. Society is general science and psychology is a specific science. According to
Megyver "Society gives special aid to psychology and psychology gives special aid to psychology
relationship of society and psychology is shown by social psychology". Lapiere and Fransworth
"Social psychology is to society and psychology as bio-chemistry is to Biology & Chemistry".
Karl Pearson 'There is no distinction between society and social psychology. They are two sides of
the same coin". According to Ward "There are some topics which are subject matters of both society
and psychology such as socialization, Leadership psychology mental process and society social
process.
1.Society
&
Economics:
Economics is the science of wealth. Marshall says "It is the society of economic activity, mans action
in ordinary business of life. how he gets income and spends it". It studies the material welfare of
human being in relation to society.
Economic progress and society progress, in any society goes hand in hand. Society problems such
as illiteracy or superstition. Thus economy is dependent on society and thus economic is dependent
on society. This is vise versa too. According to Thomas "Economic is the comprehensive science of
sociology".

Economic is related to economic activities thus specific whereas society is the study of social
progress. Production, consumption and distribution comes in economics. But all these happen in
relation to society i.e. social process but social studies these social procedures.
Society & Politics: (The above notes are under this) Political science is the study of state origin,
function, importance, govt. contribution, rules & regulations, political parties, institutions, social group
sovereignty.
State is a part of society and society makes a general study of society. In a democracy we have by
the people, of the people and for the people. i.e. of, for & by society. So is the welfare state which
looks to the welfare of the society. Aristocracy with Queen and King. The king is a politician in a way.
He rules for the good of the people and makes laws in view of doing good to his people. If he
happens to do things contrary to the welfare of his people then he is criticized by his people i.e.
society.
Society is dependent of politics. The Second World War brought about drastic changes in the
society. It had a political origin but it had its effects on society political problems and events are
related to society. Therefore since society is dependent in politics therefore society is dependent on
political science.
Society is a science of society and it studies both organized as well as unorganized community
whereas political science is the science of politics and it studies only the organized community.
Political science only studies political institutions whereas social studies all social institutions.
Therefore political science is specialized and society is generalized.
Society

and

Geography:

Geography studies the environment and atmosphere conditions etc. How this geography conditions
environments etc. are important for society. How the people of different geography conditions differ.
How their culture differentiates from people of the place with another as regards modes, cultures and
standards of living. The way the adjust to the environment. Say Antarctica the geography
conditions does not suit man. Thus society is related to geography. For society there must be
suitable geography conditions which for example is the desert. Man or society has captured
geography conditions in quite a few cases. The example that the 1st settlements took place near
river banks clearly shows the physical features of the earth i.e. the geographical conditions affect the
people. The culture of man develops according to his surroundings.
Society too affects the environment and moulds and uses these conditions. By capturing the
geography conditions society is bringing about a great change in his environment and since
geography studies. This environment, naturally when it changes the theories of geography too
changes thus both geography and society are interdependent.

Conclusions

Barnes & Becker: "Society is neither the hand made nor the mistress of other social sciences but
their
sister".
L.F. Ward "Society is the combination of other special social sciences". He gives an example
Blue & Yellow = Green, likewise society studies the general characteristic of all other social sciences
and
emerges
as
a
separate
science.
H. Spencer: "As the organismic theory the different social sciences are related to each other as are
the different organs of the body". Social Darwinism's theory Any living being enter in the struggle
for survival & those who are the strongest of the fittest survive till the last. So also is the case with
society. Those who adjust to the different institutions of society stay for long (till the last). The accept
things last while those we discard (things in society) dies away. Socialism differ too shows this
relation of all social sciences with society evolutionary how from small units it grew.
According to Simpson "Social science is a unity, but is not fictitious unity, it's a dynamic unity of
operating parts and these parts are indispensable to each and all others".

Social Group
What is Group? It is a collection and a number of the units. Then social group is the collection of
individuals with common interest binding them. Group is important for human beings to exist
because no man can live in isolation. Man by nature is social and he has certain needs for which he
joins groups. He is not only a member of one but many groups to fulfill his different wants or needs.
There should be mutual awareness too without which common interest alone cannot form a social
group. The society relationship of man is very wide.
"Society is a web of social relationship". - Mac Iver
In family itself there are 15 types of social relationship as said by a psychologist. In society there is
both co-operation and conflict & both area important for group and some society. The group should
have some likeness and they should have a social goal for the good of societies.
Animals too live in group but they do not learn it, but it is inborn in them but man learns to forms
groups so as to fulfill his desires.
Difference in society is a must because there would be not society without it. A man co-operates and
only then can a group be formed. This can be direct or indirect. The mutual awareness too can be
direct or indirect. Conflict too is important. If everyone was to co-operate then there would be no
society.
Questions on Group
1.

What is group? Classify groups according to various sociologists?

2.

What do you mean by social group. Describe summer's classification of social group?

3.

Define group? Describe Coole's classification of social group

4.

