ResEngCh10 PDF

10
Fluid Flow In Porous Media
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
2 CHARACTERISATION AND MODELLING OF
FLOW PATTERNS
2.1
Idealised Flow Patterns
2.2
General Case
2.2.1
Linear Horizontal Model of a Single Phase
Fluid
2.2.1.1 Linearisation Of Partial Differential Flow
Equation For Linear Flow
2.2.1.2 Conditions of Solution
2.2.2
The Radial Model
2.2.2.1 Range Of Application And Conditions Of
Solution
2.3
Characterisation of the Flow Regimes by
their Dependence on Time
3 BASIC SOLUTIONS OF THE CONSTANT
TERMINAL RATE CASE FOR RADIAL MODELS
3.1
The Steady State Solution
3.2
Non-Steady State Flow Regimes and
Dimensionless Variables
3.3
Unsteady State Solution
3.3.1
General Considerations
3.3.2
Hurst and Van Everdingen Solution
3.3.3
The Line Source Solution
3.3.3.1 Range of Application and Limitations to
Use
3.3.4
The Skin Factor
3.4
Semi-Steady-State Solution
3.4.1
Using The Initial Reservoir Pressure, Pi
3.4.2
Generalised Reservoir Geometry: Flowing
Equation under Semi-Steady State Conditions
3.5
The Application of the CTR Solution in
Well Testing
4. THE CONSTANT TERMINAL PRESSURE
SOLUTION
5. SUPERPOSITION
5.1
Effects of Multiple Wells
5.2
Principle of Superposition and Approximation
of Variable - Rate Pressure Histories
5.3
Effects of Rate Changes
5.4
Simulating Boundary Effects (Image Wells)
6. SUMMARY
SOLUTIONS TO EXERCISES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
Having worked through this chapter the student will be able to:
Understand the nature of fluid flow in a porous medium and the relation between
time, position and saturation
Understand the assumptions used in the derivation of the diffusivity equation
Understand the characterisation of the reservoir flow regime on the basis of time
Understand the application of the solutions of the diffusivity equation to steady
state flow, semi-steady state flow and transient flow
Understand the use of the line source solution in radial systems to determine the
pressure at any point in a reservoir under transient flow conditions
Understand the application of line source solution to multiple well/ multiple rate
histories in a transient flow reservoir
Understand the basis of well test analysis, and use of the line source solution to
determine the reservoir permeability and skin factor
Understand the application of semi-steady state solutions to determine reservoir
boundaries and their influence on flow rates.
10
1 INTRODUCTION
The ability to determine the productivity of a reservoir and the optimum strategy to
maximise the recovery relies on an understanding of the flow characteristics of the
reservoir and the fluid it contains. The physical means by which fluid diffuses through
a rock (or any other porous medium) depends on the interaction between the fluid (and
its properties) and the rock (and its properties). In terms of energy, the process may
at first sight appear to be similar in concept to the application of the general energy
equation to flow through pipes, although in this case the container through which the
fluid flows is made of very small tubes. It is precisely because of the geometry and
dimensions of the tubes that the application of the general energy equation would be
impossible: the description of a real pore network in a whole reservoir would be too
complex. Coupled with this is the interaction between the material of the tubes (or
pores) and the fluids. Surface chemistry effects start to dominate the flow when very
small tubes are considered and when multiphase flow occurs in them. Thus, complex
force fields are produced from not only the viscous pressure drop but also the effects
of surface tension and capillary pressure.
The combination of these factors dictates the nature of the fluid flow and one of the
initially unusual aspects is the time taken for pressure to change in the reservoir or for
fluid to migrate from one location to another. For instance, if a large body of water,
such as a swimming pool were drained, for all intents and purposes, the level of water
in the swimming pool would be the same as the water drained out. It would take an
appreciable amount of time for the water to drain (i.e. it would not be instantaneous),
but the pressure or level of the water in the pool would be the same at all locations of
the pool. The pressure in the pool would equilibrate almost immediately. Contrast this
with, for example, a water saturated reservoir rock in which the water could flow, but
where the permeability of the reservoir and the compressibility and viscosity of the
water dictated that the transfer of the water through the reservoir was not instantaneous (as in a swimming pool), but took an appreciable time. In this case pressure
changes in one part of the reservoir may take days, even years to manifest themselves
in other parts of the reservoir. In this case, the flow regime would not be steady state
while the pressure was finding its equilibrium and a major problem, therefore, would
be that Darcys Law could not be applied until the flow regime became steady state.
In some way, the diffusion through the reservoir needs to be examined: Darcys Law
is one expression of that diffusion process, but time dependent scenarios must also be
examined.
To illustrate this, consider the following model of a linear reservoir with a well at the
left side (figure 1).
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
10 vertical tubes, 100mm diameter, arranged linearly

Tube number 1
10
Initial
water
profile
Outlet
(constant flowrate)
Profile
after
time t
Interconnecting, small diameter pipes
height of water in tubes
top of tubes
-50
time, t after start of flow
-100
t=0
t=1
t=2
t=3
t=4
t=5
t=6
t=7
-150
-200
bottom of tubes -250

1
7
6
5
tube number
10
Each tube contains water, the height of which represents the pressure at that part of the
reservoir. The tubes are connected to each other at the base by a small diameter tube
which restricts the flow. Under initial conditions, the height of the fluid is identical in
each of the tubes (assuming the model is level). The outlet at one end is at a lower level
than the model and when it is opened the fluid immediately drains from the model and
the level of the water in the tubes decreases. The energy to drive this system is the
potential energy stored in the height of the water columns: there is no high pressure
inlet to the model. As is shown in figure 1, to reduce the pressure in the model, the fluid
needs to be expelled, but because of the permeability of the rock (the restrictions in
the bottoms of the tubes) it takes time for the fluid in the tubes nearest the outlet to
move (or expand in the case of pressurised fluid in a reservoir) and therefore it takes
time for the pressure to change. When the flow is started from the outlet, there is an
immediate reduction in the pressure in tube 1 and this pressure perturbation moves
through the rest of the fluid at a rate dictated by the rock permeability and fluid
properties. This produces a variation in the pressure along the model. The pressure
profile takes time to develop from the outlet (at tube 1) to the tube farthest from the
outlet (tube 10) and at time, t=1, the pressure in tube 10 is still equal to the pressure
at the initial time, t=0. This is termed a transient flow condition as the fluid is trying
to reach pressure equilibrium. When the fluid in tube 10 starts to expand and flow, all
of the fluid in the whole model is now expanding and flowing to the outlet. Tube 10
represents the limit of the fluid volume: there are no more tubes behind to supply fluid
at the initial pressure. Therefore, as the pressure perturbation moves through the model
4
Figure 1
Model of a linear reservoir
and the pressure response
measured after different
times
10
from tube 1 to tube 10, the rate of pressure change in the fluid is not limited by the
volume of the fluid: it is as if the volume of fluid was infinite in extent. During the
transient period, the reservoir is often referred to as infinite acting.
On inspection, a profile has been developing across the tubes during the transient
period. At the end of the transient period, the fluid in all of tubes is expanding
producing a decline in the pressure in all of the tubes. The shape of the pressure profile
across all of the tubes remains essentially constant and as time continues, the profile
sinks through the model until the water in the tube nearest the outlet empties. During
this time, the water in the model has not been replaced so steady state conditions have
not been achieved, however, since the gradient between the pressures in each adjacent
tube is not changing, the system can be considered to be in pseudo-steady state or
semi-steady state: the pressure gradient is constant but the absolute pressure is
declining. This mimics the situation in a real reservoir where the pressure is perturbed
around a well and the pressure disturbance moves out into the rest of the reservoir until
it reaches the outer boundary. If this is sealing and no flow occurs across the boundary,
then the reservoir pressure will decline (neglecting any injection into the reservoir) in
a pseudo-steady state manner. If the boundary is nonsealing (i.e. it is the water oil
contact and the aquifer water is mobile) then the aquifer water will flow into the
reservoir and a steady state will be achieved if the flowrates match.
The flow described in this model is trivial, but it illustrates the problem of applying
Darcys Law to real reservoirs: the effect of time on flow may be considerable and if
only steady state flow relationships were available then either permeability of the
reservoir would remain unknown or unrealistic flow periods would be required to
measure an essentially simple rock property.
2 CHARACTERISATION AND MODELLING OF FLOW PATTERNS

The actual flow patterns in producing reservoirs are usually complex due mainly to
the following factors:
(i)
The shapes of oil bearing formations and aquifers are quite irregular
(ii) Most oil-bearing and water bearing formations are highly hetereogenous with
respect to permeability, porosity and connate water saturation. The saturations
of the hydrocarbon phases can vary throughout the reservoir leading to different
relative permeabilities and therefore flow patterns
(iii) The wellbore usually deviates resulting in an irregular well pattern through the
pay zone
(iv) The production rates usually differ from well to well. In general, a high rate well
drains a larger radius than a lower rate well
(v) Many wells do not fully penetrate the pay zone or are not fully perforated
There are essentially two possibilities available to cope with complexities of actual
flow properties.
(i)
The drainage area of the well, reservoir or aquifer is modelled fairly closely by
subdividing the formation into small blocks. This results in a complex series of
equations describing the fluid flow which are solved by numerical or seminumerical methods.
(ii) The drained area is modelled by a single block to preserve the global features
and inhomogeneities in the rock and fluid properties are averaged out or
substituted by a simple relationship or pattern of features (such as a fracture set,
for example). The simplifications allow the equations of flow to be solved
analytically.
The analytical solutions will be examined in this chapter.
2.1 Idealised Flow Patterns

There are a number of idealised flow patterns representing fluid flow in a reservoir:
linear, radial, hemispherical, spherical. The most important cases are the linear and
radial models since both of them can be used to describe the water encroachment from
an aquifer into a reservoir, and the radial model can be used to describe the flow of fluid
around the wellbore.
In the following sections, dealing mainly with oil, the compressibility of the flowing
fluid may depend on the pressure. It will always be assumed that the product of
compressibility and pressure, cP, is smaller than one, i.e. cP<<1. If it is not (as in the
case of a gas) then the pressure dependence of compressibility must be taken into
account.
2.2 General Case

Consider the co-ordinate system shown in figure 2. The X and Y coordinates form a
horizontal plane with the Z coordinate perpendicular to this plane. The flow velocity,
U, is a vector with components Ux, Uy, Uz.
Z
Y
U
Ux
Uz
Uy
Figure 2
The specification of the
flow velocity in a Cartesian
co-ordinate system
10
The components of the flow velocity vector, U are:

Ux = -(kx/)(P/x)
Uy = -(ky/)(P/y)
Uz = -(kz/)(P/z+g)
(2.1)
where
k = permeability (m2) in the direction of X, Y, Z. The Z direction has an elevation term,
g, included to account for the change in head.
P = pressure (Pa)
= viscosity (Pas)
= density (kg/m3)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
U = flow velocity (m/s) = (m3/s/m2)
These components are similar to Darcys law in each of the three directions.
2.2.1 Linear Horizontal Model of a Single Phase Fluid

In this geometry, the flow is considered to be along the axis (in the x direction) of a
cuboid of porous rock. The total length of the cuboid is L and fluid flows into the rock
at the left end (x=0) and exits at the right end (x=L). There is no flow in the other
directions at any time i.e. Uy = Uz =0 for all values of x, y, z and time, t (in a real
reservoir, there may be flows in different directions in different parts of the reservoir
and there may be cross flows from different layers within the reservoir). The rock is
100% saturated with the fluid.
The flow equations are:
k P
U x =
x
(2.2a)
(U )

=
t ; 0 x L
x
(2.2b)
where
k = permeability (in the X direction), (mD)
= density, (kg/m3)
U = flow velocity (m/s)
t = time (s)
= porosity
= viscosity, Pas
P = pressure, Pa
x = distance, (m)
The latter equation is obtained from a mass balance as follows (figure 3):
flowrate, qout
dx
area, A
x=L
x+dx
porosity,
X axis
x
flowrate, qin
x=0
isometric view
dx
flowrate, q in
flowrate, qout
x=0
x+dx
x=L
X axis
plan view
In figure 3, fluid flows into the end of the cuboid at position x=0, through the rock only
in the X direction and out of the cuboid at x=L. In the middle of the cuboid, an element
from position x to position x+dx is examined. The bulk volume of the element is the
product of the area, A and the length, dx, i.e. the bulk volume = A*dx. The pore volume
of the element is therefore the product of the bulk volume and the porosity, , i.e. the
pore volume = A*dx*. If the flow was steady state then the flowrates into and out of
the volume (qin and qout) would be identical and Darcys Law would apply. If the flow
rates vary from the inlet of the volume to the outlet, i.e. qin qout then either the fluid
is accumulating in the element and qin > qout or the fluid is depleting from the element
qout > qin (which is possible in a pressurised system since the pressure of the fluid in
the element may reduce causing it to expand and produce a higher flow rate out of the
element). Therefore, there is a relationship between the change in mass, m, along the
cuboid and the change in density, , over time as the mass accumulates or depletes
from any element. In terms of mass flowrate,
8
Figure 3
Flow into and out of a
cuboid of porous rock
10
Mass flow rate through the area, A

= q ((m3/s)*(kg/m3) = kg/s)
Mass flow rate through the area, A at position x
= (q)x
Mass flow rate through the area, A at position x+dx = (q)x+dx
Mass flowrate into a volume element at x minus mass flowrate out of element at x + dx
=(q)x - (q)x+ dx
The mass flow rate out of the element is also equal to the rate of change of mass flow
in the element, i.e. (q )x + dx = (q )x +
(q )
* dx
x
Therefore the change in mass flow rate =
(q )
* dx
x
i.e. if the change in mass flowrate is positive it means the element is accumulating
mass; if the change is negative it is depleting mass.
This must equal the rate of change of mass in the element with a volume = A*dx*
The rate of change of mass is equal to
hence
Adx
t
(q) 1
=
x A
t
since the flow velocity, U = q/A, this becomes
(U)
=
x
t
or
(U)
=
x
t
(2.2b)
Substituting the parameters of equation 2.2a in 2.2b gives
k P
=
t
x x
(2.3)
Equation 2.3 shows the areal change of pressure is linked to the change in density over
time. Realistically, it is pressure and time that can be measured successfully in a
laboratory or a reservoir, therefore a more useful relationship would be between the
change in pressure areally with the change in pressure through time. The density can
be related to the pressure by the isothermal compressibility, c, defined as:
c=
1 V
V P T
where V is the volume (m3) and P is the pressure (Pa).

The density equals mass per unit volume ( =
c=
( m / ) 1
=
m P
P
m
), hence:
V
(Quotient Rule, constant mass system)(2.4)
Since
P
P
=
= c
t P t
t
(from above)
then
P
k P
= c
t
x x
(2.5)
This is the partial differential equation for the linear flow of any single phase fluid in
a porous medium which relates the spatial variation in pressure to the temporal
variation in pressure. If it were applied to a laboratory core flood, it could describe the
pressure variation throughout the core from the initial start of the flood when the
flowrate was increased from zero to a steady rate (the transient period) as well as the
steady state condition when the flow into the core was balanced by the flow out of the
core. Inspection of the equation shows that it is non-linear because of the pressure
dependence of the density, compressibility and viscosity appearing in the coefficients
k
and c. The pressure dependence of the coefficients must be removed before
simple solutions can be found, i.e. the equation must be linearised. A simple form of
linearisation applicable to the flow of liquids such as undersaturated oil is to assume
their compressibility is small and constant. More complex solutions are required for
more compressible fluids and gasses.
2.2.1.1 Linearisation Of Partial Differential Flow Equation For Linear

Flow
Assuming that the permeability and viscosity terms do not depend on location (i.e.
distance along the cuboid), then
10
10
P c P
=
x x k t
(2.6)
The left hand side can be expanded to:
2P
P
+ 2
x
x x
Using equation 2.4 and since
P
=
x P x
the above becomes
c(P/x)2 + (2P/x2).
Usually c(P/x)2 is neglected compared to 2P/x2 since the pressure gradient is
small, and substituting gives
2 P c P
2 =
k t
x
(2.7)
This is termed the linear diffusivity equation

The assumption is made that the compressibility is small and constant, therefore the
coefficients
k
c
are constant and the equation is linearised. In equation (2.7)
c
k
is termed the diffusivity constant. For liquid flow, the above assumptions are
reasonable and have been applied frequently, but can be applied only when the product
of the compressibility and pressure is much less than 1, i.e. cP <<1.0. Thus the
requirement for small and constant compressibility. The compressibility in this case
is the saturation weighted compressibility, i.e. the effect of the oil, water and
formation compressibilities:
c = c oSo + c wSwc + c f
(2.8)
where
c is the saturation weighted compressibility
co is the compressibility of oil
cw is the compressibility of the connate water
cf is the compressibility of the formation (pore volume)
So is the oil saturation
Swc is the connate water saturation
11
2.2.1.2 Conditions of Solution

The solution of the equation requires initial conditions and the boundary conditions.
(i) Initial Solution Condition.
At time t = 0, the initial pressure, Pi, must be specified for every value of x.
(ii) Boundary Conditions.
At the end faces x = 0 and x = L, the flow rate or pressure must be specified for every
value of time, t.
Solutions of the linear diffusivity equation are needed when dealing with linear flow
from aquifers. For solutions dealing with well problems a radial model is required.
2.2.2 The Radial Model

Figure 4 illustrates the geometry of this model in which the flow occurs in horizontal
planes perpendicular to the Z axis (i.e. in planes parallel to the XY plane) within a layer
of constant height, h. The flow is radial and is either towards the Z axis or away from it.
Y
h
rw
re
Z
radial element
h
wellbore
q r+dr
qr
Figure 4
Radial horizontal flow
geometry geometry
dr
r
section in the XZ plane
At a distance r from x-axis, the flow velocity, U is now radius dependent:

U = q/2rh
12
(2.9)
10
From Darcys Law (taking account of the flow direction and the co-ordinate direction):
U=
k P
r
(2.10)
The mass balance gives:
((q)
= 2 rh
r
t
(2.11)
Eliminating U and q through equations 2.9 to 2.11 gives the non-linear equation:
1
k P
P
r
= c
r r r
t
(2.12)
Making assumptions as for linear flow, linearises the equation to:
1 P c P
r =
r r r
k t
(2.13)
This is termed the radial diffusivity equation
2.2.2.1 Range Of Application And Conditions Of Solution

The two main systems to which the radial diffusivity equation can be applied are water
influx and wellbore production although there are others.
(a) In the case of water encroachment from an aquifer into a reservoir, the inner
boundary corresponds to the mean radius of the reservoir, the outer boundary to the
mean radius of the aquifer.
(b) In the case of the pressure regime around a wellbore, the inner boundary
corresponds to the wellbore radius, rw, the outer boundary to the boundary of the
drainage area. In general the wellbore radius, rw is a mathematical concept, however,
the following are widely treated as valid:
Open hole, drilled close to gauge
Well cased, cemented and perforated
Slotted liner with gravel pack
Out-of-gauge hole
:
:
:
:
rw = 1/2 drill bit diameter

rw = 1/2 drill bit diameter
rw = 1/2 outer diameter (OD) of the liner
rw = average radius from caliper log
The solution of the equation requires the initial conditions and the boundary conditions.
(i)
Initial Solution Condition.

