Comparative Anatomy of the Vertebrates:

[CHAPTER 10:
Girdles, Fins Limbs and Locomotion ]
c.) d.) CHONDRICHTHYES components calcified endoskeletal
OUTLINE I. Pectoral Girdle a. Ostracoderms b. Teleost c. Chondrichthyes d. Early
Tetrapods - clavicles - coracoid plate - coracoid process - scapula e. Mammals
II. Pelvic Girdle - pelvic plate - sacroiliac joint - prepubic cartilage - epipu
bic and hypoischial bone - innominate bone - relaxin III. Fins A. Fin Rays B. Sk
eletal Base of Fin Rays C. Paired Fins D. Medial Fins E. Caudal Fins F. Origin o
f Paired Fins IV. Tetrapod Limbs A. Manus B. Pes C. Origin of Limbs D. Locomotio
n on Land without Limbs
EARLY TETRAPODS interclavicle (addnl membrane bone) no posttemporal (braced the g
irdle against the skull in fishes) supracleithrum is missing
*Please refer to The Skeletal System 4 Handout for the tabulated components of p
ectoral girdle in representative vertebrates. CLAVICLES fate is correlated with
that of the coracoid clavicle and/or coracoid and procoracoid brace the scapula
against the sternum long bones of furculum (wishbone) in birds CORACOID PLATE 2
ossification centers: a. Anterior gives rise to procoracoids b. Posterior gives
rise to coracoids CORACOID PROCESS OF THE SCAPULA vestige of the procoracoids an
d coracoids in Eutheria SCAPULA present in all tetrapods that retain any vestige
s of anterior limbs bears part or all of the glenoid fossa for articulation of t
he girdle with the head of the humerus e.) MAMMALIAN SCAPULA (Recall scapula of
cat!): 1. Scapular spine 2. Supraspinous fossa 3. Infraspinous fossa 4. Acromion
process Mammalian clavicle large in monotremes, insectivores and primates in ba
ts, brace the scapula against the sternum no clavicle in cats (to withstand the
shock of landing upright on their forelimbs), ungulates (facilitates grazing) an
d ungulates Observation: Dermal bones predominate in the pectoral girdle of bony
fishes, whereas replacement bones predominate in tetrapods.
APPENDICULAR SKELETON girdles, fins and limbs Limb buds where tetrapod limbs ari
se during embryogenesis may be transitory, incomplete or functionless vestiges w
hich bespeaks an ancestor with functional tetrapod limbs Fin folds where fins ar
ise during embryogenesis
I. PECTORAL GIRDLES dermal + replacement bones a.) OSTRACODERMS with pectoral ap
pendages; girdles remain unclear b.) TELEOSTS cleithrum as the major bone of the
girdle no clavicle scapulocoracoid (coracoid+scapula)

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[CHAPTER 10:
Girdles, Fins Limbs and Locomotion ]
2. LEPIDOTRICHIA bony; teleosts Actinotrichia distal to the fin rays; stiffen th
e fin rays B. SKELETAL BASE OF FIN RAYS 1. BASALIA absent in specialized teleost
s 2. RADIALIA vestiges in specialized teleosts Archipterygium ancestral fin type
C. PAIRED FINS 1. LOBED FINS sarcopterygians (actinistians and rhipidistians);
fleshy proximal lobe and membranous distal portion 2. FIN FOLD FINS chondrichthy
ans; with broad base; basalia: propterygia, mesopterygia, metapterygia 3. RAY FI
NS actinopterygians (most like tuna have no pelvic fins for streamlinings); very
flexible (teleosts) 4. SPINY FINS acanthodians; supported by hollow spines (not
fin rays) Biserial fin with two series of radials; e.g. dipnoan Neoceratodus Cl
aspers modified basalia in male chondrichthyans
II. PELVIC GIRDLES no dermal bones 1. PELVIC (ISCHIOPUBIC) PLATES paired (brace
for the pelvic fins) that meet in the midventral pelvic symphysis in fishes fuse
d as one structure in chondrichthyes and lungfishes with 2 ossification centers
to form a pubis and an ischium in tetrapods acetabulum for articulation of head
of femur ilium from blastema dorsal to the pelvic plate pubic, ischial and ishio