What do you understand by reference group? How it affects the personality of the individual.

Definitions of Group
According to Mac Iver & Page "By group we mean any collection of human beings who are
brought into social relationship with one another.
Elliot & Merril "The social group may be defined as two or more persons who are in combination
over one applicable period of time and who act in accordance with a common function or purpose.
Ogburn & Nimkoff 'Whenever two or more individual come together and influence one another,
they may said to constitute a social group'.
Bogardus "A social group may be thought of as a number of persons, two or more, who have
some common objects of attention, who are stimulating to each other, who have common loyalty and
participate in similar activities.
Bennet & Tumim "A group is a number of people is definable and persisting interaction directed
towards common goal and using agreed upon means".
Biersteadt Social groups are those in which people actually associate with one another and have
social relationships with one another.
Elridge & Merril "A social group may be defined as 2 or more persons who are in communication
over an appreciable period of time and act in accordance with common function or purpose".
Sheriff & Sheriff - "A group is social unit which consists of a number of individuals, whose stand in
(more or less) definite status and role relationship to one another & posses a set of values or nouns
of its own regulating the behavior of the individual member at least in matter of consequences of the
group".
R.M. Williams "A social group is a given aggregate of people, playing interrelated roles &
recognized by themselves or others as a unit of interaction".
Edward Sapir "Any group is constituted by this fact that there is some interest which holds in,
members together. The essence of social group is not physical closeness but a consciousness of
joint interaction".

Characteristics of the group

For a group there should be two or more persons. Man cannot do things himself for the realization of
his wishes he needs co-operation and help from others which leads to the formation of groups.

There should be reciprocal activity in it and there should be a give and take attitude. Each individual
should follow the rules & norms of the group. This is a voluntary action and any individual can enter
and leave a group when he pleases. When small a child has relationship with family then
neighborhood, village, countries etc social goals is a must for group and this goal must be for the
good of society and not against the society such groups are not social groups but anti-social
group. Every individual works for the others in the group. For group there should be we feeling and a
feeling of integrity (unity). The group not only consists of the physical aggregation but also of mutual
agreement etc.
1.

For a group there is necessity of two or more people. It cannot be formed if there is one
person because one man cannot fulfill his aims or desires. So there must be more than one person.

2.

It is reciprocal group satisfies our wants give and take relationship.

3.

Voluntary or organization Nature & necessity impels man to live in society.

4.

Social goals Goals for the society, it won't be against the group people will work for the
welfare of society. There must be some goals which has to be fulfilled.

5.

Sense of the feeling for a group there must be sense of unit. If we feeling is not there then
the group members will clash among themselves.

6.

Norms & Regulations They must follow the norms and regulations of the group. He won't
be allowed to stay in the group if he fails to follow the norms and regulations of the group.

7.

If not only consists of physical aggregation but also of mutual agreements etc. (mutual
awareness).

Classification of Social Group

A person; is a member of different groups and these groups satisfy our desires we may either start a
group or become a member. Many sociologists have classified
According to G.Simmel he has divided group on basis of number of people in the group. He is a
German sociology. According to him there are two groups (i) smaller collection of people (ii) larger
scale collection of people
Dwright Sanderson classifies group on the basis of structure of the group. According to him there
are three groups.
i.

involuntary group

ii.

voluntary group

iii.

delegate group

iv.

in which people become the member involuntarily. People have no choice like family If we
are born in the family we belong to the family.

v.

people have their own choice membership of one's own choice to become or join any group
like professional group (can join or resign)

vi.

Representative If a person becomes a member he has to represent the whole group or

whole group should make him the representative of the group like Parliament (M.P.), Legislative
Assembly (M.L.A.)
Miller Classifies group on the basis of stratification in the society 1. Vertical 2. Horizontal

1.

Differences in position, ranks, status vertically. Like class or caste. Some think that there is
higher caste. Caste is divided into sub-caste and even in that they think they are above in the
society, post and prestige.

2.

All equal. Every member is equal like teachers same qualification (economic position may
differ a criciticsm).
Summer On the basis of intimacy of relationship 1. In group 2. Out group.

1.

Intimacy in your own, oneness on feeling. I am in this group i.e. we feeling. Any person of
any group should be in group (a member of), friendliness, solidarity, loyalty among members &
sympathy towards each other, pleasure on feeling should also be there. Members do not like to hurt
anyone and to be hurt by anyone.

2.

There is indifference. The group from which I maintain a distance and out group (in which I
don't like to be a member). These express themselves as 'they'. We are democratic and they are
communist. Lack of sympathy to an extent, solidarity, avoidance, indifference, competition instead of
co-operation, conflict. All this is found in out group. Eg. Caste, color difference. White think that
they are superior. In religion there are social distances. We are Indian and he is Chinese. So caste,
religion, nationality are its example.
F,Tonms basis of community and society. His classification into 2 is :

1.