At time t=0, the initial pressure, Pi, must be specified for every point of the range
of equation 2.13, i.e. in the reservoir or in the aquifer.
13
(ii) Boundary Conditions

The boundaries consist of the outer and inner boundaries. The number of
solutions depend on the number of boundary conditions, but in the main there
are a few sensible conditions representing the majority of reservoir performance.
Outer Boundary
(a) If there is no flow across the outer boundary it is a closed system and the flow
velocity, U will equal zero. The pressure gradient, P/r will also be zero
(b) If there is flow across the outer boundary, the reservoir pressure will be
maintained at a constant value equal to the initial reservoir pressure, Pi.
Inner Boundary
There are two main cases for the inner boundary which represent either maintaining
a constant pressure or a constant flow rate. These are representative of possible flow
regimes in the reservoir during either water flooding or production from a well.
(a) Constant Terminal Rate Case (C.T.R.)
This can be applied to a wellbore in which the production rate of the well is held
constant and the pressure varies through time. It can also be applied to water
encroachment in which the influx rate of water from the aquifer into the
reservoir across the initial oil-water contact is constant.
(b) Constant Terminal Pressure Case (C.T.P.)
Applied to a wellbore, the flowrate is varied to maintain a constant bottom hole
pressure in the producing well. In the case of water influx, the pressure at the
initial oil water contact of the reservoir remains constant and the flow rate varies.
2.3 Characterisation of the Flow Regimes by their Dependence on Time

To apply the diffusivity equation to real reservoirs requires careful consideration of
the boundary conditions. It will be shown that for most practical purposes, the
solutions to the diffusivity equation can be grouped according to the flow regime that
they represent: steady-state, semi-steady-state (pseudo steady state) or unsteady state
(transient).
Steady-state refers to the situation in which the pressure and the rate distribution in the
reservoir remain constant with time. Unsteady state is the situation in which the
pressure and/or the flow rate vary with time. Semi-steady is a special case of unsteady
state that resembles steady-state flow. These differences in the flow regimes have
ramifications in practical reservoir engineering since working solutions to the
diffusivity equation are usually limited to a particular flow regime. For instance, in a
pressure build up test in a well, the determination of an accurate average reservoir
pressure will depend strongly on the flow regime the well is in and therefore which
working solution is used.
14
10
3 BASIC SOLUTIONS OF THE CONSTANT TERMINAL RATE CASE

FOR RADIAL MODELS
In this flow regime, one of the conditions for solution of the diffusivity equation is that
the flow rate is constant. This can be applied to the flow of oil towards a full length
perforated well, and to the flow of water to a producing reservoir from an aquifer. The
flow can be described approximately as the radial flow of a single phase from the outer
radius b of a right hollow cylinder towards its inner radius, a. It is assumed that
the cylinder consists of a homogeneous porous medium.
In the case of drainage by a well, a is the radius of the well, rw and b is the radius
of the external boundary, re. The flow rate, q at radius, r = rw is the production rate of
the well. In the case of natural water influx into a reservoir, a is the mean reservoir
radius, b is the mean aquifer radius, and q is the volume flow rate of water across the
initial oil-water contact.
The radial constant terminal rate case is determined by the following system of
equations:
1 P
c P
(r ) =
;a r b
r r r
k t
(3.1)
2 rkh P
q=
;r = a
(3.2)
with the initial condition that the pressure at all points is constant
a r b, t = 0; P = Pi = constant
(3.3)
and the boundary conditions that at the wellbore the flowrate is constant after the
production starts
r=a, t 0 : q = constant
(3.4)
and at the outer boundary, the pressure is either a constant (and equal to the initial
pressure) in the case of pressure maintenance
r=b, t 0 : P = Pi = constant
(3.5a)
or there is a sealing boundary with no flow across it in which case the pressure gradient
at the boundary is zero
r = b, t 0 :
P
= 0
r
(3.5b)
15
The solution of the equations 3.1 to 3.4 and 3.5a & equations 3.1 to 3.4 and 3.5b are
well known and can be referenced in Pressure buildup and flow tests in wells by CS
Matthews and DG Russell, SPE Monograph Volume 1. These are too complex for
most practical applications and asymptotic solutions which are fair approximations of
the general solution are used, i.e. simple solutions which approximate certain flow
regimes can be used. The problem is to identify accurately which flow regime and
therefore which asymptotic solution should be used. The steady state solution is the
simplest and is the same as Darcys Law. The non-steady state solutions involve a time
element and are conveniently expressed in dimensionless form.
3.1 The Steady State Solution

If a well is produced at a constant flow rate, q, and if the pressure at the external radius,
re is maintained constant, flow will finally stabilise to steady state conditions.
i.e. flowrate, q = constant and the pressure gradient,
P
= 0 for all values of radius,
t
r and time, t
therefore, P
dP and the flow equation becomes dr 2 kh

q =
dP
r
dr
integrating between the limits rw and r gives:
q r
P Pw =
ln
2 kh rw
(3.6)
Integrating between the limits rw and re gives:
q re
ln
Pe Pw =
2 kh rw
(3.7)
which is identical to the relationship described for a radial system by Darcys Law. In
this case, the pressure at the external radius of the reservoir is required and the only
way to measure it in the reservoir would be to drill a well at the external radius. This
is uneconomic, therefore a mean reservoir pressure,P , is used. It is found from
routine bottom hole pressure measurements and well tests conducted on the wells in
a reservoir, it includes the effect of the area of influence of each well. In simple terms,
the volume drained by each well is used to weight the bottom hole pressure
measurements made in the well; all of the weighted pressures of all of the wells in the
reservoir are then averaged. Figure 5 shows a well in a reservoir and its area of
influence. Volumetrically, this volume is drained by the well and the mean reservoir
pressure,P , is related to the pressure, P of elements of volume, dV being drained. The
total volume is V.
16
10
initial pressure profile
wellbore
Pi
P
h
pressure profile due

to production rate, q
Pwf
rw
Figure 5
Pressure distribution
around a well
re
element of volume, dV, at radius, r and at pressure, P
P=
1 re
PdV
V rw
(3.8a)
where dV = 2rhdr
The volume of the wells drainage zone, V = (re2-rw2)h
and considering rw <<re, V ~ re 2h
P=
2 re
Prdr
r 2 e rw
(3.8b)
(3.9)
from equation 3.6,
q r
P = Pw +
ln
2 kh rw
P=
2 re
q r
P +
ln
rdr
2 w
2 kh rw
r e rw
P - Pw =
2 q re r
ln rdr
r 2e 2 kh rw rw
re
re 1 r 2
2 q 1 2 r
P - Pw = 2
r
ln
dr
rw rw rw r 2
r e 2 kh 2
P - Pw =
2 q r 2e re r 2w rw r 2e r 2w
ln ln
r 2e 2 kh 2 rw 2 rw 4 4
17
assuming
P - Pw =
r 2w
is negligible
4
2 q r 2e re r 2e
ln
r 2e 2 kh 2 rw 4
(3.10)
q re 1
P - Pw =
ln
2 kh rw 2
EXERCISE 1
A well produces oil at a constant flowrate of 15 stock tank cubic metres per day (stm3/
d). Use the following data to calculate the permeability in milliDarcys (mD).
Data
porosity,
formation volume factor for oil, Bo
net thickness of formation, h,
viscosity of reservoir oil,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
initial reservoir pressure, Pi
bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf
qreservoir = qstock tank x Bo
1bar = 105 Pa
19%
1.3rm3/stm3 (reservoir cubic metres per stock
tank cubic metre)
40m
22x10-3 Pas
0.15m
350m
98.0bar
93.5bar
EXERCISE 2
A well produces oil from a reservoir with an average reservoir pressure of 132.6bar.
The flowrate is 13stm3/day. Use the following data to calculate the permeability.
Data
porosity, ,
net thickness of formation, h
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
average reservoir pressure, P
18
23%
1.36rm3/stm3
23m
14x10-3 Pas
0.15m
210m
132.6bar
125.0bar
10
EXERCISE 3
A reservoir is expected to produce at a stabilised bottomhole flowing pressure of 75.0
bar. Use the following reservoir data to calculate the flowrate in stock tank m3/day.
Data
porosity,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
permeability, k
28%
1.41rm3/stm3
15m
21x10-3 Pas
0.15m
250m
83.0bar
75.0bar
125mD
3.2 Non-Steady State Flow Regimes and Dimensionless Variables

As mentioned previously, dimensionless forms of the diffusivity equation have found
wide application in the description of flow through porous media. They normalise
the equation for use with many different reservoirs and allow general solutions to be
found which can be applied to specific data to determine the specific solution for a
particular reservoir. In such a way, general plots of, for example, the difference in
pressure from the reservoir to the wellbore through time can be constructed which can
then be used to determine the actual pressure difference for a specific reservoir. It
should be noted that solutions for a radial flow reservoir can only be sensible if the
dimensionless variables and diffusivity equation have been developed for a radial
flow reservoir.
If the dimensionless variables are defined as:
dimensionless time, rD
rD =
r
rw
dimensionless time, tD
tD =
kt
crw2
dimensionless pressure, PD
PD (rD , t D ) = (
2 kh
)(Pi Pr,t )
q
(at a dimensionless radius

and at a dimensionless time)
where
r = radius in question
rw = wellbore radius
k = permeability
t = time in question
19
= porosity
= viscosity
c = compressibility
h = thickness of the reservoir
Pi = initial reservoir pressure
Pr,t = pressure at the specified radius and time
then the radial diffusivity equation becomes
1 PD PD
rD
=
rD rD rD t D
(3.11)
There are other definitions of dimensionless variables, such as a dimensionless

external radius, which may be used in particular instances.
3.3 Unsteady State Solution

The constant terminal rate (CTR) solution can be obtained in several forms, using
different assumptions and methods of mathematical analysis. The various solutions
overlap, and all of them have particular uses and limitations.
3.3.1 General Considerations
flowrate, q
zero flowrate
time
(a)
Pi
transient
late transient
semi - steady state
time
(b)
Figures 6a and 6b show the response of a reservoir at a wellbore when a flow rate, q,
20
Figure 6
Wellbore pressure response
to a change in flowrate
10
is suddenly applied. The pressure of the flowing fluid in the wellbore, Pwf falls from
the initially constant value, Pi (static equilibrium) through time and the constant
terminal rate (CTR) solution of the diffusivity equation describes this change as a
function of time. The CTR solution is therefore the equation of Pwf versus t for a
constant production rate for any value of the flowing time. The pressure decline,
Figure 6(b), can normally be divided into three sections depending on the value of the
flowing time and the geometry of the reservoir or part of the reservoir being drained
by the well. This figure represents the pressure change at the wellbore through time
which is equivalent to the pressure change (or change in the height of water) in the
cylinder nearest the outlet in the model represented in Figure 1.
Initially, the pressure response can be described using a transient solution which
assumes that the pressure response at the wellbore during this period is not affected
by the drainage boundary of the well and vice versa. This is referred to as the infinite
reservoir case, since during the transient flow period, the reservoir appears to be
infinite in extent with no limits to the fluid available to expand and drive the system.
The transient period is followed by the late-transient when the boundaries start to
affect the pressure response. This is analogous to the pressure disturbance having
moved along the line of tubes in the model in figure 1. The nature of the boundaries
affects the type of solution used to describe the pressure change since a well may drain
an irregularly shaped area where the boundaries are not symmetrical or equidistant
from the well.
The next phase in the pressure decline is termed semi-steady state or pseudo steady
state where the shape of the pressure profile in the reservoir is not changing through
time and the wellbore pressure is declining at a constant rate. It is analogous to the
model depicted in figure 1 where the level of water in all of the tubes is falling and no
additional water is being added to tube 10 to maintain absolute pressure profile. If the
pressure profile developed in the reservoir around the well had remained constant, true
steady state conditions would have occurred and the steady state solutions as
mentioned in the previous section would have applied.
3.3.2 Hurst and Van Everdingen Solution

The constant terminal rate solution for all values of the flowing time was presented
by Hurst and van Everdingen in 19492. They solved the radial diffusivity equation
using the Laplace transform for both the constant terminal rate and constant terminal
pressure cases. The full equation contains, as one of its components, an infinite
summation of Bessel functions which are required to describe the complex wellbore
pressure response during the late transient period. Simple solutions can be obtained
for the transient and semi-steady state flow.
The solution describes pressure drop as a function of time and radius for fixed values
of external radius, re, and wellbore radius, rw, rock and fluid properties. It is expressed
in terms of dimensionless variables and parameters as:
PD = f(tD,rD,reD)
(3.12)
21
where
tD = dimensionless time
rD = dimensionless radius
reD = re/rw = dimesionless external radius.
If the reservoir is fixed in size, i.e. reD is a particular value, then the dimensionless
pressure drop, PD, is a function of the dimensionless time, tD and dimensionless radius,
rD. The pressure in a particular reservoir case can then be calculated at any time and/
or radius. One of the most significant cases is at the wellbore since the pressure can
be measured routinely during production operations and compared to the theoretical
solutions. The determination of a reservoir pressure at a location remote from a well
may be required for reasons of technical interest, but unless a well is drilled at that
location, the actual value cannot be measured.
At the wellbore radius, r=rw (or rD=1.0)
PD = f(tD, reD)
(3.13)
t
e m D J12 ( m reD )
2t
3
i.e. PD (t D ) = 2D + lnreD + 2 2m ( J12 ( r ) J12 ( ))
m eD
m
m =1
reD
4
(3.14)
where
m are the roots of J1 ( m reD )Y1 ( m ) J1 ( m )Y1 ( m reD ) = 0
J1 and Y1 are Bessel functions of the first and second kind.
This series has been evaluated for several values of dimensionless external radius, reD,
over a wide range of values of dimensionless time, tD. The results are presented in the
form of tables (from Chatas, AT3, A Practical Treatment of non-steady state Flow
Problems in Reservoir Systems, Pet. Eng. August 1953) in Well Testing by J Lee,
SPE Textbook series, Vol 1. A summary of the use of the tables for constant terminal
rate problems is as follows in Table 1. It reports the dimensionless pressure at some
dimensionless time for various configurations of reservoir. It is the solution to
equation 3.14.
22
10
Table
2
Table 1
Hurst and Van Everdingen
solutions to the Constant
Terminal Rate Case
Presents
Valid for
PD as a function of tD <1000 (from table)
infinite acting reservoirs
ii
PD 2
iii
PD 0.5 (intD + 0.80907) for 100< tD <0.25 reD2

(an extension of the table)
iv
PD as a function of tD <0.25 reD2 (from table)
finite reservoirs
PD as a function of tD for 1.5< reD2 <10 (from table)
finite reservoirs, but if the

value of tD is smaller
than that listed for a given
value of reD then the
reservoir is infinite acting
and therefore table 1 is used.
ii
PD =
tD
for tD <0.01 (an extension of the table)
4
4
2
2( t D + 0.25) (3reD 4reD lnreD 2reD 1)
2
2
2
reD
1
4( reD
1)
finite reservoirs
2
25 < t D and 0.25reD
< tD
iii
PD
2t D
3
2
+ lnreD for reD
>> 1
2
reD
4
finite reservoirs
The solutions summarised in table 1 are applicable to a well flowing at a constant rate
or to a reservoir and aquifer with a constant flowrate across the oil water contact. Most
problems involving flow at a well involve relationship 2(iii) and 3(iii). It can be seen
that in using these solutions, the pressure can be calculated anywhere in the reservoir
as long as the flow rate is known. If the pressure in the reservoir at a location where
the flow rate is unknown is required then an alternative solution is needed (the Line
Source solution).
EXERCISE 4
A reservoir at an initial pressure, Pi of 83.0bar produces to a well 15cm in diameter.
The reservoir external radius is 150m. Use the following data to calculate the pressure
at the wellbore after 0.01 hour, 0.1 hour, 1 hour, 10 hours and 100hours of production
at 23stm3/d
Data
porosity,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
permeability, k
compressibility, c
21%
1.13rm3/stm3
53m
10x10-3 Pas
0.15m
150m
83.0bar
140mD
0.2x10-7Pa-1
23
EXERCISE 5
An experiment on a cylindrical sand pack is conducted to examine the wellbore
pressure decline. The sand pack is filled with pressurised fluid which is withdrawn from
the wellbore at a constant flowrate of 0.1m3/d. There is no flow at the external
boundary. Calculate the wellbore pressure at times 0.001 hour, 0.005 hour and 0.1
hour after the start of production. The figure below indicates the sand pack.
fluid production
flow to the
wellbore
closed top, bottom

and side
Data
porosity,
viscosity of fluid,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
permeability, k
compressibility, c
sand pack with

fluid filled pore space
25%
0.2m
2x10-3 Pas
0.2m
2m
2bar
1200mD
0.15x10-7Pa-1
EXERCISE 6
A discovery well is put on test and flows at 2.9stm3/d. Using the following data.
calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure after 5 minutes production.
Data
porosity,
formation volume factor of oil, Bo
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
permeability, k
compressibility, c
24
17%
40m
14x10-3 Pas
1.27rm3/stm3
0.15m
900m
200bar
150mD
0.9x10-9Pa-1
10
3.3.3 The Line Source Solution

This solution assumes that the radius of the wellbore is vanishingly small relative to
the mean radius of the reservoir. It allows the calculation of the pressure at any point
in an unbounded reservoir using the flowrate at the well. The benefits are clear in that
no flow rates other than those measured in the producing well are required and from
which the pressure at any location can be calculated. The disadvantage is that the
solution works for infinite acting reservoirs only and if barriers are met, then the
solution fails to represent the true flow regime. The technique of superposition can be
used to combine the effect of more than one well in an infinite acting reservoir and this
technique can represent the effect of a barrier. The barrier is equivalent to the pressure
disturbance produced by a second, imaginary well producing at the same rate and
having the same production history as the real well with both these wells in an infinite
acting reservoir. This solution has found a lot of use in well test analysis.
In constant terminal rate problems, the flowrate at the well was given by
2 rhk P
q=
r r = rw
(3.15)
and for a line source, the following boundary condition must hold:
lim p
q
r
=
r 0 r 2 kh for time, t > 0.
Using the Boltzman Transformation
cr 2
c P
1 P
y=
(r ) =
and
substituting
into
the
diffusivity
equation
4kt
r r r
k t
gives
d 2 p dp
+ (1 + y) = 0
dy 2 dy
with the boundary conditions

p pi as y
lim
p
q
2y
=
y 0 y 2 kh
If p' =
dp
then
dy
25
dp'
+ (1 + y)p' = 0
dy
Separating the variables and integrating gives

lnp = -lny - y +C
i.e. p' =
dp C1 y
=
e
dy y
(3.16)
where C and C1 are constants of integration. Since
lim
p
q
lim
2y
2C1e y
=
=
y 0 y 2 kh y 0
q
and equation 3.16 becomes
4 kh
dp
q e y
which is integrated to give
=
dy 4 kh y
then C1 =
p=
q e y
dy + C 2 or
4 kh y
p=
q e y
dy + C 2
4 kh y y
which can be rewritten as
p=
q
Ei(-y) + C 2
4 kh
Applying the boundary condition that p pi as y then C2 = pi and the line source
solution is obtained:
p i p(r,t) =
q
cr 2
Ei()
4 kh
4kt
(3.17)
The term Ei(-y) is the exponential integral of y (the Ei function) which is expressed as
ey
Ei( y) =
dy
y
y
It can be calculated from the series
yn
Ei( y) = + lny
n!n
where = 0.5772157 (Eulers Constant). On inspection of the similarities in the Ei
function and the ln function, it can be seen that when y <0.01, Ei( y) = + lny and
the power terms can be neglected. Therefore,
Ei( y) = ln(1.781y) = ln(y)

26
10
( = 1.781 = e = e 0.5772157 )
Solutions to the exponential integral can be coded into a spreadsheet and used with the
line source solution. Practically, the exponential integral can be replaced by a simpler
logarithm function as long as it is representative of the pressure decline. The limitation
that y<0.01 corresponds to time, t, from the start of production t >
25cr 2
. The
k
equation can be applied anywhere in the reservoir, but is of significance at the wellbore
(i.e. for well test analysis) where typical values of wellbore radius, rw, and reservoir
fluid and rock parameters usually means that y<0.01 very shortly after production
starts. Therefore the line source solution can be approximated by
q
cr 2
P = Pi +
(ln
)
4 kh
4kt
or, since -ln(y) = ln(y-1)
P = Pi
q
4kt
(ln
)
4 kh
cr 2
(3.18)
and if the pressure in the wellbore is of interest,
Pwf = Pi
q
4kt
(ln
)
4 kh
crw2
(3.19)
The values of exponential integral have been calculated and presented in Matthews
and Russels Monograph and are produced in Table 4. The table presents negative
values, i.e. -Ei(-y). For values of y<0.01, the ln approximation can be used. For values
>10.9, the decline in pressure calculated is negligible.
3.3.3.1 Range of Application and Limitations to Use

