Notes of Applied Physics

Subject: Applied Physics [New]
Code 300218 (15)
1. Describe Michelson and Morley experiment with the help of neat diagram and discuss its
negative result.
Answer: In 1887 Michelson and Morley performed an experiment to find the velocity of earth relative to
ether which was assumed to be stationary or an absolute frame of reference in which the speed of light
is same (= c) in all direction
Fig.1. Experimental arrangement of Michelson-Morley experiment

Where, S = Monochromatic light source, P = partially silvered glass plate which inclined at 45 with the
vertical, m1 and m2 = Perfectly reflected glass mirror, T = Telescope.
Fig.2. Theory of the Michelson- Morley experiment

Where, OP OP M 1 M 1 vt; PM 1 M 1 P ct; PM 1 OM 1 l
In PM1M1 ,
PM1 2 PM 2 M1M1 2 ct 2 l 2 ct 2
1
c2 t 2 l2 v2 t 2
t 2 c2 v2 l2
t2
v2
c 2 1 2
c
c2 t 2 c2v2 l2
t2
t
l2
c2 v2
l
v2
c 1 2
c
---------- (1)
Now the total time of travel of light from the plate P to the mirror M1 and the back from M1 to the plate P
is
Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur
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2l v 2
t1 2 t
1 2
c c
v2
c 1 2
c
2l
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2l
v2
1 2
c 2c
{By binomial expansion}
------ (2)
And the total time of travel of light from the plate P to the mirror M2 and the back from M2 to the plate P
is
t2 tf tb
l
l
l
c v (c v) 2 l 2 c v c v 2 l 2 2c
2
2
cv cv c v
c v
c v
2lc
t2 2
c v2
2lc
2l
2l v 2
2l v 2
1 ;
c c 2
v 2 c c 2
v2
2
c 1 2 c1 2
c
c
{By binomial expansion} ------ (3)
The time difference in the time of travel of the light in the two mutually perpendicular directions
t t 2 t 1
2l v 2 2l
v 2 2l v 2
v 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c 2c c c 2c
2l v 2
v 2 2l v 2 v 2
1
c c2
2c 2 c c 2 2c 2
2l 2v 2 v 2 2l v 2 lv 2
c 2c 2 c 2c 2 c 3
------------- (4)
Hence, the path difference for the light rays travelling in the two mutually perpendicular directions is
x ct c.
lv 2 lv 2
2
c3
c
-------- (5)
Now the entire apparatus is rotated by 90. Therefore the path difference is
lv 2
c2
------- (6)
Thus, the change in path difference between the light waves coming from the two directions due to
rotation of the apparatus by 90 is
lv 2 lv 2 lv 2 lv 2 2lv 2

2 2
---------- (7)
c 2 c 2 c 2
c
c
In the Michelson-Morley experiment l 11m; v 3 10 4 m / Sec.; c 3 10 8 m / Sec.
2 11 3 10 4 2
2lv 2
22 3 10 8
x
22 10 8 m
--------- (8)
2
2
16
c
3 10
3 10 8
x x x
For the yellow light ( mean wavelength =5500=5.510-7m ) the number of fringe shifted is
x
22 108
22
0.4
7
5.5 10
55
----------- (9)
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This result is called negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment because no fringe shift was
observed by Michelson and Morley when the experiment was repeated after six month.
Conclusions from the negative result1. The velocity of earth is zero relative to the ether.
2. The speed of light does not depend on the motion of source or on the motion of observer.
3. The concept of ether to be stationary is found to be wrong.
2. State the basic postulates of Theory of Relativity.
Answer: The following are the two basic postulates of special theory of relativity proposed by Einstein1. All the frames of reference in relative motion with a constant velocity are equivalent for the
description of the laws of physics. In other words, the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames
of reference moving with a constant velocity with respect to one another.
2. The speed of light is equal in all the inertial frames of reference. In other words, the speed of light in
free space has the same value in all inertial frames of reference. The speed of light is 2.998 108 m/Sec.
3. Deduce the Lorentz transformation equation for space and time.
Answer: The equations relating the coordinates of a particle in the two inertial frames on the basis of
special theory of relativity are called the Lorentz Transformations.
Fig.1. Two inertial frame in relative motion