Gemienschaft Urban character industrialization

2.

Gesselschaft Mental standard low rural

3.

Temporary group which is formed for some time like crowd, public mob-

4.

Permanent group Village, State we live permanently.

5.

Regional group State, nation

6.

Cultural group groups for some cultural purpose, recreational, educational group, religion.
Fichter in his book "Sociology" describes about 4 types of group.

1.
2.

Common Ancestry Group (related with blood group, almost same to Gillin)
Common Territory Group (regional group, permanent group) same as Gillin only leading
different.

3.
4.

Similar bodily characteristic age sex social group

Common interest group related with cultural group fulfill some Common culture purpose
Recreation group, education group, religious group, economic group, political group.
According to Mac Iver & Page He mentions 3 groups

1.

On the basis of territory and interest territorial unities (you live in a particular territory like
village, town, country or city).

2.

Interest conscious unities without definite organization people have the same interest and
are conscious about the aim but they don't have a definite organism. Like Refugee group. People
have different psychological group.

3.

Interest conscious unities with definite organization (here they have responsibility towards
each other. Members are limited in this group. Everyone one same aim like cricket club, relationship
with each other good.
Murdock into 3 groups

1.

Structural or quasi structural group. Any group has some structure, organized and
developed spontaneously developed automatically. Here he says about tribes, state or class group.

2.

Occasional or circumstantial group Transitory group, temporary public mob (we feeling but
no definite organization) crowd.

3.

Artificial group The groups formed and we become members deliberately like political
group, educational group etc.
George Hasan into 3 groups

1.

Unsocial group - Aloof from other groups, you don't go to other group

2.

Pseudo social group - People in that group go to other group but for their own interest.

3.

Antisocial group - against the interest of society. You become against the interest of society
and make your own group e.g. Terrorist, strike group etc.
Charles Cooley: On the basis of relationship (1) primary and (2) secondary. He classified these 2
groups in his book "Social Organization". He is an American sociologist in 1909.
C.H. Cooley: American sociologist classified group as primary and secondary in 1909 in his book
"Social organization". Primary group small in size, intimate relationship, co-operation among
members family, play group. There should be limited, own interest, should fulfill the need of others,
mutual understanding direct (face to face) relationship for a common decision, closeness is there,
spirit of give and take. 'Face to face' is not a characteristic of primary group some sociologists
have said. R.C. Farris has criticized he says physical proximity is not primary group like Kinship. In
this we do not have a face to face relation but while taking a decision we keep everyone in mind with
whom we have blood relationship. R.C. Farris another e.g. in a court the judge lawyer, criminal all
are face to face but not a primary group because there is no feeling.

This group has developed recently Hyman used it in 1942 in his book "Psychology of status".
Man a social being, belongs to many groups and wants to belong to some other groups for which he
tries to follow the rules and norms of that particular group so that he too may be identified as a
member of that group this group is reference group. R.K.Murton, Newcomb, Turner, Johnson,
Sherieff & Sherieff also used the term 'ref group'. Thinking broadly we find only two kinds of groups
(1) Membership group and (2) Reference group.
1.

Any group of which we are member i.e. I belong to that group and I am member and satisfy
my aims. R.K. Murtonse book goal for ref. group

2.

Not members but we are psychologically attached to that group (the adivasis feel they
belong to the Kshatriya Class & of which they indeed are members then this is membership group.
Now the example of (2) is the students admire the personality of their teacher and want to imitate i.e.
they are psychologically attached to the group that the teacher belongs to i.e. perhaps the fashion).

In this there is a physical presence. Sometimes it so happens that the reference group becomes a
membership group this changes with time, place and situation.
Sherieff & Sheriff "Reference group is the group to which an individual relates himself or aspires
to relate himself psychologically".
H.M. Johnson "A reference group is based on the psychological association of a person or group
to other group".
R.K. Murton "Man act in social frame of reference provided by which they are member, they may
or may not belong to that group but psychologically attached towards that group". He pays focus to
structure function to the social environment in which they are located. People takes the standard of
signifying others as self appraisal. He uses the term 'Marginal Man'. While discussing reference
group i.e. the person who belongs to the reference group and he wants to relate to the reference
group. He imitates the reference group in every manner but he is a member of the reference group
but since he is so much like the reference group that he is considered out of the reference group and
therefore he is left nowhere and has to go through a lot of tension. He wants to be a member of the
reference group to raise his status a position in his group i.e. he aspires to that group 'Relative
deprivation' is another term he uses. When a man feels deprived within his group and so he wants to
refer to another group to get emotional satisfaction. (he feels his views and wants are not paid
attention to he thinks the other group may be sympathetic and thus gives his emotional support).
Norms too is important for reference group. Every group has its own rules, norms, regulations and
procedures. This man follows the rules and regulations of his own group as well as that of the other
group. The terms 'Westernization', Sanskritization are used by Srinivas A Kshatriya if he wants to
become a Brahmin he imitates the Brahmin group and wants to be considered are this is
sanskritization (all this is as an example for reference group). Ionization - Indians try to imitate the
English and thus the English become the reference group.
Turner describes reference group as role taking process i.e. our changes one's role according to the
group from which he wants to identify himself psychologically (Turner is in reference to ionization).
Newcomb Explains 2 types of reference group (1) +ve & (2) ve. 1. Positive the group with
which we want to identify myself to raise my status, position and to have my emotional satisfaction. I
am positively related to that group. 2. Negative the group I belong to the ve group for the +ve
group.
H.Hymen "There are some particular individuals in society whose standards or values become the
ideal for the other people and are imitated by them". (He stresses on reference group behavior). In
general a reference group is one which an individual perceives as holding interests, attitudes and
valves in common. He takes that group as a basis for self evaluation. A attitude formation.