The Ei function has limitations on its application: it cannot represent the initial flow
into a wellbore since the assumption that the wellbore is a line is obviously not the case
and some time has to elapse for the relative size of the wellbore to have a negligible
effect on the flow and expansion of the fluid in the majority of the reservoir. The
reservoir must also be infinite acting. Analysis of real reservoir performance has
shown that the Ei function is valid for:
(i)
flowing time, t >100 crw2/k
(3.20)
where rw is the wellbore radius. The value of 100 has been derived form the analysis
of the responses of real reservoirs; it can be varied according to the nature of a specific
well and reservoir. The time involved here is not the same as the dimensionless time,
tD calculated for other models of fluid flow in a reservoir (e.g. the input parameters for
the Hurst and van Everdingen solutions require the dimensionless time at the radius
where the dimensionless pressure drop is required - this may be the wellbore and rw
would be used or it may be some other radius).
27
(ii) t < cre2/4k
(3.21)
where re is the external radius. The reservoir boundaries begin to effect the pressure
distribution in the reservoir after this time, the infinite acting period ends and the line
source solution does not represent the fluid flow.
EXERCISE 7
A well and reservoir are described by the following data:
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
well flowrate (constant)
skin factor
19%
1.4rm3/stm3
100m
1.4x10-3 Pas
2.2 x10-9Pa-1
100mD
0.15m
900m
400bar
159
159stm3/day =
stm3/second
24x3600
0
Determine the following:

(1) the wellbore flowing pressure after 4 hours production
(2) the pressure in the reservoir at a radius of 9m after 4 hours production
EXERCISE 8
A well flows at a constant rate of 20stm3/day. Calculate the bottomhole flowing
pressure at 8 hours after the start of production.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
28
25%
1.32rm3/stm3
33m
22.0x10-3 Pas
0.6x10-9Pa-1
340mD
0.15m
650m
270bar
20stm3/day
0
10
EXERCISE 9
Two wells are drilled into a reservoir. Well 1 is put on production at 20stm3 /day. Well
2 is kept shut in. Using the data given, calculate how long it will take for the pressure
in well 2 to drop by 0.5bar caused by the production in well 1. Well 2 is 50m from well 1.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
Distance well 1 to well 2
18%
1.21rm3/stm3
20m
0.8x10-3 Pas
43x10-9Pa-1
85mD
0.15m
1950m
210bar
20stm3/day
0
50m
EXERCISE 10
A well in a reservoir has a very low production rate of 2stm3/day. Calculate the flowing
bottomhole pressure after 2 years production.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
16%
1.13rm3/stm3
10m
5x10-3 Pas
14x10-9Pa-1
10mD
0.15m
780m
86bar
2stm3/day
0
29
EXERCISE 11
A well is put on production at 15stm3/day. The following well and reservoir data are
relevant.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
21%
1.2rm3/stm3
23m
5x10-3 Pas
22 x10-9Pa-1
130mD
0.15m
800m
120bar
15stm3/day
0

3.3.4 The Skin Factor

The analysis of fluid flow encountered thus far has assumed that a constant permeability exists within the reservoir from the wellbore to the external boundary. In reality,
the rock around the wellbore can have higher or lower permeability than the rest of the
reservoir. This results from formation damage which may occur during drilling and
completion (where the wellbore fluids alter the wettability of the near wellbore
formation as fluid leaks off into it, or solids suspended in the drilling fluids are
deposited in the pore spaces and become trapped thereby physically hindering the flow
of fluid and reducing the permeability) or during production (where sand or precipitates from the hydrocarbon fluids or from formation brines can alter wettability and
plug pore spaces). Alternatively, wellbores intersecting fractures may exhibit enhanced permeabilities as the fractures offer much greater conductive paths to the fluids
around the wellbore, thus enhancing the permeability. This situation may also be
required as part of the reservoir management: hydraulic fractures or acidising
workovers are performed on wells to bypass zones of reduced permeability which
have developed during production.
In these cases, the Ei equation fails to model the pressure drop in these wells properly
since it uses the assumption of uniform permeability throughout the drainage area
of the well up to the wellbore. Figure 7 shows the effect of a reduction in permeability
around a wellbore. The skin zone does not affect the pressures in the rest of the
formation remote from the wellbore, i.e. it is a local effect on the pressure drop at the
wellbore.
30
10
Figure 7
Variation of the
permeability around the
wellbore changes the local
pressure profile
bottomhole following pressure, Pwf
pressure profile if no skin zone was present
Pwf(no skin)
P skin
Pwf(skin)
actual pressure profile through skin zone

skin zone
permeability, Ks
rw
permeability, K
rs
radius, r
P skin = Pwf(skin) - Pwf(no skin)
It can be shown that if the skin zone is considered equivalent to an altered zone of
uniform permeability, ks, with an outer radius, rs, the additional drop across this zone
(Ps) can be modelled by the steady-state radial flow equation. It is assumed that after
the pressure perturbation caused by the start of production has moved off into the rest
of the formation, the skin zone can be thought of as being in a steady state flow regime.
The pressure drop associated with the presence of a skin is therefore the difference in
the bottomhole flowing pressures at the well when skin is present and when skin is not
present, i.e.
Ps =
r
r
r
q
q
q k
ln s
ln s =
( 1)ln s
2 k s h rw 2 kh rw 2 kh k s
rw
(3.22)
Equation 3.22 simply states that the pressure drop in the altered zone is inversely
proportional to the permeability, ks rather than to the permeability, k of the rest of the
reservoir and that a correction to the pressure drop in this region must be made.
When this is included in the line source solution it gives the total pressure drop at the
wellbore:
Pi Pwf =
k
rs
q
q
Ei( y) + Ps =
Ei( y) 2 1 ln (3.23)
4 kh
4 kh
k s rw
31
If at the wellbore the logarithm approximation can be substituted for the Ei function,
then:
k
r
q crw2
Pi Pwf =
) 2 1 ln s
ln(
4 kh
4kt
k s rw
(3.24)
A skin factor, s, can then be defined as:
k
r
s = 1 ln s
k s rw
(3.25)
and the drawdown defined as:
Pi Pwf =
q crw2
ln(
) 2s
4 kh
4kt
(3.26)
Equation 3.26 shows that a positive value of skin factor will indicate that the
permeability around the well has been reduced (by some form of formation damage).
The absolute value reflects the contrast between the skin zone permeability and the
unaltered zone permeability and the depth to which the damage extends into the
formation. Part of the essential information from a well test is the degree of formation
damage (skin factor) around a well caused by the drilling and completion activities.
Alternatively, a well may have a negative skin factor, i.e. the permeability of the skin
zone may be higher than that of the unaltered zone, caused by the creation of highly
conductive fractures or channels in the rock. The extent of the damage zone cannot be
predicted accurately and there may be variations vertically in the extent of the damage
zone therefore this simple model may not characterise the near wellbore permeability
exactly.
An altered zone near a particular well affects only the pressure near that well, i.e. the
pressure in the unaltered formation away from the well is not affected by the existence
of the altered zone around the well.
EXERCISE 12.
A discovery well is put on well test and flows at 286stm3/day. After 6 minutes
production, the well pressure has declined from an initial value of 227bar to 192bar.
Given the following data, calculate the pressure drop due to the skin, Pskin , and the
mechanical skin factor.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
32
28%
1.39rm3/stm3
8.5m
0.8x10-3 Pas
2.3 x10-9Pa-1
100mD
0.15m
6100m
10

bottomhole flowing pressure
after 6 minutes
227bar
192bar
286stm3/day
EXERCISE 13
A reservoir and well are detailed in the following data. Use this data to calculate the
skin factor around the well after producing for 1.5 hours.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
after 6 minutes
23%
1.36rm3/stm3
63m
1.6x10-3 Pas
17 x10-9Pa-1
243mD
0.15m
4000m
263.0bar
260.5bar
120stm3/day
3.4 Semi-Steady-State Solution

Once the initial pressure perturbation produced by bringing a well onto production has
moved through the reservoir and met the boundaries, the infinite-acting nature of the
fluid changes to become finite acting. As stated previously, this is termed pseudo
steady state or semi steady state because the pressure drop with time is the same at all
points around the flowing well, i.e.
P dP
=
= constant
t dt
and where there is no flow across the outer boundary at r = re of the drainage zone, i.e.
P
= 0 at r = re
r
In a similar manner to the steady state flow regime, the pressure difference between
the wellbore and, say, the external radius, or the pressure difference between the
wellbore pressure and the initial pressure, or the pressure difference between the
wellbore pressure and the average reservoir pressure can be calculated depending on
the physical measurements which have been taken. Usually, an average pressure is
known in a reservoir and this is used to determine the pressure drop. Figure 8 shows
the pressure profile in the reservoir and the values which may be relevant.
33
well with constant flow rate, q
initial pressure
height of formation
Pe
Pwf
rw
flowing pressure, P
Pi
calculated average pressure
pressure profile in reservoir
Figure 8
Pressure profile in a
reservoir under semi steady
state flow conditions
re
radius, r
Under semi steady state conditions, the pressure profile can be averaged over the
volume of the reservoir. This gives the average reservoir pressure at a particular time
in the stage of depletion of the reservoir. If there are several wells in a reservoir, each
well drains a portion of the total volume. For stabilised conditions, the volume drained
by each well is stable and in effect the whole reservoir can be subdivided into several
portions or cells. The average pressure in each cell can also be calculated from the
stabilised pressure profile. The calculation of the average pressure is determined from
the material balance of the initial pressure and volume of fluid and its isothermal
compressibility. The expansion of the fluid in each cell manifests itself as a volume,
or flow rate, at the well, i.e.
cV(Pi P) = qt
(3.27)
where V = pore volume of the radial cell; q = constant production rate; t = total flowing
time, c = isothermal compressibility.
dV
dt
dV qdt
dt
=
=q
dP dP
dP
1 dV
since c =
V dP T
q=
dP
dt
dP
q
=
dt
cV
q = cV
which, for the drainage of a radial cell, can be expressed as
34
(3.28)
10
(3.29)
dP
q
=
dt
cre2 h
Substitution of equation 3.29 in the radial diffusivity equation
1 P
c P
(r ) =
r r r
k t
gives
1 P
c q
(r ) =
r r r
k cre2 h
which is
1 P
q
(r ) = 2
r r r
re hk
Integration gives
dP
qr 2
=
+ C1
r
dr
2 re2 kh
(3.30)
at the outer boundary the pressure gradient is zero, i.e.r

C1= q
dP
= 0 therefore
dr
and substitution into equation 3.30 gives
2 kh
dP
q 1 r
=

dr 2 kh r re2
(3.31)
When integrated, this gives

r
Pr
Pwf
[P]
q
r2
lnr 2
=
2 kh
2re r
or
Pr Pwf =
q
r2
rw2
lnr
lnr
w
2 kh
2re2
2re2
35
Pr Pwf =
q r
r2
ln
2 kh rw 2re2
(3.32)
rw2
The term
is considered negligible, and in the case where the pressure at the
2re2
external radius, re is considered (including the skin factor, s, around the well),
Pe Pwf =
(3.33)
q re 1
ln + s
2 kh rw 2
If the average pressure is used, then the volume weighted average pressure of the
drainage cell is calculated as previously in the steady state flow regime, i.e.
P=
2 re
Prdr
r 2 e rw
(3.9)
where rw and re are the wellbore and external radii as before, and P is the pressure in
each radial element, dr at a distance r from the centre of the wellbore. In this case,
r
2 q e r
r2
P Pwf = 2
r ln
dr
re 2 kh rw rw 2re2
and integrating gives
re
re
(i)
e
r
r2
r
1 r2
r
ln
dr
=
ln
2 r
r rw
r r 2 dr
w
rw
w
w
re
e
r2
r2
r
= ln
2 rw rw 4 rw
re
re2 re re2
ln
2 rw 4
re
r4
r3
r2
(ii) 2 dr = 2 e
2re
8re rw 8
rw
and substitution into equation 3.32 with inclusion of the skin factor gives
P Pwf =
36
q re 3
ln + s
2 kh rw 4
(3.34)
10
The pressure differences (Pr - Pwf), (Pe- Pwf), ( P -Pwf) do not change with time, whereas
Pr, Pe, Pw and P do change.
EXERCISE 14
A well has been on production in a reservoir which is in a semi-steady state flow
regime. For the following data, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf
Data
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
1.62rm3/stm3
72m
1.2x10-3 Pas
123mD
0.15m
560m
263.0bar
216stm3/day
0
3.4.1 Using The Initial Reservoir Pressure, Pi

If the pressure drop from initial pressure conditions is required then equation 3.27 may
be written as:
q
P = Po + ( t o t )
cV
(3.35)
qt
P = Pi
cV
(3.36)
where q is the volume flow rate, c is the isothermal compressibility, V is the original
volume to is a reference time after which flow starts, t is the flowing time, Po is the
pressure at the reference time and P is the pressure at time t after the flow starts. P is
the average reservoir pressure after time, t. Subtracting equation 3.36 from equation
3.34 gives
Pi - Pwf =
q re 3
2 kt
ln
+
2 kh rw 4 cre 2
(3.37)
3.4.2 Generalised Reservoir Geometry: Flowing Equation under SemiSteady State Conditions
The key aspect of the radial flow equation under semi-steady state conditions is that
the boundary of the reservoir has an effect on the flow regime. The pressure decline
is influenced by the fact that there is a finite limit to the amount of fluid present in the
reservoir. The equations developed have been for radial geometries. However, the
semi-steady state flow regime in non-radial reservoirs can be examined by the radial
equation if the shape of the reservoir can be attributed to a factor which encapsulates
37
the relative position of a producing well in a volume of reservoir fluid. This nonsymmetrical geometry can be described by the Dietz shape factor (given the symbol
CA ) as follows.
Using the average reservoir pressure and assuming no skin factor, the pressure drop
is described by equation 3.34 as
P Pwf =
q re 3
ln
2 kh rw 4
(3.34)
Expressing the terms ln re 3 as
rw
re 3
1
2ln
rw 2
2
2
3
1 re
= ln
2
2 rw
2
3
1 r
= ln e ln e 2
2 rw

r 2
e
1 rw
= ln 3
2

e2

2
1 ( re )
= ln
2 2 23
rw e

The area drained (for a radial geometry) is re2 therefore the logarithm term becomes
(4A)
( 4 re ) =
1.781 x 31.6 x rw2 )

(
2 2
4 rw e

where A is the area drained, = 1.781 and Dietz shape factor, CA (for a well in a radial
drainage area) =31.6.
38
10
The final form of the generalised semi steady state inflow equation for an average
reservoir pressure is
P Pwf =
q 1
4A
+ s
ln
2
2 kh 2 C A rw
(3.38)
For the pressure drop between initial reservoir pressure conditions and some bottom
hole flowing pressure during semi steady state flow, equation 3.37 can be expressed
as
Pi Pwf =
q 1
4A
2 kt
( ln
+
)
2
2 kh 2 C A rw cA
(3.39)
Pwf = Pi
q 1
4A
2 kt
( ln
+
)
2
2 kh 2 C A rw cA
(3.40)
or
In a convenient dimensionless form, this can be expressed as
kt rw2
2 kh
1
4A
2
(P - Pwf ) = ln
+
q
2 C A rw2
crw2 A
or
PD t D =
1
4A
rw2
ln
+
2
t
D
2 C A rw2
A
(3.41)
The term involving the wellbore radius can be accommodated by using the following
modified dimensionless time
t DA
rw2
= tD
A
in which case
PD t D =
1
4A
ln
+ 2 t DA
2 C A rw2
The calculation of the Dietz shape factors and their limitations in use is presented in
Lee and reproduced in Table 5. There are a series of common simple shapes with wells
located close to certain barriers and the shape factors associated with them. There are
also values of tDA which indicate the use of the shape factors.
(i)
The infinite system solution with less than 1% error for tDA < X in this case, X
is the value of the maximum elapsed time during which a reservoir is infinite
acting and the Ei function can be used. The time, t is calculated by
39
t < t DA
cA
k
This time is different to that quoted earlier in the section on the line source solution
and reflects the subjective decision as to the acceptable accuracy of the solution using
the Ei function.
(ii) The solution with less than 1% error for tDA > X in this case, the semi steady state
solution can be used with the results having an error less than 1% for an elapsed
time, t
t > t DA
cA
k
(iii) The solution which is exact for tDA > X in this case, the semi steady state solution
can be used with the results being exact for an elapsed time, t
t > t DA
cA
k
For a real reservoir under semi steady state conditions, the volume of reservoir drained
by a well can be determined from its flow rate, and this volume correlated to the
structural map of the reservoir to determine the shape. The values of shape factor can
then be used to locate the position of the well relative to the boundaries of the area
being drained. This is not an exact procedure and variations in the heterogeneity of the
reservoir can alter the pressure responses, however, it is an analytical step in the
characterisation of the reservoir.
EXERCISE 15
For each of the following geometries, calculate the time in hours for which the reservoir
is infinite acting
Geometry
1. Circle
2. Square
3. Quadrant of a square
Data
Area of reservoir, A
permeability, k
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
1618370m2
1.0x10-3 Pas
100mD
20%
1.45 x10-9Pa-1
The times are calculated by the dimensionless time, diffusivity of the reservoir and the
area of the reservoir. The dimensionless time accounting for the reservoir drainage
area is found for the conditions in Table 5.
40
10
3.5 The Application of the CTR Solution in Well Testing

The study of fluid flow so far has related the pressure drop expected as a result of a
flow rate from a well in a reservoir. If the appropriate parameters, such as porosity,
permeability and fluid viscosity are known, then for a particular flow regime, such as
unsteady state, the pressure drop at a certain distance from the well at a certain time
after production starts can be calculated.
In reality, only flow rates and pressures at wells can be measured directly, and the most
important unknown factor in the diffusivity equation is the permeability. Therefore,
rather than calculate a pressure drop for a given set of conditions, the pressure drop
can be continuously measured and the permeability calculated.
This is part of the objectives of well testing and for illustration, the following example
calculates the permeability and skin factor for a well in a reservoir. It is important to
note that these examples all assume that an initially undisturbed reservoir is brought
on production, i.e. that there has been no previous production in the reservoir therefore
the pressure is at its initial value. In well test analysis, the previous history of a well
must be accounted for. The section on superposition will introduce the concepts of a
multi-rate history for a well.
EXERCISE 16
A well is tested by producing it at a constant flow rate of 238stm3/day (stock tank) for
a period of 100 hours. The reservoir data and flowing bottomhole pressures recorded
during the test are as follows:
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
wellbore radius, rw
18%
1.2rm3/stm3
6.1m
1x10-3 Pas
2.18 x10-9Pa-1
0.1m
241.3bar
238stm3/day
41
Time (hours)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.5
10.0
15.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
(bar)
241.3
201.1
199.8
199.1
198.5
197.8
196.5
195.3
192.8
185.2
180.2
176.7
173.2
169.7
166.2
162.7
159.2
1. Calculate the effective permeability and skin factor of the well.