In fig.1, S and S are the two inertial frames. Frame S is moving relative to the frame S with velocity v
along the positive X-axis.
Let there be a point source of light at the origin O of the frame S. the wavefront of the light emitted at
t=0, when reaches a point P, the position and time observed by the observers at O and O are (x,y,z,t) and
(x,y,z,t) respectively.
According to the special theory of relativity, the speed of light is same (= c) in both the frames, hence the
time taken by the light to reach from O to P as observed in the frame S is
x 2 y2 z2
OP
x 2 y2 z2
t2
c
c
c2
x 2 y 2 z 2 t 2c2 0
t
t 2c 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
----------- (1)
And the time taken by the light to reach from O to P as observed in the frame S is
O P
c
y2 z2
c
x2 y2 z2
c
t2c 2 x2 y2 z2
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x2 y2 z2 t2c 2 0
----------- (2)
From eq.(1) and (2), we get
x 2 y 2 z 2 t 2 c 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 t 2 c 2
------------------ (3)
Since the frame S is moving relative to the frame S along S-axis, the lengths in direction perpendicular to
the direction of motion are un affected i.e.,
----------------- (4)
y y and z z ,
therefore from eq.(3),
x 2 t 2c2 x2 t2c2
----------- (5)
The transformation between x and x coordinates is given by simple relation
x kx vt
------------ (6)
Where k is constant, independent of x and t.
x kx vt
And
------------- (7)
Where k is constant, independent of x and t.

Substituting the value x from eq. (6) in eq. (7), we get
x k k x vt vt
vt kvt kx
x
k
kx vt vt
kx kvt vt vt
x
1
1
t k t 1
k vt x1
k
kk
v kk
x
kx kvt
------------- (8)
Putting the value of x from eq. (6) and the value of t from eq. (8) in eq. (9) , we get
2
x
1
x c t k x vt c k t 1
v
kk
2xt
2
x 2 c 2 t 2 k 2 x 2 2vt v 2 t 2 c 2 k 2 t 2
v
2 2
1 x2
1

kk v 2
kk
------- (9)
Equating the coefficients of t2 on both sides of the eq. (9), we have
k v c k
k2
v2
2
c 1
2
c
c k k v
2
1
v2
1
2
c
v
c 1
2
c
c2
2
k2
--------------- (10)
v
1
2
c
And similarly, equating the coefficient of 2xt on both sides of eq. (9), we get
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c2k2
1
c2k2
2
1
k v
0 k v
v kk
v
2
v2
c2
kk
1
kk
v2
c2
1
1
1
v 2 c 2 1
kk
kk
v2
1
2
v2
v2
1
c
k 1
1
2
2
2
k
c
c
v
1
2
c
-------- (11)
v2
1 2
c
Substituting the value of k and k in eq. (6) and (8), we get
x vt
v2
1 2
c
and t
t xv
c2
v2
1 2
c
------------ (12)
Thus the Lorentz transformations are
x vt
v2
1 2
c
; y y; z z and t
t xv
c2
v2
1 2
c
------------ (13)
4. Show that the mass of a body depends on its velocity. Deduce an expression for the variation of
mass with velocity.
Answer: According to the Newtonian mechanics, mass is an invariant quantity. If a stationary body of
mass m is acted upon by a finite and constant force F for a time t due to which it acquires a velocity v,
then the gain in momentum of the body is
------------ (1)
P mv F t
The maximum momentum that can be gained by a body is
Pmax mc
----------- (2)
Where c is the velocity of light.

According to the special theory of relativity the mass of body is not constant, but it depends on the
velocity of the body. When the body is at rest ( v=0 ), the mass of the body is m 0 and when the velocity of
the body becomes equal to the velocity of light ( v=c ), the mass of the body becomes infinite.
Consider a frame S relative to which a particle is moving with the velocity v along the X-axis. The moving
mass of the particle in frame S is m. Consider another frame S in which the particle is stationary. The
rest mass of the particle in frame S is m0. If the displacement of the particle relative to the frame S in
time t is y along Y-axis, then the velocity of particle along Y-axis in the frame S is
v y
and its momentum is
y
t
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Py m 0
y
t
------------- (3)
y
y
and Py m 0
t
t
Similarly, v y
------------- (4)
From the Lorentz transformations y y , hence y y and according to time dilation
Py m
y
t
y
t
m 1
1 v2 c2
v 2 y
.
c 2 t
t
v2
1 2
c
------------- (5)
Since the momentum of the particle is invariant, therefore Py=Py

From eq. (3) and eq. (4), we get
m0
y
t
m 1
v 2 y
.
c 2 t
m 0 m 1
v2
c2
m0
1
------------ (6)
2
c2
The above expression gives the variation of mass with velocity.

5. Establish Einstein mass-energy relation.
Answer: According to the Einstein, the mass and velocity are equivalent to each other. If a mass m is
converted into energy, the energy produced is E=mc2, where c is the speed of light. This is called the
mass energy equivalence relation.
Let a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v is displaced by a distance dx by applying a force F on it.
The work done by the force is
dk dw F.dx dk
d
dt
mv .dx
dk mvdv v2dm ;
But m
m0
1
v2
m 1
2
c
2
dm
dv
dm
dv
.dx m
m
v
dx v
.dx
dt
dt
dt
dt
dx
dt
m 02
m 2 c 2 m 2 v 2 m 02 c 2
----------- (7)
------------- (8)
c2
On partial differentiation of eq. (8), we get
2mc 2 dm 2mv 2 dm 2m 2 vdv 0 2mc 2 dm 2mv 2 dm 2m 2 vdv

c2dm v2dm mvdv
-------------- (9)
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From eq. (7) and (9), we get
dk c2dm
------------ (10)
Hence gain in kinetic energy in acquiring the velocity v from rest is

m
dm c 2 m m 0 mc 2 m 0 c 2
------------ (11)
m0
The eq. (11) gives the expression for the kinetic energy of the particle at relativistic velocity.
But at v=0, the rest energy of the particle = m0c 2
------------ (12)
Total energy of the particle E= kinetic energy + rest energy
E mc 2 m0c 2 m0c 2
E mc 2
---------- (13)
The above equation is called the Einstein equation of mass-energy equivalence.