Characteristics of Reference Group

1.

Psychological attachment

2.

Certain norms, rules & regulations we follow these of our own group and also that of the
reference group. This gives emotional satisfaction. Sanskritisation is an example (the lower castes
follow rules and regulations of higher casters).

3.

Ideal Person Example of Mahatma Gandhi when you read about the Mahatma you want
to be like him. He is the ideal person in your view.

4.

Every person or group may have different reference group. One may like or dislike a
particular group. If you like you imitate and if you don't you don't imitate.

5.

Reference group changes with time, situation etc. For a particular time you may have one
reference group and at another time you may not like that group and do don't make it your reference
group.

6.

When he is not satisfied with the group to which he belongs he wants to join another group
and so you imitate. This gives rise to 'Marginal Man'.

7.

Mahatma Gandhi and reference group may vary from time to time therefore sometimes the
reference group could become your Mahatma Gandhi.

8.

Social adjustment when we follow the norms etc. of the reference group we are actually
adjusting to that group and this leads to us adjust more easily to our society.

9.

Social control

10.

Social transformation development a betterment of society.

Murton There are 3 criteria for the formation of reference group.

1.

Relative or comparative depreciation

2.

Visibility of norms of acceptability

3.

Design of living

1.

When you feel you are being ignored in your group you make another group your
reference group so that you may be paid attention to.

2.

Following the norms of your reference group like Adivasis try to follow norms of
higher classes to be like them.

3.

When you don't like the standard of living in your group you try to live like the
reference group which you prefer like Indians live in a ionized manner.

4.

What is the use of reference group? Is it impact one never refers to a group ranking
lower than his own group.

Definition of Primary Group

Cooley "By primary group I mean those characterized by intimate face to face association and cooperation. They are primary in several senses, but chiefly they are fundamental informing social
nature & ideals of the individual"
Lundberg in his book "Sociology" "Primary group means two or more person behaving in relation
to each other in a way that is intimate, cohesive and personal.
Bierstead in his book 'social order' says "By primary group meant the intimate personal face to
face groups in which we find our companions and comrades the members of our family and our daily
associates.

Definition of Secondary Group

Secondary Group: Always goal oriented. There is co-operation but this co-operation is indirect.
Impersonal and indirect relationship. It is optional membership. Eg. Trade Union, City, person, etc.
Large in size. There is seldom face to face relationship no mutual identification.
According to Cooley There are groups wholly backing in intimacy of association and usually most
of
the
other
primary
and
quasi

primary
characteristic.
According to Kinsley Davis "Secondary group can roughly be defined as opposite of everything
said
about
primary
group".
Oglourn & Nimkoff "The group which provides experience lacking in intimacy are called
secondary
group.
(If difference between primary and secondary group is asked then start the answer with K. Davis's
difference.)
Characteristics of secondary group
1.

To fulfill some common goal

2.

Lacking in intimacy

3.

Indirect relationship

4.

Optional membership.

James Lange Theory [Common Sense]

Started independently by two psychologists in two parts of the world. William James found this
theory in America. Carl Lange was doing the same things. What do you mean by a common sense
view of emotions? This theory of James & Lange states just opposite facts to this question.
The common sense says you have perception of emotion provoking stimulus. After perception you
have ideation this leads to emotion. You experience emotion. After the experience comes the bodily
changes (organic changes) Tiger Experience (fear) Running (changes) James Lange say just
the opposite 1st perception then followed by bodily changes and because of the bodily changes you
feel fear. These bodily changes are produced in a reflexive way.
Whatever happens to our body outside or inside our brain knows it. Say you have a burning
sensation then the sensory neurons report it to the brain. The reporting of these bodily changes is
emotion. So perception of the bodily changes is emotion. In William Jame's own words 'My theory
is that the bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact and that our feeling of the
same changes as they occur is the emotion". If perception according to James Lange theory was not
followed by bodily sensation (changes) then the perception would remain cold and colorless. In other
words An emotion is a mass of organic sensations due to organic changes in the internal organs
following upon the perception of an exciting object. The emotional warmth comes from the organic
sensations. This theory sates two things as we implement 1. The cerebral cortex & 2. The bodily
changes William James gives the following points in favour of his theory.
1.