pubic symphyses absent in birds to provide a wider outlet from the pelvic cavity
for laying eggs pelvis sacrum + girdle (amniotes); encircles caudal end of the
coelom pelvic cavity contains the urogenital organs; terminal portion of large i
ntestine 2. SACROILIAC JOINT junction b/n sacrum and ilium; shock absorber; immo
bile 3. PREPUBIC (YPSILOID) CARTILAGE urodeles; for attachment of respiratory mu
scles 4. EPIPUBIC AND HYPOISCHIAL BONE reptiles, monotremes and marsupials; epip
ubic bone is marsupial bone (supports marsupium) in marsupials Archaeopteryx no
synsacrum 5. INNOMINATE (COXAL) BONE ankylosed ilium, ischium and pubis in mamma
ls 6. RELAXIN ovarian hormone which softens the fibrocartilage of pelvic symphys
es during parturition III. FINS Functions: 1. steering devices for changing dire
ction 2. stabilizers to prevent the body from rolling 3. control of body inclina
tion when swimming away from the horizontal 4. serve as brakes to decrease forwa
rd motion A. FIN RAYS 1. CERATOTRICHIA keratinized; elasmobranchs
D. MEDIAN FINS 1. DORSAL FINS act as keels, keeping motionless fishes from rolli
ng to the left and right; may be used for locomotion in rare cases; impt in Raji
formes (inc. number), lampreys and bony eels (elongated) 2. ANAL FINS modified a
s gonopodia (analogous to claspers) in some viviparous teleosts E. CAUDAL FINS 1
. HETEROCERCAL notochord turns upward; placoderms, Paleozoic and modern sharks,
some acanthodians, and chondrosteans (sturgeons and spoonbills) 2. HYPOCERCAL ve
rtebral column turns downward; ichthyosaurs (result of evolutionary convergence)
3. DIPHYCERCAL externally symmetrical, vertebral column ends with a little upbe
nding; dipnoans and Latimeria 4. HOMOCERCAL notochord turns far dorsad; teleosts
*Heterocercal condition most primitive; the rest are modifications of it

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[CHAPTER 10:
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formula); 2-3-3-3-3 in late therapsids and mammals with pentadactyl limbs PREPOL
LEX elongated carpal; can be seen in a panda POLLEX thumb MODIFICATIONS OF MANUS
: 1. reduction in the number of bones by evolutionary loss or fusion 2. dispropo
rtionate lengthening or shortening of some of the bones 3. increase in the numbe
r of phalanges ADAPTATIONS OF MANUS: 1. Flight
CARPOMETACARPUS fused three dista
l carpals and three metacarpals; in birds
ALULA first finger in brids; for braki
ng PATAGIUM wing membrane; pterosaurs, bats, gliding lemurs; a result of converg
ent evolution if present in unrelated mammals 2. For life in the ocean became fl
ippers 3. For swift-footedness
PLANTIGRADE common in mammals with pentadactyl li
mbs (monotremes, marsupials, insectivores, bears, arboreal raccoons and primates
); primitive tetrapod stance DIGITIGRADE rabbits, rodents and most carnivores; i
ncreased speed and agility and more silent than plantigrade
UNGULIGRADE stance t
hat is wellsuited for running a. PARAXONIC FEET body weight borne on two paralle
l axes; artiodactyls b. MESAXONIC FEET body weight borne on the middle digit; pe
rissodactyls 4. For grasping accomplished by flexing the fingers at each interph
alangeal joint; primates, rodents; opposable thumb B. PES 1. TARSALS wrist with
3 rows of bones: a. proximal tarsals fibulare
intermediale tibiale b. centralia
3 or more bones
*Similaities in morphologic features of caudal fins may be the result of converg
ent evolution F. ORIGIN OF PAIRED FINS 1. FIN FOLD HYPOTHESIS paired fins are de
rived from a pair of continuous fleshy folds of lateral body wall analogous to t
he metapleural folds of an amphioxus; no evidence; of historical interest only 2