2. Make an estimate of the area being drained by the well and the Dietz shape factor.
(Refer to solution to exercise 16 on page 93)
EXERCISE 17
An appraisal well is tested by producing at a constant rate of 200stm3/day for 107
hours. The following table of flowing bottomhole pressures and time were recorded
during the test. Using the data,
1. calculate the permeability and skin factor of the well
2. estimate the shape of the drainage area
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
wellbore radius, rw
42
22%
1.3rm3/stm3
21m
1.9x10-3 Pas
4.3 x10-9Pa-1
0.15m
378.7bar
200stm3/day
10
Time (hours)
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
(bar)
0.0
1.1
2.1
3.2
4.3
5.4
8.0
10.7
16.1
21.4
32.1
42.8
53.5
64.2
74.9
85.6
96.3
107.0
378.7
326.41
324.7
323.8
323.1
322.1
320.5
318.8
315.5
312.2
305.6
300.8
296.0
291.2
286.3
281.5
276.7
271.9
4. THE CONSTANT TERMINAL PRESSURE SOLUTION

In the constant terminal rate solution of the diffusivity equation, the rate is known to
be constant at some part of the reservoir and the pressures are calculated throughout
the reservoir. Conversely, in the constant terminal pressure solution, the pressure is
known to be constant at some point in the reservoir, and the cumulative flow at any
particular radius can be calculated. The constant terminal pressure solution is not as
confusing as the constant terminal rate solution simply because less is known about
it. Only one constant terminal pressure solution is available, so there is no decision to
be made over which to use as in the case of the constant terminal rate solutions. Hurst
and Van Everdingen produced the solutions for cases of an infinite radial system with
a constant pressure at the inner boundary and for constant pressure at the inner
boundary and no flow across the outer boundary. These can model, for example, a
wellbore whose bottomhole flowing pressure is held constant whilst flow occurs in the
reservoir, or they can model a reservoir surrounded by an aquifer. The same
geometrical and property conditions apply as for the constant terminal rate solutions:
a radial geometry of constant thickness with a well in the centre, and with fixed rock
and fluid properties throughout, however, in this case there is a pressure drop from an
initial pressure to some constant value. In the case of aquifer encroachment, the radius
of the well is the radius of the initial oil water contact. The constant terminal
pressure solution is most widely used for calculating the water-encroachment (natural
water influx) into the original oil and gas zone due to water drive in a reservoir. This
topic is covered in the chapter on water influx.
43
5. SUPERPOSITION
In the analyses so far, the well flow rate has been instantly altered from zero to some
constant value. In reality, the well flowrates may vary widely during normal production operations and of course the wells may be shut in for testing or some other
operational reason. The reservoir may also have more than a single well draining it and
consideration must be taken of this fact. In short, there may be some combination of
several wells in a reservoir and/or several flowrates at which each produce. The
calculation of reservoir pressures can still be done using the previous simple analytical
techniques if the solutions for each rate change, for example, are superposed on each
other. In other words, the total pressure drop at a wellbore can be calculated as the sum
of the effects of several flowrate changes within the well, or it may be the sum of the
effects caused by production from nearby wells.
There is also the possibility of using infinite acting solutions to mimic the effects of
barriers in the reservoir by using imaginary or image wells to produce a pressure
response similar to that caused by the barrier.
Mathematically, all linear differential equations fulfill the following conditions:
(i) if P is a solution, then C x P is also a solution, where C is a constant.
(ii) if both P1 and P2 are solutions, then P1 + P2 is also a solution.
These two properties form the basis for generating the constant terminal rate and
constant terminal pressure cases. The solutions may be added together to determine
the total effect on pressure, for example, from several applications of the equation.
This is illustrated if a typical problem is considered: that of multiple wells in a
reservoir.
5.1 Effects of Multiple Wells

In a reservoir where more than one well is producing, the effect of each wells pressure
perturbation on the reservoir is evaluated independently (i.e. as though the other wells
and their flow rate/ pressure history did not exist), then the pressure drop calculated
at a particular well at a particular time is the simple addition of all of the individual
effects superimposed one effect upon the other. Consider 3 wells, X, Y and Z, which
start to produce at the same time from an infinite acting reservoir (figure 9).
44
10
Well X
Well Y
Well Z
Flowrate, qx
Flowrate, qy
Flowrate, qz
rxy
rzy
P caused by well X
independent of well Y
or well Z
P caused by well Z
independent of well Y
or well Z
Initial Pressure, Pi
No Barrier Detected
Figure 9
The superposition of
pressure changes from
several wells
No Barrier Detected
P caused by well Y
independent of well X
or well Z
Actual well pressure,

Pwf
Pressure in well Y after flowing time, t
Superposition shows that:

(Pi-Pwf)Total at Well Y
= (Pi -P)Due to well X + (Pi-P)Due to well Y
+ (Pi-P)Due to well Z
Assuming unsteady state flow conditions, the line source solution can be used to
determine the pressure in well Y. It is assumed here that the logarithm function can
be used for well Y itself and that there will be a skin around the well. The effects of
wells X and Z can be described by the Ei function. There is no skin factor associated
with the calculation of pressure drop caused by these wells, since the pressure drop of
interest is at well Y (i.e. even if wells X and Z have non-zero skin factors, their skin
factors affect the pressure drop only around wells X and Z). The total pressure drop
is then:
(Pi Pwf )total at well Y =
q Y crwY
ln
2SY

4 kh
4kt
q X crXY
Ei

4 kh
4kt
(5.1)
2
q Z crZY
+
Ei
4 kh
4kt
where
qY is the flowrate from well Y
qX is the flowrate from well X
45
qZ is the flowrate from well Z

rwY is the radius of well Y
rXY is the distance of well Y from the X well
rZY is the distance of well Z from the X well
the rest of the symbols have their usual meaning
This technique can be used to examine the effects of any number of wells in an infinite
acting reservoir. This could be to predict possible flowing well pressures amongst a
group of wells, or to deliberately use the interaction between wells to check reservoir
continuity. These interference tests and other extended well tests are designed to
characterise the reservoir areally rather than to determine only the permeability and
skin factor around individual wells.
EXERCISE 18
Two wells, well 1 and well 2, are drilled in an undeveloped reservoir. Well 1 is
completed and brought on production at 500stm3/day and produces for 40 days at
which time Well 2 is completed and brought on production at 150stm3/day. Using the
data provided, calculate the pressure in Well 2 after it has produced for 10 days (and
assuming Well 1 continues to produce at its flowrate). Therefore, Well 1 produces for
50days when its pressure influence is calculated; Well 2 produces for 10 days when
its pressure influence is calculated.
The wells are 400m apart and the nearest boundary is 4000m from each well.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw (both wells)
Well 1 flowrate (constant)
skin factor around both wells
21%
1.4rm3/stm3
36m
0.7x10-3 Pas
8.7 x10-9Pa-1
80mD
0.15m
180.0bar
500stm3/day
150stm3/day
0
5.2 Principle of Superposition and Approximation of Variable - Rate

Pressure Histories
The previous section illustrated the effect of the production from several wells in a
reservoir on the bottomhole flowing pressure of a particular well. Of equal interest is
the effect of several rate changes on the bottomhole pressure within a particular well.
This is a more realistic situation compared to those illustrated previously where a well
is simply brought on production at a constant flowrate for a specific period of time.
For instance, a newly completed well may have several rate changes during initial
cleanup after completion, then during production testing then finally during production as rates are altered to match reservoir management requirements (for example
limiting the producing gas oil ratio during production). A simple pressure and flowrate
plot versus time would resemble figure 10.
46
10
flowrate, q
q2
q1
(q2 - q1)
t1
Figure 10
Effect of flowrate changes
on the bottomhole flowing
pressure
time, t
continuation of the effect of q1 in the reservoir

initial reservoir pressure
P associated with (q1 - 0)

P associated with (q2 - q1)
t1
time, t
The well has been brought onto production at an initial flowrate, q1. The bottomhole
flowing pressure has dropped through time (as described by the appropriate boundary
conditions and the flow regime) until at time t1, the flowrate has been increased to q2
and this change from q1 to q2 has altered the bottomhole flowing pressure (again as
described by the boundary conditions and the flow regime). The total (i.e. the real
bottomhole flowing pressure) is calculated by summing the pressure drops caused by
the flowrate q1 bringing the well on production, plus the pressure drop created by the
flowrate change q2 - q1 for any time after t1. During the first period (q1) the pressure
drop at a time, t, is described by
P(t) = Pi - Pwf = PD (t)
q
2 kh
(5.2)
where PD(t) is the dimensionless pressure drop at the well for the applicable
boundary condition.
For times greater than t1, the pressure drop is described by
P(t) =
q
(q q)
PD (t) + 2
PD (t - t1 )
2 kh
2 kh
(5.3)
In this case, the pressure drop is that caused by the rate q1 over the duration t, plus the
pressure drop caused by the flowrate change q2 - q1 over the duration t - t1. In fact, the
pressure perturbation caused by q1 still exists in the reservoir and is still causing an
effect at the wellbore. On top of that, the next perturbation caused by flowrate change
q2 - q1 is added or superposed to give the total pressure drop ( at the wellbore in this
case).
In mathematical terms:
0 t t1: P(t) = PD (t)
q
2 kh
(5.4)
47
(5.5)
t > t1 : P(t) =
q
q q1
PD (t) + 2
PD (t - t1 )
2 kh
2 kh
In this 2nd equation, the first term is P from flow at q1 : 2nd term is the incremental
term P caused by increasing rate by an increment (q2-q1). These expressions are valid
regardless of whether q2 is larger or smaller than q1 so that even if the well is shut in,
the effects of the previous flowrate history are still valid.
The dimensionless pressure drop function depends as mentioned on the flow regime
and boundaries. If unsteady state is assumed and the line source solution applied, then
Pi Pwf
cr 2 w
1
PD =
= Ei (
)
q / 2 kh
2
4 kt
(5.6)
and the equation for time, t less than or equal to t1 would be as expected
(5.7)
q1
cr 2 w
P(t) = Ei (
)
4 kh
4 kt
For times greater than t1 the additional pressure drop is added to give
(5.8)
2
P(t) = -
q1
cr w
(q 2 q1 )
cr w
Ei (
) Ei (
)
4 kh
4 kt
4 kh
4 k ( t t1 )
This approach can be extended to many flowrate changes as illustrated in figure 11.
different flow rates
flowrate, q
q3
q4
q2
q1
Bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf
time, t
48
pressure responses cused by rate changes
time, t
Figure 11
Multi rate pressure
response in a wellbore
10
This leads to a general equation
P(t) =
q1
(q q1 )
(q q 2 )
PD (t) + 2
PD (t t1 ) + 3
PD (t t 2 ) + ... (5.9)
2 kh
2 kh
2 kh
(q n q n 1 )
+
PD (t t n 1 )
2 kh
or
P(t) =
n q q
q1
i 1
PD (t) + i
PD (t t i 1 )
i=2
2 kh
q1
(5.10)
This is the general form of the principle of superposition for multi rate history wells.
For the specific case where the well is shut in and the pressure builds up, an additional
term is added to reflect this. Assuming that the well was shut in during the nth flowrate
period, the pressure builds during the shut in time, t (i.e. t starts from the instant the
well is shut in) back up towards the initial reservoir pressure according to
Pi Pws =
n q q
q
q1
i
i 1
P
(t)
+
PD (t n-1 t i 1 + t) n-1 PD ( t)
1= 2
2 kh
q1
2 kh
(5.11)
where
Pws is the shut in bottomhole pressure
tn-1 is the total producing time before shut in
t is the closed in time from the instant of shut in.
5.3 Effects of Rate Changes

The application of superposition to a well with several rate changes is illustrated as
follows. A well is known to have the flowrate history as presented in figure 12. It is
seen that the well is brought onto production at a flowrate, q1 and this is maintained
constant until time, t1 at which the flowrate is increased to q2. This second flowrate
continues until time t2 when the flowrate is decreased to q3. In terms of the reservoir,
it is assumed that the reservoir is in unsteady state flow regime and the line source can
be used to describe the pressure drop caused by the flowrate changes. In this case, the
first flow rate change is when the well is brought on production, so the change from
zero to q1 causes the first pressure perturbation to move into the reservoir.
It is the bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf, that is of interest, and it can be calculated
using the line source solution. There is the possibility of a skin zone around the well,
so this must be accounted for. If no other flowrate change occurred, then eventually
unsteady state would give way to either semi steady state or steady state conditions
and the bottomhole flowing pressure would either decline at a steady rate or (if steady
state) would remain constant at some level. Assuming that this did not occur and that
unsteady state conditions still existed when the flowrate was changed to q2 then the
change q2 - q1 would cause a second pressure perturbation that would move out into
the reservoir, following the first one created when the well was put on production. The
reservoir is still in unsteady state conditions i.e. the first pressure perturbation has not
met any barriers so the reservoir fluid still reacts as if it were an infinite volume and
49
this behaviour is still causing a decline in the pressure at the wellbore even though a
second pressure perturbation has been created and is moving out into the reservoir.
The pressure drop due to this flowrate change can be calculated by the line source
solution and added to that produced by bringing the well onto production.
Eventually at time t2, the flowrate is changed again. This time, the pressure perturbation caused by q3 -q2 follows the first and second perturbations into the reservoir, and
again, as long as the reservoir fluid still behaves as if it were infinite in volume, the
pressure drop created by this flowrate change can be added to the changes produced
by the others to give the total pressure drop.
real well flowrate history
flowrate, q
q3
q1
q2
time, t
t1
t2
equivalent flowrate effects in the reservoir

q1
flowrate, q
time, t
t1
q2 - q1
time, t
q 3 - q2
time, t
t2
The pressure drop produced by bringing the well onto production is calculated by the
logarithmic approximation of the Ei function (it is assumed that the checks have been
made to the applicability of the Ei function and its logarithmic approximation).
P1 = ( Pi Pwf )1 =
q1 crw2
2s
ln
4 kh 4kt
The next pressure drop is that produced by the flowrate change q2 - q1 at time, t1. It is
still the bottomhole flowing pressure that is to be determined, therefore any skin zone
will still exist and still need to be accounted for. The second pressure drop is:
50
Figure 12
The equivalence of flowrate
changes in a reservoir
10
P2 = ( Pi Pwf )2 =
(q 2 - q1 ) crw2
ln
2s
4 kh 4k(t - t1 )
And finally the third pressure drop is:
P3 = ( Pi Pwf )3 =
(q 3 - q 2 ) crw2
ln
2s
4 kh 4k(t - t 2 )
The total pressure drop at the wellbore caused by all of the flowrate changes is
(Pi - Pwf )= P1 + P2 + P3
EXERCISE 19
Two wells are brought on production in an undeveloped reservoir. Using the data
below, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure in each well. Well 1 produces at
110stm3/day for 27 days at which time Well 2 starts production at 180stm3/day and
both produce at their respective rates for a further 13 days when the bottomhole
flowing pressures are calculated. Therefore Well 1 produces for 40 days when its
pressure influence is calculated; Well 2 produces for 13 days when its pressure
influence is calculated.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
external radius, re
19%
1.2rm3/stm3
36m
1x10-3 Pas
10 x10-9Pa-1
110mD
0.15m
7000m
250.0bar
110stm3/day
180stm3/day
0
The wells are 350m apart.
51
EXERCISE 20
A well is completed in an undeveloped reservoir described by the data below. The well
flows for 6 days at 60 stm3/day and is then shut in for a day. Calculate the pressure
in an observation well 100m from the flowing well.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
external radius, re
flowrate (constant)
skin factor around well
19%
1.3rm3/stm3
23m
0.4x10-3 Pas
3 x10-9Pa-1
50mD
0.15m
6000m
180.0bar
60stm3/day
0
The observation well is 100m from the flowing well.
EXERCISE 21
A well in a reservoir is brought on production at a flowrate of 25stm3/day for 6 days.
The production rate is then increased to 75stm3/day for a further 4 days. Calculate,
using the data given, the bottomhole flowing pressure at the end of this period, i.e. 10
days.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
external radius, re
1st flowrate (constant)
1st flowrate period
2nd flowrate (constant)
2nd flow period
52
21%
1.31rm3/stm3
20m
0.6x10-3 Pas
8 x10-9Pa-1
75mD
0.15m
5000m
200.0bar
25stm3/day
6days
75stm3/day
4days
0
10
5.4 Simulating Boundary Effects (Image Wells)

One of the intriguing possibilities of the application of the principle of superposition
to reservoir flow is in simulating reservoir boundaries. It is clear that when a well in
a reservoir starts production, there will be a period where the flow regime is unsteady
while the reservoir fluid reacts to the pressure perturbation as if the volume of the
reservoir was infinite (i.e. an infinite acting reservoir).
Once the boundaries are detected, there is a definite limit to the volume of fluid
available and the pressure response changes to match that of, for example, semi steady
state or steady state flow. This assumes that the pressure perturbation reaches the areal
boundary at the same time, i.e. if the well was in the centre of a circular reservoir, the
pressure perturbation would reach the external radius at all points around the
circumference at the same time (assuming homogeneous conditions). If the well was
not at the centre then some parts of the boundary would be detected before all of the
boundary was detected. This means that some of the reservoir fluid is still in unsteady
flow whilst other parts are changing to a different flow regime. This would appear to
render the use of the line source solution invalid, however, the effect of the nearest
boundary in an otherwise infinite acting reservoir has the same effect as the interaction
of the pressure perturbations of two wells next to each other in an infinite acting
reservoir.
Therefore if an imaginary well is placed at a distance from the real well equal to twice
the distance to the boundary, and the flowrate histories are identical, then the principle
of superposition can be used to couple the effect of the imaginary well to the real well
in order to calculate the real wells bottomhole flowing pressure. Figure 13 illustrates
the problem and the effect of superposition. Figure 14 shows a simplification of the
model.
Infinite Acting Reservoir
Well with pressure perturbations

moving out into the reservoir
Pressure perturbations hit a fault

at the edge of the reservoir
Real Reservoir
Infinite Acting Reservoir
Figure 13
The pressure effect of the
barrier in the real reservoir
can be represented by an
imaginary well
Well with pressure perturbations

moving out into the reservoir
Imaginary well mimics the

effect of the fault
Imposition of an Imaginary Well

53
Can be modelled as
drainage boundary
between wells
L
actual well
image well
reservoir
boundary
This shows a plane-fault boundary in an otherwise infinite acting reservoir, as in the

top of figure 13. To determine the pressure response in the well, the line source
solution can be used until the pressure perturbation hits the fault. Thereafter there are
no solutions for this complex geometry. However, the reservoir can be modelled with
an infinite acting solution if a combination of wells in an infinite-acting system that
limit the drainage or flow around the boundary is found. The bottom of figure 13
indicates 1 image well with the same production rate as the actual well is positioned
such that the distance between it and the actual well is twice the distance to the fault
of the actual well. No flow occurs across the plane midway between the two wells in
the infinite-acting system, and the flow configuration in the drainage area of each well
is the same as the flow configuration for the actual well. Pressure communication
crosses the drainage boundary, but there is no fluid movement across it and the
problem of the flow regime has been resolved: the real well can be thought of as
reacting to the flowrate in it and to the pressure drop produced by the imaginary well
on the opposite side of the fault. The pressure drop is therefore:
Pi Pwf =
c(2L)2
q
q crw2
Ei
ln(
)
2s
4 kh
4kt
4 kh
4kt
where the symbols have their usual meaning, and L is the distance from the real well
to the fault. The skin factor is used in the actual well, but not in the other (image) well
since it is the influence of this image well at a distance 2L from it that is of interest.
EXERCISE 22
A well in a reservoir is produced at 120 stm3 /day for 50 days. It is 300m from a fault.
Using the data given, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure in the well and
determine the effect of the fault on the bottomhole flowing pressure.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
54
19%
1.4rm3/stm3
20m
1x10-3 Pas
9 x10-9Pa-1
120mD
0.15m
4000m
Figure 14
Representation of the
boundary by a real well and
an image well
10

flowrate (constant)
flowrate period, t
distance to fault, L
300.0bar
120stm3/day
50days
300m
0
There are other examples of the use of image wells to mimic the effect of boundaries
on flow. The larger networks require computer solution to relieve the tedium. To
complicate the simple fault boundary described earlier, consider the effect of a well
near the corner of a rectangular boundary. In this case, there are more image wells
required to balance the flow from the real well. Figure 15 shows the boundary and the
image wells.
image well 1
L2
image well 3
L2
L1
L1
R3
L1
Figure 15
Representation of a well at
the intersection of two
boundaries
L1
L2
L2
image well 2
Actual Well
Boundary
Four pressure drop terms are required to determine the pressure at the actual well. The
total pressure drop then is the sum of the pressure drops caused by all of the wells at
the actual well.
Pi - Pwf = (P)rw + (P)2L1 + (P)2L2 + (P)r3
(Pi-Pwf)Total at the actual well
= (Pi -P)at the actual wellbore radius, rw