6. What is chain reaction?
Answer: When a neutron fissions a uranium nucleus then, besides the fission fragments a few fast
neutrons are also emitted. If one or more of the emitted neutrons are used to fission other nuclei further
neutrons are produced and the process is repeated. The reaction thus becomes self-propagating and is
known as a chain reaction. The chain reactions may be two types:
I.
Uncontrolled Chain Reaction and
II.
Controlled Chain Reaction.
Fig.1: Chain Reaction

1. Uncontrolled Chain Reaction: In this type of chain reaction, the number of neutrons is allowed
to multiply indefinitely and the entire energy is released all at once as a violent explosion. Such a
chain reaction takes place in nuclear bomb.
2. Controlled Chain Reaction: In this type of chain reaction, the reaction is first acceleration so
that the neutrons are built up to a certain level and thereafter the number of fission producing
neutrons is kept constant by some means. Such a controlled chain reaction is used in nuclear
reactors.
7. Explain the construction and working of Nuclear Reactor. Give well-labeled diagram of Nuclear
Reactor.
Answer: Nuclear reactors are the device or furnace to produce a large amount of energy through initiate
and control a sustained nuclear chain reaction. The energy produced during nuclear reaction is also
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Code 300218 (15)
termed as nuclear power and generally used for the production of electricity and for the propulsion of
ships.
The main components of any nuclear reactor are
1. Core: This is the main part of nuclear reactor, which contains the nuclear fuel and where nuclear
reaction takes place. There are hundreds of thousands of individual fuel pins, which assembled
in core of nuclear reactor.
2. Moderator: The moderator used to slow down the speed neutrons quickly as the fuel has high
fission cross-section for low energy neutrons. Depends on the type of nuclear reactor, many
compounds can be used as moderator like water, graphite rods, beryllium, heavy water as well
as some organic compounds.
3. Reflector: Reflector is used to reduce the leakage of neutrons. Reflector reflects back the
neutrons, which are escaping from the core. Generally, moderator can be used as reflectors in
the case of thermal reactors. However, in the fast reactors nickel, stainless steel and
molybdenum are used as reflectors.
4. Cooling System: Since nuclear fission occurs in nuclear reactor, which produces a large amount
of heat, hence there must be some coolant to absorb this excess heat. Coolant absorbs the heat
from the core, which consists of pipes through which the coolant is pumped. The heat absorbed
by coolant can be transferred to another working medium through a heat exchanger and then
returns to the reactor. Some common coolants are heavy and light water, and liquid metals like
sodium, lithium, potassium etc.
5. Control System: This system is designed to control the number of neutrons involve in nuclear
chain reaction which indirectly control the rate of the chain reaction as well as power level.
Control system includes sensing elements, which can measure the number of neutrons in the
reactor, and control rods, which are able to absorbed strong neutron like cadmium or boron, and
other devices, which can regulate the position of the control rods. The rate of nuclear chain
reaction can be controlled by inserting and ejecting these rods in reactor. In fact, the size of
control rods also affects the rate of reaction.
6. Protective shield: With a large amount of energy, nuclear reactions are also a good source of
radioactive rays like alpha, beta and gamma rays. These radioactive rays are very dangerous, so
the exposure to these radiation must be prevent as it can affect the person working near the
reactor. The nuclear reactor is cover by a protective shield, which made up of steel and concrete
and the arrangement of protection is known as Radiation shielding.
7. Steam Generator Component: This component used in Pressurized water reactors to produce
steam from water by absorption of heat produced in nuclear reactor core. Some typical nuclear
reactors are as follows.
Fig.2: Nuclear Reactor

I.
Boiling water reactor (BWR): It is a thermal reactor in which steam produced in the core,
which can be fed directly to the turbine and produce electricity. The fuel used in such
type of reactor is uranium oxide and light water is used as the coolant and moderator.
Example of boiling water reactor is nuclear power station of Tarapur, which used for
power generation of 210 MW.
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II.
III.
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Pressurized water reactor (PWR): It is same as boiling water reactors but here water
keeps at high pressure so it does not boil after absorbing heat also. It prevents the
mixing of water from the reactor and the water in the steam generator; hence, most of
the radioactivity cannot move out of the reactor area.
Fast Breeder Test Reactor: In this reactor, plutonium acts as nuclear fuel. This reactor
involves artificial transmutation of Uranium-238 to Plutonium-239 by absorption of
neutrons. The product of transmutation that is plutonium consumed in reaction and
again creates or breeds from the uranium. Here liquid sodium acts as coolant with
normal steam generator. Because of absence of moderator to slow neutrons, this reactor
called as Fast Breeder Test Reactor.
8. Write a short note on Fusion Reaction in Stars.