Say you were walking alone in dark wood & suddenly you hear a noise than for a fraction of
a second you stop or your heart stops and this is a bodily change and reflexive too and then you
realize the fear and do the needful.

2.

If you imagine that you have a feeling of emotion. When you feel anger and you feel the
bodily changes and if you deliberately than the emotion stops.

3.

When actors come on stage they have to do different kinds of roles like angry, sad etc. They
now have to show the bodily changes he says those then they actually feel it.

4.

Bodily changes can be produced artificially and when this is done they exhibit emotions.

Criticising against this theory weighs much more than its praises.
1.

The emotion according to this is identified with bodily changes. It says there is no emotion
without bodily changes (a corresponding bodily change). Here it means each one has its own bodily
changes meaning the other emotion cannot have the same bodily change as the earlier one, but in
reality this does not happen Say we cry when we are sad but then we also cry when we are happy
or even angry.

2.

According to this theory bodily changes are produced by the reflex action. While saying this
he does not consider the situational characteristic of image. Say you see a tiger in the open you are
afraid but you are not so when you see the same tiger inside the cage you are not frightened so
the bodily changes which according to him should be same are in reality not so.

3.

According to this theory the viscera gets excited 1st (bodily changes) and then you have the
emotion. But experiment show that the visceral parts (bodily changes) are less sensitive and they
take sometime in being stimulated at least 1 second and emotional experience takes less than 1
second meaning emotions come before bodily changes thus contrary to this theory.

4.
5.

When you inject ordinate in the body it produces bodily changes but not emotion.
It is true that most of the time when we have emotion we also have the knowledge of bodily
activities and were not always aware of such activities meaning e very time there may not be such
bodily activities.

6.

Research shows you can show emotion without the cerebral cortex contrary to the theory. P
Sherrington did this experiment on a dog and he found when the dogs sympathetic nerves were cut
the dog still expressed emotion. Also it has been found when parts of the hypothalamus are
artificially or electrically stimulated it showed different patterns of behavior. When one part was
stimulated they were angry and in other parts when touched they were passive. This means some
paths of the hypothalamus is connected to emotion. The important work of the cerebral cortex is to
control the emotion but most of the emotion is in hypothalamus.

7.

When all these criticism was leveled against James Lange. He sort of changed it
somewhat. He accepted the situational the affective tone of perception the produces organic
changes.

Family
Family - most important universal institution. It is the core of the social structure and fundamental
unit of the society. In general its consists of father, mother & children.

According to Charles Cooley - Family is the primary group and we are member of primary group.
History of mankind is the history of family. At birth child is only biological being. His needs are fulfilled
by his family. Right from the birth to death, the family exerts a constant influence on the child.
According to Anderson - There is not a single person who is not a member of a family in one form or
the other. According to him there are two types of family (i) family of orientation (ii) family of
procreation.
i.

Where we are born, we are a member.

ii.

In the family urge is fulfilled to give birth to another. Family in which we procreate we give
birth.

The origin & Division of Family

Morgan - He has listed to successive forms of family. He has postulated a sequential growth of the
division and origin of family. He has divided on the basis of distinctive type of marriage.

1.

Consanguine - How this family originated and developed. This type of marriage was not well
organized because at that time institutions of marriage were not well developed. It was based on
system of promiscuity or sex communism. Men were free to have sex-relationship with any woman.

2.

Punabran family - It succeeds the consanguine. In this type of marriage, group of boys
married a group of girl. In one way it is a type of pair marriage. In this type of family it was not well
organized. Any girl could have sex relationship with any boy of the same group. This existed for a
long time.

3.

Syndiasmian Family It succeeds 2. Here one female married one male in a family but the
man was allowed to have sexrelationship with anyone he wants. Woman also had permission to
have sex-relationship with others outside the family.

4.

Patriarchal Family - Male dominated family. Authority gives to male especially the eldest
male of the family. Dominated by the eldest male. Here male can have more than one wife but
female can have only one husband and they unlike men can't have sex-relationship with other men.

5.

Meonogamous (Modern family) one male can marry only one female. According to
Vnkevouic there are 2 types of marriages. The males were allowed to marry again if his first wife
died. According to Vnkevouic Monoganous family is that family in which males are allowed to marry
only once even if his wife died he cannot marry again. 9.2.88 Prefour in Book Mother the first form of
family was matriarchal family. In this the full responsibility of a family was on mother. Later on every
required the help of males as they could not fulfill their families desires alone and hence slowly the

males group began to dominate the women group by giving their support and help. They began to
think themselves as superior in a family.
6.

Westermark In his book "History of Marriage" said that first form of family was patria cal
because only sex was considered more important. Males group felt jealousy that their wife cannot
have sex with other males. They must be satisfied with one male. Thus in this way they were
dominated very much in the family.