+ (Pi-P)Due to image well 1 at distance 2L1
+ (Pi-P)Due to image well 2 at distance 2L2
+ (Pi-P)Due to image well 3 at distance R3
The number and position of image wells can become complex.

actual well
image wells
Figure 16
Representation of an actual
well between two barriers
i7
i6
i3
i2
i1
i4
i5
parallel equidistant
boundaries
55
In the apparently simple geometry of an actual well surrounded by two equidistant

barriers, such as illustrated in figure 16, the flow can be balanced as before by defining
image well, i1 on the right. On the left side, the barrier is balanced by image wells i2
and i3 (because seen from i2, there is a barrier with 2 wells on the other side - a real
well and an image well). Now there is an imbalance in production across the right
barrier, so image wells i4 and i5 are added. This unbalances the left barrier and image
wells i6 and i7 are added. This should continue to infinity, however, since the line
source solution is known to have little influence above a certain distance from the
actual well, the number of image wells used can be fixed with no error in the
approximation.
Even more complex patterns can be devised. Mathews, Brons and Hazebroek
(Matthews, CS, Brons, F and Hazebroek, P, A Method for the Determination of
Average Pressure in a Bounded reservoir. Trans. AIME.201) studied the pressure
behaviour of wells completely surrounded by boundaries in rectangular shaped
reservoirs. Figure 17 shows the network of wells set up to mimic the effect of the
boundaries.
Boundary
Figure 17
Representation of a well
surrounded by boundaries
EXERCISE 23
A well in a reservoir is producing close to two intersecting faults as shown below. Using
the data given, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure after 32 days and indicate
the effect of the faults on the bottomhole flowing pressure. The production rate is
constant at 100stm3 /day
fault
L1
70m
fault
L2
well
56
120m
10
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
flowrate (constant)
flowrate period, t
distance to fault, L1
22%
1.5rm3/stm3
36m
1x10-3 Pas
9 x10-9Pa-1
89mD
0.15m
6000m
240.0bar
100stm3/day
32days
70m
120m
0
EXERCISE 24
A well is 80m due west of a north-south fault. From well tests, the skin factor is 5.0.
Calculate the pressure in the well after flowing at 80stm3/day for 10 days.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
flowrate (constant)
flowrate period, t
25%
1.13rm3/stm3
23m
1.1x10-3 Pas
10.1 x10-9Pa-1
125mD
0.15m
6000m
210.0bar
80stm3/day
32days
80m
5.0
6. SUMMARY
The basic partial differential equation expressing the nature of fluid flow in a porous
rock has been illustrated in the context of petroleum reservoirs. Only oil and water
have been used as the simplifications for solving the diffusivity equation have
required the compressibility of the fluid to be small and constant. This is the reason
that the compressibility of the fluid in the examples has not changed with pressure as
would be expected. So, for instance, the same value of compressibility is used for the
fluid at the wellbore which may be under a lower pressure than the same fluid at, for
example, the external radius of the reservoir.
57
In gasses, the same diffusion process occurs, but the pressure dependence of the gas
is accommodated by various mathematical devices which again lead to simple
working solutions.
The assumptions made concerning the geological structure and the petrophysical
properties of the rock may appear radical: to assume a reservoir is circular, horizontal
and has identical permeability in all directions is a great simplification of the problem.
Yet these simple analytical solutions allow an appreciation of the role of the fluids and
the rock in a producing reservoir. For more realistic treatments of real reservoirs,
approximations to the diffusivity equation are made from which simple algebraic
relationships can be formed. This process is encapsulated in reservoir simulation
where the reservoir (with its properties) is subdivided into small blocks within which
the flow equations have been approximated by simple relationships. These can then
be solved by a process of iteration to achieve an acceptable result. The great potential
of this process is the ability to represent the shape of the reservoir and the changing
properties, vertically and horizontally, throughout the reservoir.
Figure 18 summarises the route taken through the analytical solutions for radial flow
regimes examined in this chapter. The number of solutions is mathematically infinite;
only a few are suitable for real reservoir problems.
The subject of Well Testing is considerable and is covered in the separate module with
that title.
58
10
Flow regimes based on reservoir geometry

radial
traditional assumption
for most reservoirs
linear
spherical
hemispherical
specific reservoir
aquifer influxes
short time application

formation testing devices
thin layers
short time application

formation testing devices
thin layers
constant terminal rate
constant terminal pressure
Hurst and Van Everdingen solutions
pressure at a specified radius

pressure at a specified time for a known flowrate
flowrate at a specified radius and time
outer boundary sealing

outer boundary non-sealing
asymptotic solutions
(radial geometry)
based on flow regime
unsteady state
semi-steady state
line source solution

pressure based on wellbore flowrates
steady state
initial reservoir pressure solution

average reservoir pressure solution
Ei function
ln approximation to Ei function
Figure 18
Summary of basic solutions
to diffusivity equation
sealed outer boundary

average reservoir pressure solution
initial reservoir pressure solution
59
Solutions to Exercises
EXERCISE 1
A well produces oil at a constant flowrate of 15 stock tank cubic metres per day (stm3/
d). Use the following data to calculate the permeability in milliDarcys (mD).
Data
porosity,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
qreservoir = qstock tank x Bo
1bar = 105 Pa
19%
1.3rm3/stm3 (reservoir cubic metres per stock
tank cubic metre)
40m
22x10-3 Pas
0.15m
350m
98.0bar
93.5bar
SOLUTION EXERCISE 1
the steady state inflow equation (accounting for fluid flowrate at reservoir conditions
in m3/s and pressure in Pa) is
Pe Pwf =
qBo re
ln
2 kh rw
k=
r
qBo
ln e
2 (Pe Pwf )h rw
k=
15x22x10 3 x1.3
350.00
ln
5
24x3600x2 x(98.0 93.5)x10 x40 0.15
= 341x10 15 m 2
= 341mD
60
(3.7)
10
EXERCISE 2
A well produces oil from a reservoir with an average reservoir pressure of 132.6bar.
The flowrate is 13stm3/day. Use the following data to calculate the permeability.
Data
porosity, ,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
23%
1.36rm3/stm3
23m
14x10-3 Pas
0.15m
210m
132.6bar
125.0bar
SOLUTION EXERCISE 2
P Pwf =
qBo re 1
ln
2kh rw 2
k=
re 1
qBo
ln
2 ( P Pwf )h rw 2
k=
13x14x10 3 x1.36
ln 210.00 1
5
24x3600x2 (132.6 125.0)x10 x23
0.15
2
k=176x10-15m2
k=176mD
61
EXERCISE 3
A reservoir is expected to produce at a stabilised bottomhole flowing pressure of 75.0
bar. Use the following reservoir data to calculate the flowrate in stock tank m3/day.
Data
porosity,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
28%
1.41rm3/stm3
15m
21x10-3 Pas
0.15m
250m
83.0bar

permeability, k
75.0bar
125mD
SOLUTION EXERCISE 3
P Pwf =
q=
qBo re 1
ln
2kh rw 2
(P Pwf )2kh
r
1
Bo ln e
rw 2
(83.0 - 75.0)x10 5 x2 125x10 15 x15

q=
250.00 1
21x10 -3 x1.41x ln
0.15
2
q = 46x10-6 stm3/s
q = 4.0stm3/day
62
10
EXERCISE 4
A reservoir at an initial pressure, Pi of 83.0bar produces to a well 15cm in diameter.
The reservoir external radius is 150m. Use the following data to calculate the pressure
at the wellbore after 0.01 hour, 0.1 hour, 1 hour, 10 hours and 100hours of production
at 23stm3/d
Data
porosity,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
permeability, k
compressibility, c
21%
1.13rm3/stm3
53m
10x10-3 Pas
0.15m
150m
83.0bar
140mD
0.2x10-7Pa-1
SOLUTION EXERCISE 4
Using Hurst and Van Everdingens solution for Constant Terminal Rate, the
dimensionless external radius and the dimensionless time are calculated and used with
the appropriate solution to determine the dimensionless pressure drop. The
dimensionless pressure drop is then turned into the real pressure drop from which the
bottomhole flowing pressure is calculated.
reD =
re 150.00
=
= 1000
rw
0.15
kt
140x10 -15 xt
= 0.148t
=
tD =
crw2 0.21x10x10 -3 x0.2x10 7 x0.152
time
(hour)
time
(second)
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00
36
360
3600
36000
360000
tD
(0.148t)
5.3
53.3
532.8
5328.0
53280.0
PD
1.3846
2.4146
3.5473
4.6949
5.8462
expression
table 2
table 2
table 2
0.5(lntD +0.80907)
0.5(lntD +0.80907)
the bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf is found from re-arrangement of the dimensionless
2kh
( p i p wf ) . Accounting for the oil formation volume factor,
q
pressure PD =
Bo, the bottomhole flowing pressure, pwf, is:
63
Pwf = Pi
qBo
PD
2 kh
Pwf at 0.01hour = 83.0x10 5
23x10x10 3 x1.13
x1.3846 = 82.1x10 5 Pa
24x3600x2 140x10 15 x53
i.e. Pwf at 0.01 hour =82.1bar

similarly for the rest of the times
64
time
(hour)
PD
Pwf
(bar)
0.00
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
100.00
0
1.3846
2.4146
3.5473
4.6949
5.8462
83.0
82.1
81.4
80.7
80.0
79.2
10
EXERCISE 5
An experiment on a cylindrical sand pack is conducted to examine the wellbore
pressure decline. The sand pack is filled with pressurised fluid which is withdrawn
from the wellbore at a constant flowrate of 0.1m3/d. There is no flow at the external
boundary. Calculate the wellbore pressure at times 0.001 hour, 0.005 hour and 0.1
hour after the start of production. The figure below indicates the sand pack.
fluid production
flow to the
wellbore
closed top, bottom

and side
sand pack with

fluid filled pore space
Data
porosity,
viscosity of fluid,
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
permeability, k
compressibility, c
25%
0.2m
2x10-3 Pas
0.2m
2m
2bar
1200mD
0.15x10-7Pa-1
SOLUTION EXERCISE 5
Using Hurst and Van Everdingens solution for CTR, the dimensionless external
radius and the dimensionless time are calculated and used with the appropriate
solution to determine the dimensionless pressure drop. The dimensionless pressure
drop is then turned into the real pressure drop from which the bottomhole flowing
pressure is calculated.
reD =
re 2.0
=
= 10
rw 0.2
tD =
kt
1200x10 -15 xt
=
= 4t
crw2 0.25x2x10 -3 x0.15x10 7 x0.2 2
65
time
time
tD
PD
(hour)
(second)
(4t)
expression
0.001
3.6
14.4
1.814
table 3
0.005
18.0
72.0
3.048
table 3 since tD
is not less than
0.25reD2 i.e. not
infinite acting
0.100
360.0
1440.0
30.35
PD =
2t D
3
+ lnreD
2
reD
4
the bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf is
Pwf = Pi
Pwf
q
PD
2kh
at 0.001 hour
= 2 x10 5
0.1x2 x10 3
x1.814 = 1.97x10 5 Pa
15
24 x3600 x2 1200 x10 x 0.2
i.e. Pwf at 0.001 hour =1.97bar

time
(hour)
0
0.001
0.005
0.100
66
PD
0
1.814
3.048
30.35
Pwf
(bar)
2.00
1.97
1.95
1.53
10
EXERCISE 6
A discovery well is put on test and flows at 2.9stm3/d. Using the following data.
calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure after 5 minutes production.
Data
porosity,
formation volume factor of oil, Bo
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
permeability, k
compressibility, c
17%
40m
14x10-3 Pas
1.27rm3/stm3
0.15m
900m
200bar
150mD
0.9x10-9Pa-1
SOLUTION EXERCISE 6
Using Hurst and Van Everdingens solution for CTR, the dimensionless external
radius and the dimensionless time are calculated and used with the appropriate
solution to determine the dimensionless pressure drop. The dimensionless pressure
drop is then turned into the real pressure drop from which the bottomhole flowing
pressure is calculated.
reD =
re
900
=
= 6000
rw 0.15
tD =
kt
150x10 -15 x5x60
=
= 934
crw2 0.17x14x10 -3 x0.9x10 9 x0.152
time
time
(minutes)
(second)
300
tD
PD
expression
934
3.826
table 2
the bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf is
Pwf = Pi
q
PD
2kh
Pwf at 5 minutes = 200x10 5
2.9x14x10 3 x1.27
x 3.826 = 199.39x10 5 Pa
24x3600x2 150x10 15 x40
i.e. Pwf at 5 minutes =199.4bar

Line Source Solution to CTR
67
EXERCISE 7
A well and reservoir are described by the following data:
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
19%
1.4rm3/stm3
100m
1.4x10-3 Pas
2.2 x10-9Pa-1
100mD
0.15m
900m
400bar
159stm3/day =
skin factor
159
stm3/second
24x3600

SOLUTION EXERCISE 7
The line source solution is used to determine the pressures required at the specified
radii and at the specified times (i.e. using the flowrate measured at the wellbore, the
pressures at the other radii and times are calculated by the line source solution). SI
units will be used so time will be converted to seconds. Checks are made to ensure that:
(i)
there has been adequate time since the start of production to allow the line
source solution to be accurate
(ii) the reservoir is infinite acting.

Thereafter, the choice of Ei function or ln approximation to the Ei function has to be
made.
A. Check Ei applicability
line source not accurate until
68
10
100crw2
t>
k
(3.20)
100x0.19x1.4x10 -3 x2.2x10 9 x0.152

t<
100x10 -15
t >13.2s
time is 4 hours, therefore line source is applicable.
B. Check reservoir is infinite acting
2
the reservoir is infinite acting if the time, t < cre
(3.21)
4k
i.e. t <
0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 x900

4x100x10 -15
t < 1185030s
t < 329 hours
therefore line source solution is applicable.
(1) the bottomhole flowing pressure after 4 hours production, Pwf at 4 hours
(i)
check ln approximation to Ei function
the ln approximation is valid if the time, t >
25crw2
k
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 x0.15

t>
100x10 -15
t > 3.3s
therefore ln approximation is valid.
(ii) Pwf = Pi +
qBo crw2
ln
(taking account of the conversion from stock tank
4 kh 4kt
to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil, Bo, flow rates in
reservoir m3/s and pressures in Pascal).
69
qBo
159x1.4x10 3 x1.4
=
= 28703
4 kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 15 x100
cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 r 2
=
= 101597x10 9 r 2
-15
4kt
4x100x10 x4x3600
Pwf= 400x105 + 28703xln(1.781x 101597x10-9x0.152)
= 400x105 - 356249
= 39643751Pa
=396.4bar
(2) the pressure after 4 hours production at a radius of 9m from the wellbore
(i) check ln approximation to Ei function
25cr 2
k
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 x92

t>
100x10 -15
t > 11850s
t > 3.3hours
2
(ii) P = P + qBo ln cr (taking account of the conversion from stock tank
i
4 kh
4kt
to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil, Bo and also the fact
that the radius, r, is now at 9m from the wellbore).
qBo
159x1.4x10 3 x1.4
=
= 28703
4 kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 15 x100
cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 r 2
=
4kt
4x100x10 -15 x4x3600
= 101597x10-9 r2
P = 400x105 + 28703xln(1.781x 101597x10-9x92)

= 400x105 - 121209
= 39878791Pa
= 398.8bar
70
10
25cr 2
k
t>
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 x50 2

100x10 -15
t > 365750s
t > 101.6 hours
therefore ln approximation is not valid and the Ei function is used.
(ii) P = Pi +
2
qBo cr
Ei
4 kh 4kt
qBo
159x1.4x10 3 x1.4
= 28703
=
4 kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 15 x100
cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 950 2
=
= 0.254
4kt
4x100x10 -15 x4x3600
P = 400x105 + 28703xEi(-0.254)
Ei(-0.254) = -1.032 (by linear interpolation of the values in Table 4)
P = 400x105 +28703x-1.032
= 400x105 -29622
= 39970378Pa
= 399.7bar
25cr 2
k
25x0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 9 x50 2

t>
100x10 -15
t > 365750s
t > 101.6 hours
71
(ii) P = Pi +
2
qBo cr
Ei
4 kh 4kt
that the radius, r, is now at 50m from the wellbore and the time is now 50hours after
start of production).
qBo
159x1.4x10 3 x1.4
= 28703
=
4 kh 24x3600x4 x100x10 15 x100
cr 2 0.19x1.4x10 3 x2.2x10 950 2
=
4kt
4x100x10 -15 x50x3600
= 0.020
P = 400x105 + 28703xEi(-0.020)
Ei(-0.020) = -3.355
P = 400x105 +28703x-3.355
= 400x105 -96300
= 39903700Pa
= 399.0bar
Summary
72
time
radius
(hours) (m)
pressure
(bar)
0
4
4
4
50
400.0
396.4
398.8
399.7
399.0
all
0.15
9.00
50.00
50.00
10
EXERCISE 8
A well flows at a constant rate of 20stm3/day. Calculate the bottomhole flowing
pressure at 8 hours after the start of production.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
25%
1.32rm3/stm3
33m
22.0x10-3 Pas
0.6x10-9Pa-1
340mD
0.15m
650m
270bar
20stm3/day
0
SOLUTION EXERCISE 8
radius and at the specified time. Checks are made to ensure that:
(i) there has been adequate time since the start of production to allow the line source
solution to be accurate
made.
A Check Ei applicability
t>
t>
100crw2
k
100x0.25x22x10 -3 x0.6x10 9 x0.152

340x10 -15
t > 21.8s
B Check reservoir is infinite acting
the reservoir is infinite acting if the time, t <
i.e. t <
cre2
4k
0.25x22x10 3 x0.6x10 9 x650 2

4x340x10 -15
t < 1025184s
73
t < 285 hours

25cr 2
k
25x0.25x22x10 3 x0.6x10 9 x0.152
t>
340x10 -15
t > 5.5s
(ii) Pwf = Pi +
qBo crw2
ln
4kh 4kt
to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil).
qBo
20x22x10 3 x1.32
=
= 47677
4kh 24x3600x4x340x10 15 x33
3
9
2
crw2 0.25x22x10 x0.6x10 0.15
=
= 1896x10-9
4kt
4x340x10 -15 x8x3600
Pwf= 270x105 + 47677xln(1.781x 1896x10-9)

= 270x105 - 600663
= 26399337Pa
= 264.0bar
74
10
EXERCISE 9
Two wells are drilled into a reservoir. Well 1 is put on production at 20stm3 /day. Well
2 is kept shut in. Using the data given, calculate how long it will take for the pressure
in well 2 to drop by 0.5bar caused by the production in well 1. Well 2 is 50m from well
1.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
Distance well 1 to well 2
18%
1.21rm3/stm3
20m
0.8x10-3 Pas
43x10-9Pa-1
85mD
0.15m
1950m
210bar
20stm3/day
0
50m
SOLUTION EXERCISE 9
The line source solution is used to determine the time equivalent to the specified
pressure drop at well 2. Checks are made to ensure that:
Thereafter, the choice of Ei function or ln approximation to the Ei function has to be made.
100crw2
t>
k
100x0.18x0.8x10 -3 x43x10 9 x0.152
t>
85x10 -15
t > 164s
it is expected that the time will be in excess of 164 seconds therefore the line source
solution is acceptable
cre2
4k
75
i.e. t <
0.18x0.8x10 3 x43x10 9 x1950 2

4x85x10 -15
t < 69250235s
t < 19236 hours
t < 802 days
C check ln approximation to Ei function
25cr 2
k
t>
25x0.18x0.8x10 3 x43x10 9 x0.152

85x10 -15
t > 41s
therefore it is assumed that the ln approximation is valid.
Now,
Pi - Pat 50m from well1 =
qBo cr50m
ln
4kh 4kt
2
cr50m
Pi - Pat 50m from well1