Answer: Nuclear fusion is the process by which two or more atomic nuclei join together, or "fuse", to
form a single heavier nucleus. During this process, matter is not conserved because some of the mass of
the fusing nuclei is converted to energy, which is released. Fusion is the process that powers active stars.
There are extreme astrophysical events that can lead to short periods of fusion with heavier nuclei. This
is the process that gives rise to nucleosynthesis, the creation of the heavy elements during events such
as supernovae.
Mark Oliphant first accomplished building upon the nuclear transmutation experiments by Ernest
Rutherford, carried out several years earlier, the laboratory fusion of heavy hydrogen isotopes in 1932.
During the remainder of that decade, Hans Bethe worked out the steps of the main cycle of nuclear
fusion in stars.
There are two types:
1. The protonproton cycle and
2. The carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle
1. The proton-proton cycle: Bethe, in 1939 suggested that the production of stellar energy is by
thermonuclear reaction in which protons are continuously transformed into helium nuclei. In protonproton cycle is given by-
Step 1 :
H 1 1 H 1 1 H 2 1e 0
Step 2 :
H 2 1 H 1 2 He 3
Step 3 :
He 3 2 He 3 2 He 4 1 H 1
So, that we have
4 1 H 1 2 He 4 2 1 H 1 26.7MeV
Fig.1: The proton-proton chain dominates in stars
Fig.2: The CNO cycle in stars
2. The carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle: In this cycle, the synthesis of hydrogen nuclei with carbon
takes place. The carbon nuclei absorb the protons in succession and ultimately discharge a particle
becoming carbon nuclei again. The reactions are given below:
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Step 1 :
C 12
Step 3 :
C 13
Step 5 :
O 15 7 N
7N
13
7N
14
15
e0
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Step 2 :
13
Step 4 :
14
Step 6 :
15
6 C 13
e0
8 O 15
6 C 12
He 4
The overall process may be written as
4 2 He4 2 He4
e 0 27MeV
9. What is mass spectrograph?

Answer: A mass spectrograph is an instrument that measures the nuclear masses. Mass spectrographs
were designed by F.W. Astons by A.J. Dempster and by K.T. Bainbridge usingdifferent properties. The
initial mass spectrographs measured atomic masses with a precision of 1 part in 10 3 whereas the
modern instruments can yield a precision of 1 part in 107.
10.Explain construction and working of Bainbridge Mass Spectrograph. How to relative
proportion of isotopes are determined.
Answer: Bainbridge mass spectrograph is the recent and advanced type mass spectrograph and having
high resolving power, precise symmetric image and linear mass scale which could not be obtained in
Astons or Dempsters spectrographs. This is possible because it uses velocity selector and power
electromagnet.
Principle: Whatever be the velocities of the positive ions in the process of their generation, which are to
be investigated, they are made perfectly homogeneous in velocity by the use of a special device called
velocity selector. They are subjected to an extensive transverse magnetic field, which deflects the
positive ions along circular path of different radius. The deflected ions are then brought to focus on a
photographic plate. The radius of the semi-circular path is directly proportional to the mass of ion
describing the path.
Construction & working: Fig.1. represent the schematic diagram of Bainbridge mass spectrograph. A
vacuum chamber is placed in a acting perpendicular to its large surface. The given beam of ions is
collimated by two narrow parallel slits S1 and S2. These ions are having different velocities. It is then
allowed to pass through the velocity selector.
The velocity selector is a device in which the electric and magnetic fields are applied in the same region
but perpendicular to each other. These two fields are arranged in such a way that deflections produced
by them are equal and opposite.
Fig.1. Bainbridge Mass-spectrographs