7.

Tylor was the supporter. Before there was only sex and hence a family was not well
organized at all. But males were allowed to have sex with other female group even though the bad
wives already.
Needs for Origin: It originated to fulfill the needs of oneself. The various needs can only be fulfilled
in a family. Everyone is a member of a family in one way or the other. To exist a family or a society
reproductive usage or sexual relationship is very necessary. There are some needs to form a family
they are (1) Reproductive urge: that is to have sexual relationship to have a family of our own.
Unless there is sexual relationship, family cannot exist. To have children and for this sex is
necessary. This is a psychological aspect. People want to continue their family tradition, name etc.
(2) Biological needs sexual urge varies according to age. If one wants to have sex he cannot have
anywhere or at any time he wants so to have sex or to satisfy sexual urge marriage is very
necessary. (3) Economic provision - when a child is born he is fully dependent on a family (specially
for a biological needs like hunger etc.) economically.
Definition
of
Family
Mac Iver & Page In their book 'The society' family is a group defined by sex relationship,
sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing of the children.
Dgbourn & Nimkoff In their book 'A hand book of sociology' "Family is more or less a durable
association of husband and wife with or without children or of a man or woman along with their
children".
Kingsley Davis In his book "Human society" defines family as "Family is a group of persons
whose relation to one another are based upon consequinity and who are therefore kin to one
another". He means where there is blood relationship although hubby and wife have sex relation.
Gisbert "Family of ordinarily a man and woman permanently united with one or more children.
Biesenz & Biesenz "The family in one sense may be defined as a woman with a child and a man
to look after them.
Burguess & Locke In his book 'Family' "Family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage,
blood or adoption, constituting a single household, interacting and intercommunicating with each

other in their respective social roles of husband & wife, mother and father, son & daughter, brother &
sister creating a common culture".

Characteristics of Family (General)

1.

Sex relationship should be their between husband and wife. Or making relationship or if this
relationship breaks then the family slowly breaks according to Mac Iver.

2.

It provides care to children like economic needs. Emotional basis i.e. family is based on
emotion. If this is absent the family breaks.

3.

A system of Nomenclature i.e. according to Anderson there are two kinds of family and both
these give importance to Nomenclature. This means that the children relates to the families name.

4.

A single household for a well organized family.

5.

Durable association of hubby and wife according to Anderson & Nimkoff.

6.

Husband and wife with or without children.

Nature of Family (distinctive characteristics)

1.

Universality family is found in each stage of society and everywhere. There is no society
without family. There is not a single man who does not belong to one or other kind of family".
Anderson.

2.

Emotional basis There should be an emotional relationship love, affection, sympathy, cooperation. If there is no such basis the family breaks up.

3.

Formative influence Each family has a certain form. Orientation and Procreations (Mac
Iver). If you are a member of one family you inherit your parents characteristic. Frand said "In
adulthood man has the characteristic of parents". In pro you give birth to children and they are
influenced by your personality.

4.

Limited in size Gisbert "Husband, wife and children". Family is limited in size in comparison
to other groups. Joint family is large whereas nuclear family is small.

5.

Nuclear position in the society According to Charles Cooley "Family is a primary group and
is the fundamental unit of society (the network of social relationship we call it society)". It is the
primary cell of society. Society is an aggregation of families.

6.

Sense of Responsibility The function of the family is to provider economic needs of the
children. It is the responsibility of the parents to look after the children of the family. At the time of
crisis man is ready to die for country but for his family he is always ready to protect the family's
prestige etc.

7.

Social control family is a mechanism of social control. When one is small he does not know
what's wrong or right. If you follow good you are praised otherwise you are punished. This makes
you think that you must relate to the good and when you grow up you relate to the good of society.

8.

Permanent and Temporary in nature Family is an institution as well as association. As an

institution family is permanent cause it's found everywhere and at every stage of history. As
association family is or close kint group (when the child has his own family he separates from the
original & so temporary) one family consists of father, mother and children. Generally the children
make their own family and the family disintegrate. This happens in case of divorce or death of a
parent.

Types of Family
Types of Family or Classification of Family According to Anderson there is no man who does
not belong to a family no matter in which form. According to Mac Iver and Page there are two kinds
of family Orientation & Procreation..
On the basis of authority there are 2 types of family Patriarchal or Matriarchal. P- male dominant
especially father or the eldest male. He is the supreme authority the property is in his hands and he
does its dist. M-authority on the hand of mother.
On the basis of residence 1 Patrilocal and Matrilocal . P members stay in father's house M
members stay in mothers' house GORO & KHASIS
On the basis ancestors Patritinial & Matrilinial P demanded from pap's side M from mother's
side.
On the basis of Marriage
1.

Monogamous is based on marriage between one male and one female and the male is
allowed to marry again if his wife. According to Wichmavic or whatever quote him.