= ln
qBo
4kt
4kh
Pi -Pat 50m from well1
qB o
4 kh
2
cr50m
4kt
2
cr50m
t=
4ke
t=
Pi -Pat 50m from well1
qB o
4 kh
1.781x0.18x0.8x10 3 x43x10 9 x50 2
4x85x10 -15 xe
27.57x10 9
t=
3.4x10 -13 xe 4.77
t = 9561863s
t = 2656hours
t = 111 days
76
0.5x10 5
20x0.8x10 3 x1.21
24x3600x4 85x10 -15 x20
10
This time is within the limits for the use of the ln approximation to the Ei function and
within the limits to the reservoir being infinite acting therefore the result is correct.
77
EXERCISE 10
A well in a reservoir has a very low production rate of 2stm3/day. Calculate the flowing
bottomhole pressure after 2 years production.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
16%
1.13rm3/stm3
10m
5x10-3 Pas
14x10-9Pa-1
10mD
0.15m
780m
86bar
2stm3/day
0
SOLUTION EXERCISE 10
The line source solution is used to determine the pressures required at the wellbore
after 2 years production. Checks are made to ensure that:
made.
t>
100crw2
k
100x0.16x5x10 -3 x14x10 9 x0.152

t>
10x10 -15
t > 2520s
t > 0.7 hours
time is 2 years, therefore line source is applicable.
cre2
4k
0.16x5x10 3 x14x10 9 x780 2
i.e. t <
4x10x10 -15
78
10
t < 170352000s
t < 5.4 years
25cr 2
k
25x0.16x5x10 3 x14x10 9 x0.152
t>
10x10 -15
t > 630s
(ii) Pwf = Pi +
qBo crw2
ln
(taking account of the conversion from stock
4kh 4kt
tank to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil).
qBo
2x5x10 3 x1.13
=
= 104077
4kh 24x3600x4x10x10 15 x10
0.16x5x10 3 x14x10 9 0.152
crw2
=
= 99.89x10-9
4kt
4x10x10 -15 x2x365x24x3600
Pwf= 86x105 + 104077xln(1.781x 99.89x10-9)
= 86x105 - 1617567
= 6982433Pa
= 69.8bar
79
EXERCISE 11
A well is put on production at 15stm3/day. The following well and reservoir data are
relevant.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
skin factor
21%
1.2rm3/stm3
23m
5x10-3 Pas
22 x10-9Pa-1
130mD
0.15m
800m
120bar
15stm3/day
0

radii and at the specified time. Checks are made to ensure that:
made.
t>
100crw2
k
100x0.21x5x10 -3 x22x10 9 x0.152

t>
130x10 -15
t > 400s
80
10

i.e. t <
cre2
4k
0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 x800 2

4x130x10 -15
t < 28430769s
t < 7897 hours
(1) the bottomhole flowing pressure after 2 hours production, Pwf at 2 hours
t>
25crw2
k
25x0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 x0.152

130x10 -15
t > 100s
ii) Pwf = Pi +
qBo crw2
ln
4kh 4kt
to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil, Bo).
qBo
15x5x10 3 x1.2
=
= 27724
4kh 24x3600x4x130x10 15 x23
cr 2 0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 r 2
=
= 0.0062r2
4kt
4x130x10 -15 x2x3600
Pwf= 120x105 + 27724xln(1.781x 0.0062x0.152)
= 120x105 - 230117
= 11769883Pa
= 117.70bar
(2) the presure after 2 hours production at a radius of 10m from the wellbore
25cr 2
k
81
t>
25x0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 x10 2

130x10 -15
t > 444231s
t > 123hours
(ii) P = Pi +
2
qBo cr
Ei
4kh 4kt
qBo
15x5x10 3 x1.2
=
= 27724
4kh 24x3600x4x130x10 15 x23
cr 2 0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 r 2
=
= 0.0062r2 = 0.0062x102 = 0.62
4kt
4x130x10 -15 x2x3600
P = 120x105 + 27724xEi(-0.62)
Ei(-0.62) = -0.437
P = 120x105 +27724x-0.437
= 120x105 -12115
= 11987885Pa
= 119.88bar
t>
25cr 2
k
25x0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 x20 2

130x10 -15
t > 1776923s
t > 493hours
(ii) P = Pi +
2
qBo cr
Ei
4kh 4kt
to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil, Bo and also the fact that
the radius, r, is now at 20m from the wellbore).
82
10
qBo
15x5x10 3 x1.2
=
= 27724
4kh 24x3600x4x130x10 15 x23
cr 2 0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 r 2
=
= 0.0062r2 = 0.0062x202 = 2.48
4kt
4x130x10 -15 x2x3600
P = 120x105 + 27724xEi(-2.48)
Ei(-2.48) = -0.026 (by linear interpolation between adjacent values in the tables)
P = 120x105 +27724 x -0.026
= 120x105 -721
= 11999279Pa
= 119.99bar
25cr 2
k
t>
25x0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 x50 2

130x10 -15
t > 11105769s
t > 3085hours
2
qBo cr
Ei
(ii) P = Pi +
4kh 4kt
qBo
15x5x10 3 x1.2
=
= 27724
4kh 24x3600x4x130x10 15 x23
cr 2 0.21x5x10 3 x22x10 9 r 2
=
= 0.0062r2 = 0.0062x502 = 15.5
4kt
4x130x10 -15 x2x3600
P = 120x105 + 27724xEi(-15.5)
Ei(-15.5) is less than 1.56x10-6 therefore is assumed zero
P = 120x105 +27724x0
= 120x105 -0
83
= 12000000Pa
= 120.00bar
The following figure illustrates the nature of the infinite acting reservoir in that the
pressure at 50m after 2 hours production is still the initial pressure of 120bar.
Pressure v Distance
120.0
pressure
(bar)
119.5
119.0
118.5
118.0
117.5
117.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
distance from centre of well (m)
84
60
10
EXERCISE 12
A discovery well is put on well test and flows at 286stm3/day. After 6 minutes
production, the well pressure has declined from an initial value of 227bar to 192bar.
Given the following data, calculate the pressure drop due to the skin, Pskin , and the
mechanical skin factor.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
after 6 minutes
28%
1.39rm3/stm3
8.5m
0.8x10-3 Pas
2.3 x10-9Pa-1
100mD
0.15m
6100m
227bar
192bar
286stm3/day
The line source solution is used to determine the skin factor at the wellbore after 6
minutes production. Checks are made to ensure that:
(i) there has been adequate time since the start of production to allow the line
source solution to be accurate
Thereafter, the choice of Ei function or ln approximation to the Ei function has to be made.
100crw2
t>
k
t>
100x0.28x0.8x10 -3 x2.3x10 9 x0.152

100x10 -15
t > 11.6s
time is 6 minutes, therefore line source is applicable.
the reservoir is infinite acting if the time, t >
cre2
4k
85
3
9
2
i.e. t < 0.28x0.8x10 x2.3x10 x6100
-15
4x100x10
t < 47926480s
t < 555 days
t>
25crw2
k
25x0.28x0.8x10 3 x2.3x10 9 x0.152

100x10 -15
t > 2.9s
(ii) Pi - Pwf =
qBo crw2
2s
ln
4 kh 4kt
(taking account of the conversion
from stock tank to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil).
qBo
286x0.8x10 3 x1.39
=
= 344610
4 kh
24x3600x4 x100x10 15 x8.5
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.28x0.8x10 x2.3x10 x0.15
=
4kt
4x100x10 -15 x6x60
Pi - Pwf = (227-192)x105Pa = 35 x105Pa
2s =
crw2
Pi - Pwf
+ ln
qBo
4kt
4 kh
(227 -192)x10 5
+ ln(143371x10 -9 )
344610
2s = 10.2 8.9
2s =
s = 0.65
86
= 143371x10-9
10
qB
4 kh
Ps = 2x0.65x344610 = 447993Pa = 4.5bar
Ps = 2s
87
EXERCISE 13
A reservoir and well are detailed in the following data. Use this data to calculate the
skin factor around the well after producing for 1.5 hours.
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
after 6 minutes
23%
1.36rm3/stm3
63m
1.6x10-3 Pas
17 x10-9Pa-1
243mD
0.15m
4000m
263.0bar
260.5bar
120stm3/day
The line source solution is used to determine the skin factor at the wellbore after 1.5
hours production. Checks are made to ensure that:
made.
t>
100crw2
k
100x0.23x1.6x10 -3 x17x10 9 x0.152

t>
243x10 -15
t > 58s
time is 6 minutes, therefore line source is applicable.
i.e. t <
88
0.23x1.6x10 3 x17x10 9 x4000 2

4x243x10 -15
cre2
4k
10
t < 102979424s
t < 1192 days
25cr 2
k
t>
25x0.23x1.6x10 3 x17x10 9 x0.152

243x10 -15
t > 14.5s
qBo crw2
2s (taking account of the conversion from
ln
(ii) Pi - Pwf =
4kh 4kt
stock tank to reservoir conditions via the formation volume factor for oil).
qBo
120x1.6x10 3 x1.36
=
= -15710
4kh
24x3600x4x243x10 15 x63
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.23x1.6x10 x17x10 x0.15
=
= 47762x10-9
4kt
4x243x10 -15 x1.5x3600
Pi - Pwf = (263.0-260.5)x105Pa = 2.5 x105Pa
crw2
Pi - Pwf
+ ln
2s =
qBo
4kt
4kh
(263.0 - 260.5)x10 5
2s =
+ ln( 47762x10 -9 )
15710
2s = 15.9 10.0
s = 2.95
89
EXERCISE 14
A well has been on production in a reservoir which is in a semi-steady state flow
regime. For the following data, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf
Data
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
1.62rm3/stm3
72m
1.2x10-3 Pas
123mD
0.15m
560m
263.0bar

skin factor
216stm3/day
0
Substitute the values into the semi-steady state flow equation
P Pwf =
qBo re 3
ln + s
2kh rw 4
Pwf = P -
qBo re 3
ln + s
2kh rw 4
Pwf = 263x10 5
Pwf = 25647120Pa
Pwf = 256.5bar
90
216x1.2x10 3 x1.62
560.00 3
ln
+ 0
15
24x3600x2x 123x10 x72

0.15
4
10
EXERCISE 15
For each of the following geometries, calculate the time in hours for which the
reservoir is infinite acting
Geometry
1. Circle
2. Square
Data
Area of reservoir, A
permeability, k
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
1618370m2
1.0x10-3 Pas
100mD
20%
1.45 x10-9Pa-1
The times are calculated by the dimensionless time, diffusivity of the reservoir and the
area of the reservoir. The dimensionless time accounting for the reservoir drainage
area is found for the conditions in Table 5.
1. Circle
For infinite acting reservoirs, time,
t < t DA
cA
k
t < 0.1x
0.2x1x10 3 x1.45x10 9 x1618370

100x10 -15
t < 469327s
t < 130hours
2. Square
t < t DA
cA
k
t < 0.09x
0.2x1x10 3 x1.45x10 9 x1618370

100x10 -15
t < 422395s
t < 117hours
t < t DA
cA
k
91
t < 0.025x
0.2x1x10 3 x1.45x10 9 x1618370

100x10 -15
t < 117332s
t < 33hours
92
10
EXERCISE 16
A well is tested by producing it at a constant flow rate of 238stm3/day (stock tank) for
a period of 100 hours. The reservoir data and flowing bottomhole pressures recorded
during the test are as follows:
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
wellbore radius, rw
Time (hours)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.5
10.0
15.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
18%
1.2rm3/stm3
6.1m
1x10-3 Pas
2.18 x10-9Pa-1
0.1m
241.3bar
238stm3/day
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
(bar)
241.3
201.1
199.8
199.1
198.5
197.8
196.5
195.3
192.8
185.2
180.2
176.7
173.2
169.7
166.2
162.7
159.2
1. Calculate the effective permeability and skin factor of the well.

2. Make an estimate of the area being drained by the well and the Dietz shape factor.
The description of the test is such that this is the first time the well has been put on
production and the reservoir pressure will decline at a rate dictated by the solutions
of the diffusivity equation. The pressure decline has been recorded at the wellbore (as
in the table of data) and it is expected that there will be an unsteady state (transient)
period initially followed by a semi steady state or steady state flow period. It is thought
93
to be an isolated block therefore there would be a depletion of the reservoir pressure

under semi steady state conditions expected. The initial unsteady state or transient
flow period can be used to determine the permeability and skin factor of the well, and
the subsequent semi steady state flow period can be used to detect the reservoir limits.
SI units will be used at reservoir conditions, therefore flowrates are in m3/s and the
formation volume factor for oil is used to convert from stock tank to reservoir volumes.
The pressure related items are in Pascal.
1. The permeability and skin factor can be determined from the initial transient
period using the line source solution:
Pwf = Pi
q
4kt
+ 2s
ln
2
4 kh crw
(3.19)
or
Pwf = m lnt + c
Examining the data, the following are constant:
initial pressure, Pi, permeability, k, , porosity, , viscosity, , compressibility, c,
wellbore radius, rw, and skin factor, s. Both permeability and skin factor are unknown
(but they are known to be constant). Therefore in equation 3.26, there is a linear
relationship between the bottom hole flowing pressure, Pwf and the logarithm of time,
lnt, the slope of the relationship, m, equal to
m=
q
4 kh
From this, the unknown value, i.e. the permeability, k, can be calculated. Once the
permeability is known, the equation 3.26 can be rearranged to determine the other
unknown, the skin factor, as:
2s =
4kt
Pi Pwf
ln
m
crw2
Any coherent set of data points can be used to determine the permeability and skin,
however, it is not clear when the data represent the line source solution. Therefore all
of the pressure data are plotted and a linear fit attached to those data which show the
linear relationship between the bottom hole flowing pressure, Pwf and the logarithm
of time, lnt. Table 7 and figure 9 illustrates this.
94
10
Time (hours)
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
(bar)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
7.5
10.0
15.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
In time
241.3
201.1
199.8
199.1
198.5
197.8
196.5
195.3
192.8
185.2
180.2
176.7
173.2
169.7
166.2
162.7
159.2
0.0
0.7
1.1
1.4
1.6
2.0
2.3
2.7
3.4
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.2
4.4
4.5
4.6
Pressure- time data (log to base e)

Bottom hole flowing pressure, Pwf (bar)
210
200
slope = 1.98 bar/unit
190
180
170
160
150
0
ln flowing time, t (hours)
The plots of bottomhole flowing pressure show that the transient period (for which the
logarithm approximation is valid) lasts for approximately 4 hours and from the plot,
95
the slope, m, can be determined to be 1.98bar/log cycle. Substituting this into the
equation gives:
k=
qBo
238 x 1.2 x 1x10 3
=
= 218x10 15 m 2 = 218mD
5
4 mh 24x3600x4 x1.98x10 x 6.1
(converting from stock tank cubic metres/day to reservoir cubic metres/second and
from bar to Pascal producing a permeability in terms of m2 which is then converted
to mD).
To determine the skin factor, the slope, m, of the line is theoretically extrapolated to
a convenient time. This is usually a time of 1 hour. The bottomhole pressure associated
with this time is calculated and this is used to determine a pressure drop (Pi - Pwf ) during
the time (t1 hour - t 0). This is then equal to the pressure drop calculated from the ln
function plus an excess caused by the skin. In this case, a real pressure measurement
was recorded at time 1 hour. This is not necessarily the same number as calculated
from the extrapolation of the linear section of the relationship since the real pressure
recorded at time 1 hour may not be valid for use with the Ei function. Although it was
recorded. It may have been too early for the Ei function to accurately approximate the
reservoir flow regime.
In this case P1 hour =201.2bar and therefore (by rearranging equation 3.26)
2s =
4kt 241.3 201.2
Pi P1 hour
4x218x10 -15 x3600
ln
=
ln
2
2
3
9
m
cr
1.98
1.781x0.18x1x10
x2.18x10
x0.1
2s=20.25-13.02 = 7.23
s=3.6
2. To determine the area drained and the shape factor, the data from the semi steady
state flow regime are required. From equation 3.29, there will be a linear relationship
between bottomhole flowing pressure and time. This is related to the area of the
drained volume and the shape factor.
To determine the gradient of the pressure decline, the bottomhole flowing pressure
and time are plotted using Cartesian co-ordinates as in figure 10:
96
10
Bottom hole flowing pressure, Pwf (bar)
Pressure- time data

210
200
190
180
slope = 0.35 bar/hour
170
160
150
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Flowing time, t (hours)
From the plot, the gradient is determined to be -0.35bar/hour or -9.72Pa/s. This is

related to the volumetric compressibility of the reservoir, i.e.
dP
q
=
dt
cAh
where q is the flowrate, c is the compressibility, A is the area of the reservoir, h is the
thickness and is the porosity. Taking account of the formation volume factor, Bo,
A=
A=
qBo
dP
ch
dt
238 x 1.2
24 x 3600 x 2.18x10 -9 x 6.1 x 0.18 x - 9.72
A = 142076m2
The semi steady state inflow equation is
Pwf = Pi
q 1
4A
2 kt
( ln
+
+ s)
2
2 kh 2 C A rw cA
The linear extrapolation of this line to small values of t gives the specific value of Pwf
of 194.2 bar at t=0. In reality, at t=0, the flowrate has not started, so this will be named
P0. Inserting this value in equation 3.39 at t=0, converting bar to Pascal and including
the skin factor gives:
97
Pi P0 =
q 4A
ln 2 lnC A + 2s
4 kh rw
i.e.
4 x 142076
(241.3 194.2) x10 5 = 1.98 x10 5 ln

lnC A + 2 x 3.62
2
1.781x0.1
17.28 + 7.24 - 23.79 = 0.73 = lnCA

CA = 2.08
From Table 5, this is close to the configuration in the figure below.
98
10
EXERCISE 17
An appraisal well is tested by producing at a constant rate of 200stm3/day for 107
hours. The following table of flowing bottomhole pressures and time were recorded
during the test. Using the data,
1. calculate the permeability and skin factor of the well
2. estimate the shape of the drainage area
Data
porosity,
compressibility, c
wellbore radius, rw
22%
1.3rm3/stm3
21m
1.9x10-3 Pas
4.3 x10-9Pa-1
0.15m
378.7bar
200stm3/day
Time (hours)
Bottomhole
flowing pressure
(bar)
0.0
1.1
2.1
3.2
4.3
5.4
8.0
10.7
16.1
21.4
32.1
42.8
53.5
64.2
74.9
85.6
96.3
107.0
378.7
326.41
324.7
323.8
323.1
322.1
320.5
318.8
315.5
312.2
305.6
300.8
296.0
291.2
286.3
281.5
276.7
271.9
(1) The permeability and skin factor can be calculated from the transient flow period
using the line source solution (if the reservoir is in transient flow) since
Pwf = Pi
qBo 4kt
+ 2s
ln
2
4kh crw
y = c1 + m
y = mx + c
+ c2
99
therefore, m is the gradient of the line Pwf versus lnt. Calculate the values as in the table
below and plot Pwf versus lnt to obtain the straight line section when the well is in
transient flow.
Time
In time
(hours)
0.0
1.1
2.1
3.2
4.3
5.4
8.0
10.7
16.1
21.4
32.1
42.8
53.5
64.2
74.9
85.6
96.3
107.0
Bottomhole
flowing
pressure
(bar)
378.7
326.4
324.7
323.8
323.1
322.1
320.5
318.8
315.5
312.2
305.6
300.8
296.0
291.2
286.3
281.5
276.7
271.9
0.1
0.8
1.2
1.5
1.7
2.1
2.4
2.8
3.1
3.5
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.6
4.7
It can be seen that the slope changes after about 5 hours, therefore the data until 5 hours
is used to determine a straight line fit giving the figure below.
bottom hole flowing pressure

versus ln time
bottomhole flowing
pressure (bar)
330.0
320.0
310.0
y = -2.4161x + 326.6
300.0
slope
290.0
intercept
280.0
270.0
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
ln time
100
4.0
5.0
10
(i) Permeability
From this the slope is 2.42 bar/log cycle therefore
qBo
4kh
qBo
200x1.9x10 3 x1.3
k=
=
= 89.5x10 15 m 2
5
4mh 24x3600x4 2.42x10 x21
k = 90mD
m=
ii) Skin factor