The ion beam produced by discharge tube or a spark is collimated by slits S 1 and S2 and allowed to enter
the velocity selector. The electric field strength E and magnetic field strength B are adjusted such that
only ions of given velocity v pass un-deflected experiencing equal and opposite electric and magnetic
forces-
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qE qvB v
Only the ions havening velocity
E
B
(1)
E
enter the evaluated chamber D through to the slit S3. The positive
B
ions entering into D are subjected to a strong uniform magnetic field of strength B perpendicular to
their path. The force acting each ion is qvB' and traverse circular paths of radius r given by
mv 2
mv
qvB' r
r
qB'
(2)
Thus is ions different masses m, but having same charge q, describe semi-circles of different radii
q
v
m rB'
Using value of v
(3)
E
, we get
B
q
E
m rBB'
q 1
, if q is same for all ions, then mass m r . The ions different
m r
As E, B and B are constants,
masses strike the photographic plate of different points and we obtain a typical mass spectrum on the
photographic plate, the mass scale being linear.
11. Explain construction and working of Aston Mass Spectrograph. How to relative proportion
of isotopes are determined.
Answer: In 1919, F.W. Aston designed a mass spectrograph. This spectrograph enables the
measurement of the mass of single atomic ions and is useful for the investigation of isotopes.
Principle: The deflection of the beam of positive rays in the electrostatic field depends on the velocity of
ions and hence they are dispersed. This dispersed beam is then subjected to a magnetic field, which is
perpendicular to electrostatic field.
Construction, Working & Theory: The different parts of the apparatus are shown in fig.1. AO is
direction of positive rays before entering the electrostatic field. S 1 and S2 are slits which provide a fine
pencil of positive rays. Plates P1 and P2 and the direction of the field being from P1 and P2 maintain the
electrostatic field. The beam is deflected and dispersed downwards. Let and d be the angles of
deviation and dispersion. Using a diaphragm D some of the rays are selected and are allowed to pass
between the poles of an electromagnet. The magnetic field being perpendicular to the plane of the paper
and inward. According to the Flemings left hand rule, the beam will be deflected upwards. This
magnetic field nullifies the dispersion produced by electric field and recombines the particles, which are
brought to focus in the form of sharp lines on a photographic plate CD. These lines are same as those of
spectral lines.
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Fig. 1. Aston Mass Spectrograph

Say, q= charge on positive ray particle; m'= mass of each particle; E= electrostatic field; B= magnetic
field; = velocity of each particle; = angle of deviation produced by magnetic field; d= angle of
dispersion produced by magnetic field; = angle of deviation produced by electric field; d= angle of
dispersion produced by electric field.
Taking into account that the deflection in electrostatic field is small, the curve near the vertex may be
considered as circular of a radius r, we have
m' v 2
1
Eq '
Eq '

r
r m' v 2
1
Hence, the deflection , which is proportional to, is given by
r
Eq '
q'
C
C1
2
m' v
m' v 2
where C1 = CE, because E = constant.
d
q'
dv
d
2C1
2
2
dv
m' v
v
v
2
dispersion
(1)
If r is the radius of curvature in magnetic field then
Bq' v
m' v 2
r'
1
r'
Bq'
m' v
C' Bq'
C2
m' v
q'
(2)
m' v
(Since B is constant)
dispersion
dv
C 2
From eqns. (1) and (2) we have,
dv
v
d
2
d
2
q'
m' v 2
d
dv
v
d
d
(3)
(4)
Hence, if a deflection is given, the dispersion due to the electric field is twice that due to magnetic field.
The small changes d and d refer to the particles with identical mass and charge but processing
velocity differ by dv.
In the absence of magnetic field, the dispersion produced in the beam for a distance (a+b) is given by
(a b)d
(5)
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[here a= distance OO and b= distance OE]

The magnetic field acts in a direction of perpendicular to the electric field and produces the same
dispersion in a distance b but in the opposite direction.
Dispersion produced by magnetic field bd
(6)
As all the ions are focused to the same position.
(a b)d bd
d
d
b
(a b)
(7)
From eq. (4) and (7),we have
2
b
2
b
(a b )
(a b)2 b
(a b )
(a b )
b
2
a
a
a 2
1