2.

Polygamy refers to that family which has one male, two female or one female two male.
This is subdivided into 2.

3.

Polyandrous (a) polygynous a one male and more than one female marriage After 1955
the Hindus were restricted to having more than one at a time. The muslims are allowed to have upto
4. This came into being because of the ratio of man and women women's ratio being more. (I can

keep 4 or 5 wives). Also the Rajputs in war married the queens of the kings and defeated or kept
them as mistresses. (b) The women & many hubbies again divided into two (i) Fraternal (ii) Nonfraternal. (i) the hubbies are brothers like Draupadi the ratio of man and women that of man being
___. (ii) Matrilocal It is usually so the hubbies are not brothers. This type is still found in the tribal
like the Todas of Nilgiris, Nayars of Malabar in Kerala.
Family based on No. of members of family: 1. Nuclear family & 2. Joint family 3. is specially an
important characteristics of the Indian society. A group of families living together eating food, cooked
under a single (same) roof, holding property in common, worship a common deity and the members
are related to each other by some particular type of kinder. The head is the father and he decides
everything in the family.
Write

the

merits

and

demerits

but

just

mentioned

don't

go

into

details.

In this family there is a generation depth of 3 or more generations. It is also called as an extended
family in ____ society (i) Gisbert deff. It is that family where hub, wife and mostly unmarried
children. This is due to civilization and industrialization on the basis of relationship. There are 2 types
(1) consanguineous (ii) conjugal (i) refers to the family with blood relation. The hubby and wife too
are blood relations, in Muslim. Marriage in your own claim (ii) The hubby and wife come from
different class or families (i.e. family of procreation)
Before that introduce write some things about family. Its origin

Function of Family
According to Mac Iver and Page - There are 3 functions of family
1.

Gratification of family

2.

Procreation

3.

provision of economic means (needs)

Functions in General:
1.

Satisfaction of sex urges though the institution of marriage.

2.

Procreation for psychological satisfaction for having children to succeed them.

3.

Provision of food, clothes and shelter give the diff. of Mac Iver and Page.

Social Functions:
1.

Socialization

2.
1.

Social control
When the child & born he is just a biological entity. His character is moulded his family. He
leaning the customs manners etc. Farm is a process of socialization. There is the education function.
Family's the 1st school for the child. He 1st school for the child. He 1st learns the long of his family.

2.

Farm is a mechanism of social control farm has particular customs & traditions some rules &
regulations & if the child follows there he is praised or punished if he doesn't follow. This gives him
an idea of the difference of good & bad. Some times the family removes bad habits & sometimes
even bad habits. Extremes control is there in a joint family because there are too many people of
higher status (cha-cha, mama etc)

Economic Function
1.

Unit of production & consumption

2.

Division of labour

1.

India is a country of village. In these simple farms there is unit of production like
those in agriculture. They produce consumption is in both type of farm. Much as well as joint.
According to Anderson each man's a member of family & every man is a consumer.

2.

Labour is divided in the Farms on the basis of age & sex usually the female has the
household work & the man the outside work. The head is the oldest in the farm.

Cultural Functions
1st School is the family. He learns the long and customs & traditions of his family. Culture is different.
from one family to another. This culture is passed on from one generation to the next generation. To
exist in society culture is very important to distinguish the society from another. Culture also provides
physical security. The duty of the family is to take care of children who are physical & mentally
handicapped. Also the old & ill are too the liability of the families. The general notion is that the
young ones take care of the old.
Recreational

Function

Family is the centre of recreation in a simple family or for the joint farm in this there are journal
relations the that of Bhabi & Dewar etc., When the tired member (usually men) return home these
are met with a smile & kindness. This gives them pleasure and makes life easy as well as
pleasurable.
Acc.
to
"Family has functions for both the individual & society" which are related to each other.

Beirstead

Societies

Individual

Continuation

Life & survival

Sexual control through the inst. Of marriage

Sexual opportunity through the inst. of

marriage.

Cultural transmission status ascription (one is ascribed to the

Social identification & socialization.
status of his family)