Extrapolation of the line to a time of 1 hour gives the pressure, P1 hour as 326.6bar.
2s =
Pi - Pwf(1hour)
4kt
ln
m
crw2
2s =
378.7 326.6
4x90x10 -15 x1x3600
ln
2
3
9
2.42
1.781x0.22x1.9x10 x4.3x10 x0.15
2s = 21.5 - ln(17993.4)
2s = 21.5 - 9.8 = 11.7
s = 5.9
(2) Area drained
This is obtained from the semi-steady state part of the flow. A plot of linear pressure
decline with time indicates this flow regime (i.e. an expansion of a fixed volume of
fluid) and this is shown in the figure below.
101
bottom hole flowing pressure

versus time
bottomhole flowing
pressure (bar)
390.0
370.0
slope
350.0
intercept
y = -0.45x + 320.05
330.0
310.0
290.0
270.0
0.0
50.0
time
100.0
150.0
(hours)
The linear section of the data appears to be present after about 50 hours, therefore this
section is used to determine the slope and the extrapolated initial pressure.
Since the pressure decline rate is related to the volume, the area, A, of the drainage cell
can be calculated assuming a constant thickness, h, and a constant porosity.
dP
qBo
=
dt
cAh
A=
qBo
dP
ch
dt
dP
-0.45x1x10 5
= 0.45bar/hour =
= 12.5Pa/s
dt
1x3600
A=
200x1.3
= 12118m2
24x3600x4.3x10 -9 x21x 0.22x -12.5
The semi-steady state pressure decline is
4A
2kt
Pwf = Pi - 2kh ( 2 ln C r 2 + cA + s)
A w
and extrapolation of the line to small values of time gives a pressure, Po of 320.8bar.
Insertion of these values at time = 0 gives
102
10
Pi P0 =
q 4A
ln 2 lnC A + 2s
4kh rw
i.e.
4 x 12118
(378.7 320.05) x10 5 = 2.42 x10 5 ln
lnC A + 2 x 5.9
2
1.781x0.15
58.7x105 = 2.42x105 (14.01- lnCA +11.8)

lnCA =14.01+11.8-24.27 = 1.54
CA = 4.7 which from Table 5 is close to
103
EXERCISE 18
Two wells, well 1 and well 2, are drilled in an undeveloped reservoir. Well 1 is
completed and brought on production at 500stm3/day and produces for 40 days at
which time Well 2 is completed and brought on production at 150stm3/day. Using the
data provided, calculate the pressure in Well 2 after it has produced for 10 days (and
assuming Well 1 continues to produce at its flowrate). Therefore, Well 1 produces for
50days when its pressure influence is calculated; Well 2 produces for 10 days when
its pressure influence is calculated.
The wells are 400m apart and the nearest boundary is 4000m from each well.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
21%
1.4rm3/stm3
36m
0.7x10-3 Pas
8.7 x10-9Pa-1
80mD
0.15m
180.0bar
500stm3/day
150stm3/day
0
The line source solution is used to determine the bottomhole flowing pressure at Well
2 after 10 days production, accounting for the effect of 50days production from Well
1. Checks are made to ensure that:
t>
100crw2
k
100x0.21x0.7x10 -3 x8.7x10 9 x0.152

t>
80x10 -15
t >36s
time is 50 days, therefore line source is applicable.
104
(3.20)
(3.21)
10
i.e. t <
cre2
4k
0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x4000 2

4x80x10 -15
t < 63945000
t < 740 days
The bottomhole flowing pressure at Well 2 is the sum of the pressure drops caused by
its production and by the pressure drop generated by the production of Well 1.
Pwf at Well 2 = Pi -Pwell2 flowing for 10 days - Pwell1 flowing for 40+10 days 400m away
(A) At 10 days, contribution to pressure drop from production from Well 2
25cr 2
t>
the ln approximation is valid if the time,
k
t>
25x0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x0.152

80x10 -15
t > 9s
Pwf = Pi +
qBo crw2
ln
4 kh 4kt
qBo crw2
Pi - Pwf =
ln
4 kh 4kt
qBo
150x0.7x10 3 x1.4
=
= 47011
4 kh
24x3600x4 x80x10 15 x36
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.21x0.7x10 x8.7x10 x0.15
=
= 185x10 9
-15
4kt
4x80x10 x10x24x3600
Pi - Pwf = -47011x ln(185x10-9)

Pi - Pwf = -47011x -15.5
Pi - Pwf =728671Pa
105
(B) At 10 days production from well 2, well 1 has been producing for 50 days and
its contribution to pressure drop at Well 2 is calculated as follows.
the ln approximation is valid if the time,
t>
t>
25cr 2
k
25x0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x400 2

80x10 -15
t > 63945000s
t > 740 days
Pi - Pwf at Well2 caused by Well 1 =
qBo cr1-2
Ei
4 kh
4kt
qBo
500x0.7x10 3 x1.4
=
= 156704
4 kh
24x3600x4 x80x10 15 x36
2
0.21x0.7x10 3 x8.7x10 9 x 400 2
cr1-2
=
= 0.148
4kt
4x80x10 -15 x50x24x3600
Ei(-0.148) = -1.476
Pi - Pwf at Well 2 caused by Well 1 = -156704x-1.476
Pi - Pwf at Well 2 caused by Well 1 = 231295Pa
Pwf Well2 = 180.0 - 7.3 - 2.3
Pwf Well2 = 170.4bar
106
10
EXERCISE 19
Two wells are brought on production in an undeveloped reservoir. Using the data
below, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure in each well. Well 1 produces at
110stm3/day for 27 days at which time Well 2 starts production at 180stm3/day and
both produce at their respective rates for a further 13 days when the bottomhole
flowing pressures are calculated. Therefore Well 1 produces for 40 days when its
pressure influence is calculated; Well 2 produces for 13 days when its pressure
influence is calculated.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
external radius, re
19%
1.2rm3/stm3
36m
1x10-3 Pas
10 x10-9Pa-1
110mD
0.15m
7000m
250.0bar
110stm3/day
180stm3/day
0
The wells are 350m apart.

The line source solution is used to determine:
the bottomhole flowing pressure at well 2 flowing for 13 days plus the pressure
influence on it of well 1 flowing for 40 days
the bottomhole flowing pressure at well 1 flowing for 40 days plus the pressure
influence on it of well 2 flowing for 13 days
Checks are made to ensure that:
100crw2
t>
k
100x0.19x1x10 -3 x10x10 9 x0.152

t>
110x10 -15
t > 39s
107

i.e. t <
cre2
4k
0.19x1x10 3 x10x10 9 x7000 2

4x110x10 -15
t < 211590909s
t < 2449 days
C PRESSURE DROP AT WELL 2
Pwf at Well 2 = Pi -Pwell2 flowing for 13 days - Pwell1 flowing for 27+13 days 350m away
A) At 13 days, contribution to pressure drop from production from Well 2
25cr 2
k
t>
25x0.19x1x10 3 x10x10 9 x0.152

110x10 -15
t > 10s
qBo crw2
Pwf = Pi +
ln
4kh 4kt
Pi - Pwf =
qBo crw2
ln
4kh 4kt
qBo
180x1x10 3 x1.2
=
= -50238
4kh
24x3600x4x110x10 15 x36
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.19x1x10 x10x10 x0.15
=
= 154x10-9
4kt
4x110x10 -15 x13x24x3600
Pi - Pwf = -50238x ln(154x10-9)
108
10
Pi - Pwf = -50238x -15.7

Pi - Pwf =788737Pa = 7.9bar
(B) At 13 days, contribution to pressure drop at Well 2 from production from Well 1
t>
25cr 2
k
25x0.19x1x10 3 x10x10 9 x350 2

110x10 -15
t > 52897727s
t > 612 days
2
qBo cr1-2
Pi - Pwf at Well2 caused by Well 1 =
Ei
4kh
4kt
qBo
110x1x10 3 x1.2
=
= -30701
4kh
24x3600x4x110x10 15 x36
2
0.19x1x10 3 x10x10 9 x350 2
cr1-2
=
= 0.153
4kt
4x110x10 -15 x40x24x3600
Ei(-0.153) = -1.447
Pi - Pwf at Well 2 caused by Well 1 = 44424Pa = 0.4bar
Pwf Well2 = 250.0 - 7.9 - 0.4bar
D PRESSURE DROP AT WELL 1
Pwf at Well 1 = Pi -Pwell1 flowing for 40 days - Pwell2 flowing for 13 days 350m away
(A) At 40 days, contribution to pressure drop from production from Well 1
25cr 2
k
109
t>
25x0.19x1x10 3 x10x10 9 x0.152

110x10 -15
t > 10s
Pwf = Pi +
qBo crw2
ln
4kh 4kt
Pi - Pwf =
qBo crw2
ln
4kh 4kt
qBo
110x1x10 3 x1.2
=
= -30701
4kh
24x3600x4x110x10 15 x36
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.19x1x10 x10x10 x0.15
=
= 50.1x10-9
4kt
4x110x10 -15 x40x24x3600
Pi - Pwf = -30701x ln(50.1x10-9)

Pi - Pwf = -30701x -16.8
Pi - Pwf =515777Pa = 5.2bar
(B) At 40 days, contribution to pressure drop at Well 1 from production from Well 2
25cr 2
k
t>
25x0.19x1x10 3 x10x10 9 x350 2

110x10 -15
t > 52897727s
t > 612 days
Pi - Pwf at Well1 caused by Well 2
qBo cr1-2
=
Ei
4kh
4kt
qBo
180x1x10 3 x1.2
=
= -50238
4kh
24x3600x4x110x10 15 x36
2
0.19x1x10 3 x10x10 9 x350 2
cr1-2
=
= 0.471
4kt
4x110x10 -15 x13x24x3600
Ei(-0.471) = -0.597
110
10

Pi - Pwf at Well 1 caused by Well 2 = 18329Pa = 0.2bar
Pwf Well1 = 250.0 - 5.2 - 0.2bar
111
EXERCISE 20
A well is completed in an undeveloped reservoir described by the data below. The well
flows for 6 days at 60 stm3/day and is then shut in for a day. Calculate the pressure in
an observation well 100m from the flowing well.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
external radius, re
flowrate (constant)
19%
1.3rm3/stm3
23m
0.4x10-3 Pas
3 x10-9Pa-1
50mD
0.15m
6000m
180.0bar
60stm3/day
0
The observation well is 100m from the flowing well.

The line source solution is used to determine the pressure in the observation well after
6 days production from the flowing well then 1 day shut in at the flowing well. Checks
are made to ensure that:
t>
100crw2
k
t<
100x0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x6000 2

50x10 -15
t >10.3s
112
cre2
4k
10
0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x6000 2

i.e. t <
4x50x10 -15
t < 41040000s
t <475 days
The pressure drop at the observation well is described by
Pi Pobs well
cr 2
Bo
cr 2
=
+ (q 2 q1 )Ei
q1Ei
4kt
4 kh
4k(t t1 )
Checking for the validity of the ln approximation,
t>
25cr 2
k
25x0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x100 2

50x10 -15
t > 1140000s
t > 13 days
therefore ln approximation is not valid.
Bo
0.4x10 3 x1.3
= - 35982857
=
4 kh
4 x50x10 15 x23
2
0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x100 2
cr1-2
=
= 0.019
4kt
4x50x10 -15 x7x24x3600
2
0.19x0.4x10 3 x3x10 9 x100 2
cr1-2
= 0.132
=
4k(t - t1 ) 4x50x10 -15 x(7 - 6)x24x3600
Ei(-0.019) = -3.405
Ei(-0.132) = -1.576
60
0 - 60
Pi Pobs well = 35982857
x 3.405 +
x 1.576
24x3600
24x3600
Pi Pobs well = 35982857 2.36x10 3 + 1.09x10 3
]
113
Pi - Pobs well
Pobs well
114
= 45698Pa
= 180.0 - 0.5
= 0.5bar
= 179.5bar
10
EXERCISE 21
A well in a reservoir is brought on production at a flowrate of 25stm3/day for 6 days.
The production rate is then increased to 75stm3/day for a further 4 days. Calculate,
using the data given, the bottomhole flowing pressure at the end of this period, i.e. 10
days.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
external radius, re
1st flowrate (constant)
1st flowrate period
2nd flowrate (constant)
2nd flow period
21%
1.31rm3/stm3
20m
0.6x10-3 Pas
8 x10-9Pa-1
75mD
0.15m
5000m
200.0bar
25stm3/day
6days
75stm3/day
4days
0
The line source solution will be used to assess the effects of variables rates on the
bottomhole flowing pressure. Checks are made to ensure that:
100crw2
t>
k
100x0.21x0.6x10 -3 x8x10 9 x0.152

t>
75x10 -15
t > 30.3s
i.e. t <
cre2
4k
0.21x0.6x10 3 x8x10 9 x5000 2

4x75x10 -15
t < 84000000s
115
t < 972 days

Checking for the validity of the ln approximation,
25cr 2
k
25x0.21x0.6x10 3 x8x10 9 x0.152

t>
75x10 -15
t > 7.6s
Pi Pwf =
crw2
crw2
Bo
+ (q 2 q1 )ln
q1ln
4kt
4kh
4k(t t1 )
Bo
0.6x10 3 x1.31
=
= -41698595
4kh
4x75x10 15 x20
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.21x0.6x10 x8x10 x 0.15
=
=155.8x10-9
4kt
4x75x10 -15 x10x24x3600
1.781x0.21x0.6x10 3 x8x10 9 x 0.152

crw2
=
= 389.6x10-9
4k(t - t1 )
4x75x10 -15 x(10 - 6)x24x3600
25
(75 - 25)
Pi Pwf = 41698595
xln(155.8x10 -9 ) +
ln(389.6x10 -9 )
24x3600
24x3600
Pi - Pwf = -41698595x(-0.00454 -0.00854)

Pi - Pwf =-545418Pa
Pwf = 200.0 - 5.5 = 194.5bar
116
10
EXERCISE 22
A well in a reservoir is produced at 120 stm3 /day for 50 days. It is 300m from a fault.
Using the data given, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure in the well and
determine the effect of the fault on the bottomhole flowing pressure.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
flowrate (constant)
flowrate period, t
19%
1.4rm3/stm3
20m
1x10-3 Pas
9 x10-9Pa-1
120mD
0.15m
4000m
300.0bar
120stm3/day
50days
300m
0
The line source solution will be used to assess the effects of the rate and the boundary
on the bottomhole flowing pressure. Using an image well 600m from the real well (i.e.
2x distance to the fault) with identical pressure and rate history as the real well, the
effect of the boundary on the infinite acting reservoir can be overcome. The
bottomhole flowing pressure in the real well will be the pressure drop caused by the
production from the real well plus a pressure drop from the image well 600m away.
The line source solution will be used. Checks are made to ensure that:
100crw2
k
100x0.19x1x10 -3 x9x10 9 x0.152
t>
120x10 -15
t>
t >32s
117
the reservoir is infinite acting if the time,
i.e. t <
t<
cre2
4k
0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x4000 2

4x120x10 -15
t < 57000000s
t <660 days
Checking for the validity of the ln approximation, for the real well
25cr 2
k
25x0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x0.152
t>
120x10 -15
t > 8s
Checking for the validity of the ln approximation, for the image well
t>
25c(2L)2
k
25x0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x600 2

120x10 -15
t > 128250000s
t> 1484 days
For this case, then, the ln approximation will predict the bottomhole flowing pressure
around the real well, but the effect of the image well 600m away will need to be
predicted by the Ei function.
118
10
2
qBo crw2 qBo c(2L)
Pi Pwf =
ln
Ei
4 kh 4kt 4 kh
4kt
qBo
120x1x10 3 x1.4
=
= 64473
4 kh
24x3600x4 x120x10 15 x20
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.19x1x10 x9x10 x 0.15
= 33.1x10 -9
=
4kt
4x120x10 -15 x50x24x3600
c(2L)2 0.19x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x600 2
= 0.297
=
4kt
4x120x10 -15 x50x24x3600
Ei(-0.297) = -0.914
Pi Pwf = 64473x ln(33.1x10 -9 ) 64473x 0.914

Pi - Pwf = 1110466 + 58928 =1169394Pa = 11.7bar
Pwf = 300.0 - 11.7 = 288.3bar
The fault 300m away pulled the bottomhole flowing pressure down by an extra
58928Pa or 0.6bar.
119
EXERCISE 23
A well in a reservoir is producing close to two intersecting faults as shown below.
Using the data given, calculate the bottomhole flowing pressure after 32 days and
indicate the effect of the faults on the bottomhole flowing pressure. The production
rate is constant at 100stm3 /day
fault
L1
70m
fault
L2
120m
well
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
flowrate (constant)
flowrate period, t
22%
1.5rm3/stm3
36m
1x10-3 Pas
9 x10-9Pa-1
89mD
0.15m
6000m
240.0bar
100stm3/day
32days
70m
120m
0
The line source solution will be used to assess the effects of the rate and the boundary
on the bottomhole flowing pressure. Three image wells with identical pressure and
rate histories as the real well will be used as shown below.
image well 1
image well 3
L1
fault
L1
70m
fault
L2
well
120
r3
120m
L2
image well 2
10
The three image wells balance the effect of the flow (and therefore the pressure
disturbance) from the real well. The pressure disturbances are superposed onto the real
well, i.e. the bottomhole flowing pressure in the real well will be the pressure drop
caused by the production from the real well plus a pressure drop from the image wells.
t>
100crw2
k
t>
100x0.22x1x10 -3 x9x10 9 x0.152

89x10 -15
t > 50s
i.e. t <
cre2
4k
0.22x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x6000 2

4x89x10 -15
t < 200224719s
t < 2317 days
t>
25cr 2
k
25x0.22x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x0.152

89x10 -15
t > 13s
Checking for the validity of the ln approximation, for the image well 1
121
25c(2L1)2
k
t>
25x0.22x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x140 2

89x10 -15
t > 10901124s
t > 126 days
therefore the ln approximation is not valid and the Ei function is used. The distances
to image wells 2 and 3 are greater, therefore they must also need to use the Ei function.
The distance r3 is
r3 = (2L1)2 + (2L2)2
r3 = (140)2 + (240)2
r3 = 277.8m
Pi -Pwf = Pwell + Pimage well 1 + Pimage well 2 + Pimage well 3
Pi Pwf =
qBo crw2
ln
4kh 4kt
2
qBo c(2L1)
Ei
4kh
4kt
2
qBo c(2L2)
Ei
4kh
4kt
qBo cr32
Ei
4kh 4kt
evaluating the groups
qBo
100x1x10 3 x1.5
=
= -43120
4kh
24x3600x4x89x10 15 x36
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.22x1x10 x9x10 x0.15
=
= 80.6x10-9
4kt
4x89x10 -15 x32x24x3600
ln(80.6x10-9) = -16.3
122
10
c(2L1)2 0.22x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x140 2

=
= 0.039
4kt
4x89x10 -15 x32x24x3600
Ei(-0.039) = -2.706
c(2L2)2 0.22x1x10 3 x9x10 9 x240 2