1
b
2
b 2
b
2
(8)
This is the required condition for focusing. If b , then
2
2
0 2 2
(9)
This gives the position of photographic plate. The modified apertures gives an accuracy of 1 part in 104
and resolvability of 600.
12. What is ultrasonic?
Answer: Ultrasound is a cyclic sound pressure wave with a frequency greater than the upper limit of the
human hearing range. Ultrasound is thus not separated from "normal" (audible) sound based on
differences in physical properties, only the fact that humans cannot hear it. Although this limit varies
from person to person, it is approximately 20 kilohertz (20,000 hertz) in healthy, young adults.
Ultrasound devices operate with frequencies from 20 kHz up to several gigahertzes.
Ultrasonics is the application of ultrasound. Ultrasound can be used for imaging, detection,
measurement, and cleaning. At higher power, levels ultrasonics are useful for changing the chemical
properties of substances.
13. Explain Magnetostriction Method of producing ultrasonic waves and hence describe its
advantages.
Answer: Production of ultrasonic waves:- There are two major types of methodI.
Magnetostriction oscillator and
II.
Piezo-electric oscillator
Magnetostriction oscillator (Pierce Oscillator):- Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic
materials that causes them to change their shape or dimensions during the process of magnetization.
The variation of material's magnetization due to the applied magnetic field changes the
magnetostriction strain until reaching its saturation value, . James Joule when observing a sample of
iron first identified the effect in 1842.
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This effect causes losses due to frictional heating in susceptible ferromagnetic cores. The effect is also
responsible for the high-pitched buzzing sound that can be heard near transformers on alternating
current carrying pylons.
Principle: The general principle involved in generating ultrasonic waves is to cause some dense
material to vibrate very rapidly. The vibrations produced by this material than cause air surrounding
the material to begin vibrating with the same frequency. These vibrations then spread out in the form of
ultrasonic waves. When a magnetic field is applied parallel to the length of a ferromagnetic rod made of
material such as iron or nickel, a small elongation or contraction occurs in its length. This is known as
magnetostriction. The change in length depends on the intensity of the applied magnetic field and
nature of the ferromagnetic material. The change in length is independent of the direction of the
field. When the rod is placed inside a magnetic coil carrying alternating current, the rod suffers a change
in length for each half cycle of alternating current. That is, the rod vibrates with a frequency twice that of
the frequency of A.C. The amplitude of vibration is usually small, but if the frequency of the A.C.
coincides with the natural frequency of the rod, the amplitude of vibration increases due to resonance.
Construction: the coils L1 and L. wind the ends of the ferromagnetic rod A and B. The coil L is
connected to the collector of the transistor and the coil L1 is connected to the base of the transistor as
shown in the figure. The condenser C can adjust the frequency of the oscillatory circuit (LC) and the
milliammeter connected across the coil L. can note the current. The battery connected between emitter
and collector provides necessary biasing i.e., emitter is forward biased and collector is reverse biased
for the NPN transistor. Hence, current can be produced by applying necessary biasing to the
transistor with the help of the battery.
Working: The rod is permanently magnetized in the beginning by passing direct current. The battery is
switched on and hence current is produced by the transistor. This current is passed through the coil L,
which causes a corresponding change in the magnetization of the rod. Now, the rod starts vibrating due
to magnetostriction effect.
Fig.1.
When a coil is wounded over a vibrating rod, then e.m.f. will be induced in the coil called as converse
magnetostriction effect. Due to this effect, an e.m.f. is induced in the coil L1. The induced e.m.f. is fed to
the base of the transistor, which act as a feedback continuously. In this way the current in the
transistor is built up and the vibrations of the rod is maintained. The condenser C adjusts the frequency
of the oscillatory circuit and when this frequency is equal to the frequency of the vibrating rod,
resonance occurs. At resonance, the rod vibrates longitudinally with larger amplitude producing
ultrasonic waves of high frequency along both ends of the rod.
Condition for resonance: Frequency of the oscillatory circuit = Frequency of the vibrating rod
1
2 LC
1
2l
where, l=the length of the rod. E=the youngs modulus of the material of the rod. = is the density of
material of the rod.
Page 14
Code 300218 (15)
Merits:
1. Magnetostriction materials are easily available and inexpensive.
2. Oscillatory circuit is simple to construct.
3. Large output power can be generated.
Limitations
1. It can produce frequencies upto 3 MHz only.
2. It is not possible to get a constant single frequency, because rod depends on temperature and the
degree of magnetization.
3. As the frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the vibrating rod, to increase the frequency,
the length of the rod should be decreased which is practically impossible.
14.Explain Piezoelectric Method of producing ultrasonic waves and hence describe its
advantages.
Answer: Jacques and Pierre Curie discovered piezoelectricity in 1880. Paul Langevin first investigated
quartz resonators for use in sonar during World War I. The first crystal-controlled oscillator, using a
crystal of Rochelle salt, was built in 1917 and patented in 1918 by Alexander M. Nicholson at Bell
Telephone Laboratories, although Walter Guyton Cady disputed his priority. Cady built the first quartz