Modern Family
(Actually we are supposed to do the pools of the med. Farm). A med. Farm & always a nuclear farm
i.e. Mother, Father and children who are unmarried. This is due to industriation & urbanization, it is
increasing & developing with these why is it due to industriation. & urbanization. People go to
industrial & urban areas for work or so this locates up the patriarchal farm. Everyone seems to want
to stay in these areas but the space is less & the rent high. This leads to a two room home & this is
one of the problems of med. Farm. In Urban areas there are many facilities like education, water
supply electricity & various other things which attracts people. For this they are breaking their joint
families & make a nuclear farm. This leads to congestion and the prob. of stability arises (Farm is a
compact close kind group, in general, in which each member's psychologically related. In the
patriarchal farm there is a sense of stability because they know they got stay there no matter what,
for her parents are not going to accept her for she's married off to that man (In these areas there are
job opportunity). But today women feel they are equal partners with equal rights & so they are not
going to bear all up silently. 2. Now women too have the right to divorce (1955 marriage act) if he
teachers her or does anything disagreeable in the eyes of laws. 3. In 1956 the Hindu succession act
gives the girl the right to get an equal share of the parents property this poses danger to the stability
of the farm & disintegrates. Problem of maladinstment disciplining the family due to urbanization- &
industriation. (This is for equal jobs opportunity).
[Secular Education Parents provides equal education. To both daughter & son. This liberated the
women. This was an influence of conization. 2. In this she is no longer afraid that she has nothing to
fall back on after the hubby disowns her].
All these were for the good but this had some disadvantages too because families broke up all the
more easily. An old custom was to entertain one's guest, this has changed and guests are
considered more of a burden. Now people would rather go to others place than entertain people
themselves.
Problem of Adjustment (Mal. Adjustment)

a.

Economic independence of women

Equal opportunity of job to both men & women, she has equal rights. This makes the women feel
she is a wage earner than why should she listen to her hubby, instead he should listen to her. This
cause conflict because the hobby does not care how much the wife earns but she must obey him
because she is an inferior.

b.

Now the children try to get their own by persuading the parent that is most sympathetic on
that matter. Now one parent may disagree & this causes conflict because both hubby & wife are
important. & so insist on being obeyed or atleast get yes.

c.

Changes in values & attitudes of Farm

Earlier marriage was in front of a God taking the oath to remain together for this birth & the coming
ones. But now you can just go to court on an hour's decision & get married.

d.

Prob. or working Women

Now people think that if both hubby & wife work they will be happier but the poor wife has to work as
well as look after, the house and children. The hubby's ego does not allow him to do all this. This
causes unhappiness & ill feeling.

e.

Prob. of Aging Parents

Earlier it was the function of the family to take care of the dependents (those dependent on them). It
was one's duty to take care of the parents. The married son was supposed to care for his aging
parents but now this is going. Now the son lives separately. This creates can emotional problem for
the old.

f.

Prob. of neglected children

As both parents work children hardly have any emotional support and there is no one to look after
them. The parents are too lived to listen to all their problem. This also results in practical
delinquency.

g.

Sex relationship
In this one's free to have sexual relationship i.e. women too can have extra-marital relationship as
the men. This again leads to the breaking up of the family. However this is not very much prevalent
in our society i.e in India.

h.

Future of the Farm

i.e. Is farm disintegrating! The med. Families concept is increasing day by-day and joint farm's
loosing group. Family has changed its farm & structure don't is not disintegrating. There is also a
change in the functions of the farm. The concept of religious rituals too is changing. Also the function
of providing security is changing (like old part in old homes etc). Also these days one can't think of
having a baby born in the house. It must be in a hospital. Also the family is hardly the 1st school

because children when hardly grown are put in schools. But the main function of the farmily which is
procreation is restored.

Social Stratification
The word stratification means division when we say social stratification it means divisions in society.
division in language, culture, wealth, property, birth, status, age & sex. This social stratification is
found in society in some form or another in the world. This social stratification in simple society
based one sex & age. In complex society it is based on capabilities, birth, wealth, property, inequality
of prestige or difference in ranking system. Hierarchy system, status, position & power prestige is
involved in ranking system of social stratification refers to the ranking system, status, position &
power in society. Inequality exits.
Sorokin said that unstratific society is a myth. In our societies, social stratification is to caste &
class.
Acc. to P.Kinsberg "Social Stratification linked is the division of society into permanent group or
categories linked with each other by the relationship of superiority & sub-ordination."
Sorokin explained social stratification means the differentiation of the given population. Into
hierarchally superposed class; it is manifested in existence of upper & lower social layers." He
further says unstratified society with social equality of its members is a myth which has never been
realized in the history of mankind." According. to Raymond necessary - Stratification is a horizontal
division of society into higher or lower social units. Lundberg describes about social stratification
as a stratified society is marked by inequality, by difference as among people that are evaluated
about them as been lower & higher. Kurt B.Mayor "Social stratification is a system of differential
which includes a hierarchy of social position whose occupants are treated as superior, equal or
inferior to one another in socially imp. respects. Max Webter-"Social stratification is an organized
manifestation of unequal power in society."
Basis on Forms of Social Stratification Biological stratification on Biological basis age, sex,
birth, race.
a.

age childhood, youth, adult & old (superior or experienced)

b.

Sex male & female. In the Indian context males are considered to be superior.

c.

Birth refers to the caste system. This is divided into sub-castes. There are above 3000
castes & sub-castes. The Brahmin gets the highest position.

d.

Race-white & black usually white are superior. Caucasian white, monoxide yellow &
Negroid block. Socio Cultural Basis Education, wealth, property, business, occupation.

e.

Education literate, illiterate. In this too is divided into many stratus.