=
= 0.116
4kt
4x89x10 -15 x32x24x3600
Ei(-0.116) = -1.689
2
3
9
cr32 0.22x1x10 x9x10 x277.8
=
= 0.155
4kt
4x89x10 -15 x32x24x3600
Ei(-0.155)
Pi - Pwf
Pi - Pwf
Pi - Pwf
Pwf
-1.436
-43120 x -16.3
-43120 x -2.706
-43120 x -1.689
-43120 x -1.436
= 702856 + 116683 + 72830 + 61920
= 954289Pa = 9.5bar
= 240.0 - 9.5 = 230.5bar
The effect of the boundary is to pull the bottomhole flowing pressure down by an extra
2.5bar.
123
EXERCISE 24
A well is 80m due west of a north-south fault. From well tests, the skin factor is 5.0.
Calculate the pressure in the well after flowing at 80stm3/day for 10 days.
Data
porosity, ,
compressibility, c
permeability, k
wellbore radius, rw
external radius, re
flowrate (constant)
flowrate period, t
25%
1.13rm3/stm3
23m
1.1x10-3 Pas
10.1 x10-9Pa-1
125mD
0.15m
6000m
210.0bar
80stm3/day
32days
80m
5.0
The fault can be represented by an image well twice the distance from the real well as
the fault is. The pressure effect this image well has on the real well augments the
pressure drop in the well caused by the production, however, there is an additional
pressure drop over the skin zone around the real well which must be taken into account.
t>
t>
100crw2
k
100x0.25x1.1x10 -3 x10.1x10 9 x0.152

125x10 -15
t > 50s
124
cre2
4k
10
i.e. t <
0.25x1.1x10 3 x10.1x10 9 x6000 2

4x125x10 -15
t < 199980000s
t < 2315 days
t>
25cr 2
k
25x0.25x1.1x10 3 x10.1x10 9 x0.152

125x10 -15
t > 13s
Checking for the validity of the ln approximation, for the image well
t>
25c(2L)2
k
25x0.25x1.1x10 3 x10.1x10 9 x160 2

125x10 -15
t > 14220800s
t> 165 days
Pi Pwf =
qBo c(2L)2
qBo crw2
ln
2s
Ei
4kh 4kt
4kt
4kh
qBo
80x1.1x10 3 x1.13
=
= -31857
4kh
24x3600x4x125x10 15 x23
3
9
2
crw2 1.781x0.25x1.1x10 x10.1x10 x 0.15
=
= 257.6x10-9
4kt
4x125x10 -15 x10x24x3600
c(2L)2 0.25x1.1x10 3 x10.1x10 9 x160 2

=
= 0.165
4kt
4x125x10 -15 x10x24x3600
Pi Pwf = 31857 ln(257.6x10 9 ) 2x5.0 31857xEi( 0.165)
125
Ei(-0.165) = -1.383
Pi - Pwf = (-31857x[-15.2 - 10]) - (31857x -1.383)
Pi - Pwf =802796 +44058
Pi - Pwf = 846854Pa = 8.5bar
Pwf = 210.0 - 8.5 = 201.5bar
tD
126
pD
tD
pD
tD
pD
0
0.0005
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.04
0
0.0250
0.0352
0.0495
0.0603
0.0694
0.0774
0.0845
0.0911
0.0971
0.1028
0.1081
0.1312
0.1503
0.1669
0.1818
0.2077
0.15
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
0.3750
0.4241
0.5024
0.5645
0.6167
0.6622
0.7024
0.7387
0.7716
0.8019
0.8672
0.9160
1.0195
1.1665
1.2750
1.3625
1.4362
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
150.0
200.0
250.0
300.0
350.0
400.0
450.0
500.0
550.0
600.0
650.0
700.0
2.4758
2.5501
2.6147
2.6718
2.7233
2.9212
3.0636
3.1726
3.263
3.3394
3.4057
3.4641
3.5164
3.5643
3.6076
3.6476
3.6842
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.2301
0.2500
0.2680
7.0
8.0
9.0
1.4997
1.5557
1.6057
750.0
800.0
850.0
3.7184
3.7505
3.7805
0.08
0.09
0.2845 10.0
0.2999 15.0
1.6509
1.8294
900.0
950.0
3.8088
3.8355
0.1
0.3144 20.0
1.9601 1000.0
3.8584
30.0
40.0
2.1470
2.2824
50.0
2.3884
Table 2
pD vs. tD - Infinite radial
system, constant rate at
inner boundary
10
reD = 1.5
tD
pD
reD = 2.0
tD
pD
reD = 2.5
reD = 3.0
tD
tD
pD
pD
reD = 3.5
tD
pD
reD = 4.0
tD
pD
0.06
0.08
0.251
0.288
0.22 0.443
0.24 0.459
0.40 0.565
0.42 0.576
0.52 0.627
0.54 0.636
1.0 0.802
1.1 0.830
1.5 0.927
1.6 0.948
0.10
0.12
0.322
0.355
0.26 0.476
0.28 0.492
0.44 0.587
0.46 0.598
0.56 0.645
0.60 0.662
1.2 0.857
1.3 0.882
1.7 0.968
1.8 0.988
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.387
0.420
0.452
0.30 0.507
0.32 0.522
0.34 0.536
0.48 0.608
0.50 0.618
0.52 0.628
0.65 0.683
0.70 0.703
0.75 0.721
1.4 0.906
1.5 0.929
1.6 0.951
1.9 1.007
2.0 1.025
2.2 1.059
0.20
0.22
0.24
0.26
0.28
0.484
0.516
0.548
0.580
0.612
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.44
0.551
0.565
0.579
0.593
0.607
0.54
0.56
0.58
0.60
0.65
0.638
0.647
0.657
0.666
0.688
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.0
0.740
0.758
0.776
0.791
0.806
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.25
0.973
0.994
1.014
1.034
1.083
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.5
1.092
1.123
1.154
1.184
1.255
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.644
0.724
0.804
0.884
0.964
0.46
0.48
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.621
0.634
0.648
0.715
0.782
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.710
0.731
0.752
0.772
0.792
1.2
1.4
1.6
2.0
3.0
0.865
0.920
0.973
1.076
1.328
2.50
2.75
3.0
4.0
5.0
1.130
1.176
1.221
1.401
1.579
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
1.324
1.392
1.460
1.527
1.594
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
1.044
1.124
1.204
1.284
1.364
0.80
0.90
1.0
2.0
3.0
0.849
0.915
0.982
1.649
2.316
0.95
1.00
2.0
3.0
4.0
0.812
0.832
1.215
1.506
1.977
4.0
5.0
1.578
1.828
6.0 1.757
6.5
7.0
8.0
9.0
10.0
1.660
1.727
1.861
1.994
2.127
0.80
1.444
5.0
3.649
5.0
2.398
Table 3
pD vs. tD - Finite radial
system with closed exterior
boundary, constant rate at
inner boundary
127
reD = 4.5
pD
tD
reD = 5.0
tD
pD
tD
reD = 6.0
pD
reD = 7.0
tD
pD
reD = 8.0
tD
pD
reD = 9.0
tD
pD
reD = 10.0
tD
pD
2.0
2.1
2.2
1.023
1.040
1.056
3.0 1.167
3.1 1.180
3.2 1.192
4.0
4.5
5.0
1.275
1.322
1.364
6.0 1.436
6.5 1.470
7.0 1.501
8.0 1.556
8.5 1.582
9.0 1.607
10.0 1.651
10.5 1.673
11.0 1.693
12.0 1.732
12.5 1.750
13.0 1.768
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
1.702
1.087
1.102
1.116
1.130
1.144
1.158
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
1.204
1.215
1.227
1.238
1.249
1.259
1.270
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
8.5
1.404
1.441
1.477
1.511
1.544
1.576
1.607
7.5
8.0
8.5
9.0
9.5
10.0
11.0
1.531
1.559
1.586
1.613
1.638
1.663
1.711
9.5
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.5
12.0
12.5
1.631
1.653
1.675
1.697
1.717
1.737
1.757
11.5
12.0
12.5
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
1.713
1.732
1.750
1.768
1.786
1.803
1.819
13.5
14.0
14.5
15.0
15.5
16.0
17.0
1.784
1.801
1.817
1.832
1.847
1.862
1.890
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
1.171
1.197
1.222
1.246
4.0
4.2
4.4
4.6
1.281
1.301
1.321
1.340
9.0
9.5
10.0
11.0
1.638
1.668
1.698
1.757
12.0
13.0
14.0
15.0
1.757
1.810
1.845
1.888
13.0
13.5
14.0
14.5
1.776
1.795
1.813
1.831
15.0
15.5
16.0
17.0
1.835
1.851
1.867
1.897
18.0
19.0
20.0
22.0
1.917
1.943
1.968
2.017
3.8
4.0
1.269
1.292
4.8 1.360
5.0 1.378
12.0
13.0
1.815
1.873
16.0 1.931
17.0 1.974
15.0 1.849
17.0 1.919
18.0 1.926
19.0 1.955
24.0 2.063
26.0 2.108
4.5
5.0
5.5
1.349
1.403
1.457
5.5 1.424
6.0 1.469
6.5 1.513
14.0
15.0
16.0
1.931
1.988
2.045
18.0 2.016
19.0 2.058
20.0 2.100
19.0 1.986
21.0 2.051
23.0 2.116
20.0 1.983
22.0 2.037
24.0 2.096
28.0 2.151
30.0 2.194
32.0 2.236
6.0
7.0
8.0
1.510
1.615
1.719
7.0 1.556
7.5 1.598
8.0 1.641
17.0
18.0
19.0
2.103
2.160
2.217
22.0 2.184
24.0 2.267
26.0 2.351
25.0 2.180
30.0 2.340
35.0 2.449
26.0 2.142
28.0 2.193
30.0 2.244
34.0 2.278
36.0 2.319
38.0 2.360
9.0
10.0
11.0
1.823
1.927
2.031
9.0 1.725
10.0 1.808
11.0 1.892
20.0
25.0
30.0
2.274
2.560
2.846
28.0 2.434
30.0 2.517
40.0 2.658
45.0 2.817
34.0 2.345
38.0 2.446
40.0 2.496
40.0 2.401
50.0 2.604
60.0 2.806
12.0
13.0
14.0
2.135
2.239
2.343
12.0 1.975
13.0 2.059
14.0 2.142
45.0 2.621
50.0 2.746
60.0 2.996
70.0 3.008
80.0 3.210
90.0 3.412
15.0
2.447
15.0 2.225
70.0 3.246
100.0 3.614
Table 3 (continued)
Table 4 (opposite)
Values of the exponential
integral, -Ei(y)
128
10
-Ei(-y),0.000<0.209,interval=0.001
x
0.000 1.000 2.000 3.000
0.00
+
6.332 5.639 5.235
0.01
4.038 3.944 3.858 3.779
0.02
3.355 3.307 3.261 3.218
0.03
2.959 2.927 2.897 2.867
0.04
2.681 2.658 2.634 2.612
0.05
2.468 2.449 2.431 2.413
0.06
2.295 2.279 2.264 2.249
0.07
2.151 2.138 2.125 2.112
0.08
2.027 2.015 2.004 1.993
0.09
1.919 1.909 1.899 1.889
0.10
1.823 1.814 1.805 1.796
0.11
1.737 1.729 1.721 1.713
0.12
1.660 1.652 1.645 1.638
0.13
1.589 1.582 1.576 1.569
0.14
1.524 1.518 1.512 1.506
0.15
1.464 1.459 1.453 1.447
0.16
1.409 1.404 1.399 1.393
0.17
1.358 1.353 1.348 1.343
0.18
1.310 1.305 1.301 1.296
0.19
1.265 1.261 1.256 1.252
0.20
1.223 1.219 1.215 1.210
4.000
4.948
3.705
3.176
2.838
2.590
2.395
2.235
2.099
1.982
1.879
1.788
1.705
1.631
1.562
1.500
1.442
1.388
1.338
1.291
1.248
1.206
5.000
4.726
3.637
3.137
2.810
2.568
2.377
2.220
2.087
1.971
1.869
1.779
1.697
1.623
1.556
1.494
1.436
1.383
1.333
1.287
1.243
1.202
6.000
4.545
3.574
3.098
2.783
2.547
2.360
2.206
2.074
1.960
1.860
1.770
1.689
1.616
1.549
1.488
1.431
1.378
1.329
1.282
1.239
1.198
7.000
4.392
3.514
3.062
2.756
2.527
2.344
2.192
2.062
1.950
1.850
1.762
1.682
1.609
1.543
1.482
1.425
1.373
1.324
1.278
1.235
1.195
8.000
4.259
3.458
3.026
2.731
2.507
2.327
2.178
2.050
1.939
1.841
1.754
1.674
1.603
1.537
1.476
1.420
1.368
1.319
1.274
1.231
1.191
9.000
4.142
3.405
2.992
2.706
2.487
2.311
2.164
2.039
1.929
1.832
1.745
1.667
1.596
1.530
1.470
1.415
1.363
1.314
1.269
1.227
1.187
-Ei(-y),0.000<0.209,interval=0.01
0.0
+
4.038 3.335 2.959
0.1
1.823 1.737 1.660 1.589
0.2
1.223 1.183 1.145 1.110
0.3
0.906 0.882 0.858 0.836
0.4
0.702 0.686 0.670 0.655
0.5
0.560 0.548 0.536 0.525
0.6
0.454 0.445 0.437 0.428
0.7
0.374 0.367 0.360 0.353
0.8
0.311 0.305 0.300 0.295
0.9
0.260 0.256 0.251 0.247
1.0
0.219 0.216 0.212 0.209
1.1
0.186 0.183 0.180 0.177
1.2
0.158 0.156 0.153 0.151
1.3
0.135 0.133 0.131 0.129
1.4
0.116 0.114 0.113 0.111
1.5
0.100 0.099 0.097 0.096
1.6
0.086 0.085 0.084 0.083
1.7
0.075 0.074 0.073 0.072
1.8
0.065 0.064 0.063 0.062
1.9
0.056 0.055 0.055 0.054
2.0
0.049 0.048 0.048 0.047
2.681
1.524
1.076
0.815
0.640
0.514
0.420
0.347
0.289
0.243
0.205
0.174
0.149
0.127
0.109
0.094
0.081
0.071
0.061
0.053
0.046
2.468
1.464
1.044
0.794
0.625
0.503
0.412
0.340
0.284
0.239
0.202
0.172
0.146
0.125
0.108
0.093
0.080
0.070
0.060
0.052
0.046
2.295
1.409
1.014
0.774
0.611
0.493
0.404
0.334
0.279
0.235
0.198
0.169
0.144
0.124
0.106
0.092
0.079
0.069
0.060
0.052
0.045
2.151
1.358
0.985
0.755
0.598
0.483
0.396
0.328
0.274
0.231
0.195
0.166
0.142
0.122
0.105
0.090
0.078
0.068
0.059
0.051
0.044
2.027
1.309
0.957
0.737
0.585
0.473
0.388
0.322
0.269
0.227
0.192
0.164
0.140
0.120
0.103
0.089
0.077
0.067
0.058
0.050
0.044
1.919
1.265
0.931
0.719
0.572
0.464
0.381
0.316
0.265
0.223
0.189
0.161
0.138
0.118
0.102
0.088
0.076
0.066
0.057
0.050
0.043
2.0<y<10.9,interval=0.01
y
0
1
2
4.89x10-2 4.26x10-2
3
1.3x10-2 1.15x10-2
4
3.78x10-3 3.35x10-3
5
1.15x10-3 1.02x10-3
6
3.60x10-4 3.21x10-4
7
1.15x10-4 1.03x10-4
8
3.77x10-5 3.37x10-5
9
1.24x10-5 1.11x10-5
10
4.15x10-6 3.73x10-6
2
3.72x10-2
1.01x10-2
2.97x10-3
9.08x10-4
2.86x10-4
9.22x10-5
3.02x10-5
9.99x10-6
3.34x10-6
3
3.25x10-2
8.94x10-3
2.64x10-3
8.09x10-4
2.55x10-4
8.24x10-5
2.70x10-5
8.95x10-6
3.00x10-6
4
2.84x10-2
7.89x10-3
2.34x10-3
7.19x10-4
2.28x10-4
7.36x10-5
2.42x10-5
8.02x10-6
2.68x10-6
5
2.49x10-2
6.87x10-3
2.07x10-3
6.41x10-4
2.03x10-4
6.58x10-5
2.16x10-5
7.18x10-6
2.41x10-6
6
2.19x10-2
6.16x10-3
1.84x10-3
5.71x10-4
1.82x10-4
5.89x10-5
1.94x10-5
6.44x10-6
2.16x10-6
7
1.92x10-2
5.45x10-3
1.64x10-3
5.09x10-4
1.62x10-4
5.26x10-5
1.73x10-5
5.77x10-6
1.94x10-6
8
1.69x10-2
4.82x10-3
1.45x10-3
4.53x10-4
1.45x10-4
4.71x10-5
1.55x10-5
5.17x10-6
1.74x10-6
9
1.48x10-2
4.27x10-2
1.29x10-3
4.04x10-4
1.29x10-4
4.21x10-5
1.39x10-5
4.64x10-6
1.56x10-6
129
Use Infinite System

Solution With
Less Than
1% Error
for tDA<
Exact
for tDA>
Less Than
1% Error
for tDA>
31.62
0.1
0.06
0.10
31.6
0.1
0.06
0.10
27.6
0.2
0.07
0.09
27.1
0.2
0.07
0.09
21.9
0.4
0.12
0.08
0.098
0.9
0.60
0.015
30.8828
0.1
0.05
0.09
12.9851
0.7
0.25
0.03
4.5132
0.6
0.30
0.025
3.3351
0.7
0.25
0.01
21.8369
0.3
0.15
0.025
10.8374
0.4
0.15
0.025
4.5141
1.5
0.50
0.06
2.0769
1.7
0.50
0.02
In Bounded
Reservoirs
60
1/3
CA
1
4
2
1
2
130
3.1573
0.4
0.15
0.005
Table 5
Shape factors for various
single-well drainage areas10
10
Use Infinite System

Solution With
Less Than
1% Error
for tDA<
CA
Exact
for tDA>
Less Than
1% Error
for tDA>
0.5813
2.0
0.60
0.02
0.1109
3.0
0.60
0.005
5.3790
0.8
0.30
0.01
2.6896
0.8
0.30
0.01
0.2318
4.0
2.00
0.03
0.1155
4.0
2.00
0.01
2.3606
1.0
0.40
0.025
In Bounded
Reservoirs
1
2
1
2
4
1
5
Table 5 (continued)
131

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10

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

10 vertical tubes, 100mm diameter, arranged linearly

Interconnecting, small diameter pipes

height of water in tubes

bottom of tubes -250

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

2 CHARACTERISATION AND MODELLING OF FLOW PATTERNS

2.1 Idealised Flow Patterns

2.2 General Case

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

The components of the flow velocity vector, U are:

2.2.1 Linear Horizontal Model of a Single Phase Fluid

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

Mass flow rate through the area, A

Therefore the change in mass flow rate =

since the flow velocity, U = q/A, this becomes

Substituting the parameters of equation 2.2a in 2.2b gives

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

where V is the volume (m3) and P is the pressure (Pa).

(Quotient Rule, constant mass system)(2.4)

2.2.1.1 Linearisation Of Partial Differential Flow Equation For Linear

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

The left hand side can be expanded to:

This is termed the linear diffusivity equation

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

2.2.1.2 Conditions of Solution

2.2.2 The Radial Model

At a distance r from x-axis, the flow velocity, U is now radius dependent:

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

The mass balance gives:

Making assumptions as for linear flow, linearises the equation to:

This is termed the radial diffusivity equation

2.2.2.1 Range Of Application And Conditions Of Solution

rw = 1/2 drill bit diameter

Initial Solution Condition.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

(ii) Boundary Conditions

2.3 Characterisation of the Flow Regimes by their Dependence on Time

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

3 BASIC SOLUTIONS OF THE CONSTANT TERMINAL RATE CASE

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

3.1 The Steady State Solution

dP and the flow equation becomes dr 2 kh

integrating between the limits rw and r gives:

Integrating between the limits rw and re gives:

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

initial pressure profile

pressure profile due

from equation 3.6,

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Fluid Flow In Porous Media

3.2 Non-Steady State Flow Regimes and Dimensionless Variables

(at a dimensionless radius

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

There are other definitions of dimensionless variables, such as a dimensionless

3.3 Unsteady State Solution

3.3.1 General Considerations

bottomhole flowing pressure, Pwf