crystal oscillator in 1921. Other early innovators in quartz crystal oscillators include G. W. Pierce and
Louis Essen.
Quartz crystal oscillators were developed for high-stability frequency references during the 1920s and
1930s. By 1926 quartz crystals were used to control the frequency of radio broadcasting stations and
were popular with amateur radio operators.
Piezoelectric effect: When crystals like quartz or tourmaline are stressed along any pair of opposite
faces, electric charges of opposite polarity are induced in the opposite faces perpendicular to the stress.
This is known as piezoelectric effect.
(A)
( B)
Piezoelectric effect- Mechanism: Piezoelectric and inverse piezoelectric effects are only exhibited by
certain crystals, which lack centre of symmetry. In a piezoelectric crystal, the positive and negative
electrical charges are separated, but symmetrically distributed, so that the crystal overall is electrically
neutral. Each of these sides forms an electric dipole and dipoles near each other tend to be aligned in
regions called Weiss domains. The domains are usually randomly oriented, but can be aligned during
Page 15
Code 300218 (15)
poling, a process by which a strong electric field is applied across the material, usually at elevated
temperatures.
When a mechanical stress is applied, this symmetry is disturbed, and the charge asymmetry generates a
voltage across the material. For example, a 1 cm cube of quartz with 2 kN (500 lbf) of correctly applied
force can produce a voltage of 12,500 V.
Piezoelectric materials also show the opposite effect, called converse (inverse) piezoelectric effect,
where the application of an electrical field creates mechanical deformation in the crystal.
Inverse piezoelectric effect: When an alternating e.m.f is applied to the opposite faces of a quartz
or tourmaline crystal, it undergoes contraction and expansion alternatively in the perpendicular
direction. This is known as inverse piezoelectric effect. This is made use of in the piezoelectric
generator.
Piezoelectric generator: A slab of piezoelectric crystal is taken and using this parallel plate capacitor is
made. Then with other electronic components an electronic oscillator is designed to produce electrical
oscillations >20 kHz. Generally one can generate ultrasonic waves of the order of MHz using
piezoelectric generators. Quartz slabs are preferred because it possesses rare physical and chemical
properties. A typical circuit diagram is given below.
The tank circuit has a variable capacitor 'C' and an inductor 'L' which decides the frequency of the
electrical oscillations. When the circuit is closed current rushes through the tank circuit and the
capacitor is charged, after fully charged no current passes through the same. Then the capacitor starts
discharging through the inductor and hence the electric energy is in the form of electric and magnetic
fields associated with the capacitor and the inductor respectively.
Thus, we get electrical oscillations in the tank circuit and with the help of the other electronic
components including a transistor, electrical oscillations are produced continuously. This is fed to the
secondary circuit and the piezoelectric crystal (in our case a slab of suitably cut quartz crystal) vibrates,
as it is continuously subjected to varying (alternating) electric field, and produces sound waves. When
the frequency of electrical oscillations is in the ultrasonic range then ultrasonic waves are generated.
When the frequency of oscillation is matched with the natural frequency of the piezoelectric slab then it
will vibrate with maximum amplitude. The frequency generated is given as follows:
1
2 LC
P
2l
where E= The Youngs modulus of the piezoelectric material and = The density of the piezoelectric
material.
15. What is reverberation?
Answer: Reverberation means the prolonged refraction of sound from the walls, floor and ceiling of
room. It is also defined as the persistence of audible sound after the source has stopped to emit sound.
The time of reverberation is also defined as the time taken for the sound of fall below the minimum
audibility measured from the instant when the source stopped sounding.
The Sabine defined the standard reverberation time as the time taken by sound to fall to one millionth
of the intensity just before the source is cut off.
16. Derive the expression for Sabine formula for reverberation time.
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Code 300218 (15)
Answer: The derivation for the formula is based on assumption, that there is a uniform distribution of
sound energy inside the room.
Now, first, we shall calculate the rate at which the energy is incident upon the walls and other surfaces
and hence the rate at which it is being absorbed.
Fig.1.
Consider the reception of sound energy by small element ds of a plane wall AB as shown in fig.1. from
the centre of ds and with redii r and r+dr , draw two circles such that they lie in the plane containing the
normal to the element ds .Now consider the area between the circles and also lying between the angles
+d which the two redii make with the direction of normal at the surface ds . This area is shown
shaded in fig.1. the arc of this area is rd and the radial length is dr . Hence its area is rd.dr. If the whole
fig. is rotated about the normal through an angle d, the distance travelled by this area will be the
circumferential distance rsind.
Volume traced out by this area element=rd.dr(rsind)
Suppose E is the value of sound energy density, the energy contained in the above volume is given
by=EdV
This sound energy is travelling through the element equally in all directions. Energy travelling per unit
solid angle any direction
EdV
4
But the solid angle subtended by ds at the element of volume considered
ds cos
r2
the energy in the element of volume that is travelling towards ds is given by
Er 2 sin .d.dr.d ds cos