. GILL ARCH HYPOTHESIS pectoral and pelvic girdles are modified gill arches, and
the skeleton within the fin is an expansion of the gill rays 3. FIN SPINE HYPOT
HESIS membranes in 2 pairs develop in rays supported by radial elements *Pelvic
fins appear to be a gnathostome feature. *Spines in acanthodians derived feature
IV. TETRAPOD LIMBS *Early tetrapods first segment is horizontal from the trunk;
second segment perpendicular to the first, directed downward; among amphibians a
nd basal lizards THREE SEGMENTS: 1. PROPODIUM upper arm, thigh 2. EPIPODIUM fore
arm, shank 3. AUTOPODIUM manus, modifications
pes;
most
PATELLA (KNEECAP) sesamoid bone; in birds and mammals; protects the joint from t
he abrasive action of the tendon PENTADACTYL LIMB five-digit limb A. MANUS 1. CA
RPUS wrist with 3 rows of bones: a. Proximal Carpals radiale
intermediale
ulnare
pisiform sesamoid bone; in most reptiles and mammals b. centralia 3 or more bon
es c. distal carpals 5 th th
hamate fused 4 and 5 distal carpals 2. METACARPUS s
keleton of the palm 3. PHALANGES bones of the digits; 2-3-4-5-3 (generalized pha
langeal

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c. distal tarsals 5
cuboid fused 4th and 5th tarsals 2. METATARSALS skeleton of
the palm 3. PHALANGES bones of the digits 2-3-4-5-4 (Sphenodon); 2-3-4-4-0 (alli
gator); 2-3-4-4-0 (turtles); 2-3-4-5-4 (generalized for reptiles); and 2-3-3-3-3
in early therapsids and mammals PREHALLUX vestiges of a tarsal or metatarsal HA
LLUX great toe ASTRAGALOCALCANEUS fused proximal tarsals and a centrale; in liza
rds TIBIOFIBULA fused of tibia and fibula (frogs); splinter in birds; lost in de
er and other ungulates TIBIOTARSUS fused of tibia and proximal tarsals (birds) T
ARSOMETATARSUS fused distal tarsals and metatarsals *There is an intratarsal joi
nt between the tibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus and a joint between the tarsometa
tarsus and toes. ZYGODACTYLY X; woodpeckers and parrots *Mammals have a hinge jo
int instead of an intratarsal joint. The tibiale is the principal weight-bearing
bone of the ankle. METATARSAL arch in hominoids; distributes the body weight ov
er four solid bases; absorbs some of the shock generated by bipedal locomotion;
provides spring for walking and running *In wriggling seals, walruses, cetaceans a
nd sirenians, the anterior flippers are for maneuvering. Wirggling seals move us
ing their posterior flippers and with lateral undulations of the trunk. Walruses
, cetaceans and sirenians move by dorsal and ventral undulations. C. HYPOTHESES
(ORIGIN OF THE LIMBS): 1. MODIFICATION OF EXISTING STRUCTURES (supported by foss
il record) Rhipidistian pectoral fin with basal bone articulates proximally with
scapula and distally with a pair of radials
Loss of fin rays and modifications
of distal radials could have produced the skeleton of the tetrapod limb
Preaxial and postaxial radials could have formed the digits 2. FORMATION OF NEW
FEATURES (based on developmental studies)
Initial cell proliferations develop th
e limb buds at the sides of the trunk of the body
Second period of cell prolifer
ation occurs at right angles to the limb axis (distal to the wrist) giving rise
to the digits D. LOCOMOTION ON LAND WITHOUT LIMBS 1. SERPENTINE or LATERAL UNDUL
ATION by forming loops; limbless lizards and snakes 2. RECTILINEAR LOCOMOTION gl
iding forward on the substrate while keeping the entire body in a straight line;
depends on generating friction between sections of the ventral skin and the sub
strate 3. SIDEWINDING rattlesnakes and snakes (desert) 4. CONCERTINA MOVEMENT mo
dified serpentine movements; bracing S-shaped loops against the burrow wall and
exerting horizontal force while thrusting the head and forebody forward