Chapter 1

Essential Concepts

1.1 What and How?

Heat Transfer (or heat) is thermal energy in transit due
to a spatial temperature difference.
Three modes of heat transfer: conduction, convection,
and radiation (Fig. 1.1)

1.2 Physical Origins and Rate Equations

1.2.1 Conduction (diffusion of energy due to temperature gradient)

gas, liquid--due to random molecular motion (or diffusion)

solid--due to lattice vibration and/or motion of free electrons

Rate equation: Fourier's law (from observation)

Vector:

1-D:

q kT
dT
"
(1.1)
qx k
dx

1.2.2 Convection
--due to bulk (macroscopic) motion of the fluid in
addition to the random molecular motion (diffusion)
(Fig. 1.4). Convection H.T. is a combination of
conduction within the fluid and energy transport due to
fluid motion itselfknowledge of fluid mechanics is
essential.

Classification: (Fig. 1.5)

forced convection
free convection
mixed (forced and
free) convection
convection due to
boiling or
condensation--latent
heat exchange in
addition to sensible
energy exchange
Thermodynamic data of water at 300K:
cp,liq=4.18 kJ/kgK, cp,vap=1.91 kJ/kgK; hfg=2437 kJ/kg
The equivalent DT~2437/4.18=583K for liq. water; ~1276K for vapor

Rate equation: Newton's law of cooling (empirical)

q h(Ts T ) ,
(1.3a)
h=convection heat transfer coeff.
=f (fluid properties,flow conditions,surface geometry)

1.2.3 Radiation
--exchange of energies emitted from matters at finite temperatures
The surface emissive power of a blackbody: Stefan-Boltzmann
law (from theoretical analysis)
Eb s Ts4 , s--Stefan-Boltzmann constant
The emissive power of a real surface:
E esTs4 , e--emissivity of the surface, 0e1

Irradiation G--the rate of radiation incident on a surface

per unit area from its surroundings (Fig. 1.6)
The rate at which radiant energy is absorbed per unit
area:
Gabs aG , a--absorptivity of the surface,
The net rate of radiation heat transfer from a gray
surface (for which a=e, as will be shown in Chap. 12):
.
4
(1.7)
qrad
esTs4 aG es (Ts4 Tsur
)
if the irradiation is from a large isothermal surrounding
at Tsur, where G can be approximated by
4
G sTsur

There are many applications for which it is convenient to

express the net radiation heat exchange in the form
qrad hr A(Ts Tsur )

(1.8)

where hr is the radiation heat transfer coefficient

hr es (Ts Tsur )(Ts2 Tsur2 )

(1.9)

EX 1.2
1.2.4 The Thermal Resistance Concept
Thermal resistance Rt is often used to present the
difficulty of heat transfer through the medium between two
positions.
DT
[K/W]
q
or sometimes
Rt

DT
R
[Km2 /W]
q"
"
t

(1.11)

1.3 Relationship to Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics--concerned with equilibrium states of

matter
Heat transfer--inherently a non-equilibrium process, due to
the presence of temperature gradient
Heat transfer, as a result of temperature gradient, is
essentially in agreement with the 2nd law of thermodynamics:
heat flows from high to low temperature in nature.

1.3.1 Relationship to the First Law of Thermodynamics

(Conservation of Energy)
The net heat transfer to a thermodynamic system plays an
important role in the conservation of energy. For example, for a
closed system
DEsttot Q W , where Q is the net heat transfer to the system

EXs 1.4, 1.5

The Surface Energy Balance

Fig. 1.9:

qconv
qrad
0
Ein Eout 0 qcond

EX 1.7

1.3.2 Relationship to the Second Law of

Thermodynamics and the Efficiency of Heat Engines
Heat transfer through finite temperature differences is an
irreversible process and will lead to lower thermal efficiency.

Tc
W qinm qin 1

q
R
h
in tot

(1.22)

EX 1.8
1.5 Analysis of Heat Transfer Problems: Methodology
Read the textbook.

1.6 Relevance of Heat Transfer

Read the textbook.

energy

CO