EdV ds cos
Eds
.
.dr sin cos .d.d

4
4
4
r2
r2
(1)
In order to find out the value of the energy reaching ds in unit time, the above expression should be
integrated from r=0 to r=C is velocity of sound, and it is the distance within the volume is lying.
Integrating eqn. (1), first with respect to , we get
E
4
E
4
.ds.dr. sin cos d
E
4
.ds.dr. sin cos d.2
.ds.dr. sin cos d d

0
E
2
.ds.dr. sin cos d
(2)
Now, integrating with respect to , we have energy received at d
Page 17
E
2
E
2
E
2
.ds.dr sin . cos d

0
E
2
.ds.dr
Code 300218 (15)
2 sin . cos
2
.ds.dr sin 2d
0
.ds.dr.1
E
2
E
2
.ds.dr 2 sin . cos d

0
sin 2d 1
(3)
.ds.dr
Now integrating again with respect to r whose values varies between 0 to C, we get
E
2
ds dr
0
E
2
(4)
ds.C
If a be the absorption coefficient of the wall AB whose value ds is a part, then Energy absorbed by ds
per unit time
1
EC.a.ds
4
Hence total absorption all the surfaces of the wall where the sound is falling
1
4
E.C a.ds
ECA
(5)
where a.ds=A, the total absorption on all the surfaces on which sound falls.
(i). Rate of Growth of Sound Energy in a Room:- Let P be the power output i.e. rate of emission of
energy from the source and V, the total volume of the room. Then the total energy in the room at the
instant when energy density is E will be EV.
Rate of growth of energy
d
EV V dE
dt
dt
But at any instant, rate of growth of energy in space= Rate of supply of energy from the surfaceRate of absorption by the entire surface
dE
dt
ECA
4
(6)
when steady state is attained dE/dt=0, and if the steady state energy density is denoted by Em, then its is
given by
E m CA
E CA
P m
4
4
4P
Em
( 7)
CA
dE P EC

.A
dt V 4V
dE 4P
dE
4P
CA
1 4
E
E
; where
and
4V
V CA
dt
CA
dt
CA
0 P
From equ.(6)
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Code 300218 (15)

4P
dE
E e t
e t
CA
dt
Multiplying both sides by et , we have
Ee t
Integrating the above equation, we get
4P
CA
d
dt
Ee
t
e t K
4P
CA
e t
.............(8)
where K is a constant of integration. Initial condition is that at t=0, E=0 .Applying this condition to above
equation, we get
4P
K
CA
Putting this value in equation (8),we get
Ee t
4P t 4P
4P 4P t
4P
e
E
e E
1 e t Em 1 et
CA
CA
CA CA
CA
(9)
The equation shows the growth of energy with time t.

(ii). Decay of energy Density in a room:- Let the source is cutoff when E has reached the maximum
value of Em, so that P=0 and t=0 when
4P
CA
Em
E E max
K E max
From equation (9)
Eet Em
E E me
Or
, P 0
.(10)
Equation (10) shows the decay of the energy density with time after the source is cutoff.
(iii). Standard Reverberation Time (T):- Reverberation time T is defined as the time taken by sound
to fall to one millionth of its value before the cutoff. Hence, to calculate T.
we put Em E 106 and t T in eq.(10)
E
Taking log, we have
e T 10 6 e T e T 10 6
E max
T 6 log e 10 2.3026 6
CA
4 2.3026 6 V
.T 2.3026 6 T
.
4V
340
A
(Taking the velocity of sound in air C=340 m/sec at room temperature)

Or
0.165
0.165
V
V
A
aS
..(11)
This equation is in good agreement with the experimental values obtained by Sabine.
17. Define Absorption Coefficient. Derive the expression for Absorption Coefficient of a Sound.
Answer: The coefficient of absorption of a material is defined as the ratio of the sound energy absorbed
by the surface to that of the surface to that of the total incident sound energy on the surface i.e.
Page 19
Absorption coefficent a
Code 300218 (15)
Soundenerg y absorbed by the surface

Total sound energy incident on the surface
Hence, the
absorption coefficient of a material is defined as the rate of the sound energy absorbed by a certain area
of the surface to that of an open window of same area.
The absorption coefficient of a surface is also defined as the reciprocal of its area which absorbs the
same sound energy as absorbed at a unit area of an open windows.
Measurement of Absorption Coefficient: The determination of standard times of reverberation in the
room without and with a standard large sample of the material sample of the material inside the
chamber. If the reverberation times are T1 and T2 respectively, then by applying Sabines formula, we
have
1
A
aS
T1 0.165V 0.165V
and
T2
aS a S
1 1
0.165V
where a1is the absorption coefficient of the area S1.

From the above equations, we have
1
a 1S1
1

0.165V T2 T1
Hence, knowing the terms on the right hand side of this equation a can be calculated.
18. Obtain an expression for fringe width in wedge shaped thin film.
Answer: A wedge shaped film is one whose surfaces are inclined at certain small angle. Wherereflective index of wedge shaped film= . The path difference between the rays reflected at the upper
and lower surfaces= 2t . The additional path difference=
Fig.1.
The effective path difference between the two rays= 2t
The condition for the maximum intensity (bright fringes) is
2t
Or
n
2
2t 2n 1
(1)
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Code 300218 (15)
The condition for minimum intensity (dark fringes) is
2n 1
2
2
2t n
. (2)
2t n
.(3)
2t
Or
For the nth dark fringes, we have
Let this fringes be obtained at a distance x n from the edge
t x n tan
As is small
tan
t x n
From eqn. (2) and (6),

Similarly, if
(n+1)th
2x n n
From eqn. (7) and (8), we get
Fringe width
(5)
(6)
(7)
dark fringes is obtained at a distance, then
2x n 1 (n 1)
.(4)
(8)
2x n 1 2x n (n 1) n
2x n 1 x n
..(9)
X x n 1 x n
2
Where is measured in radian. Similarly, we can calculate fringe width for bright fringes.
19. Give the theory of formation of Newtons Ring by reflected light. Explain why central ring is
dark and higher order rings come closer to each other.
Answer: When a planoconvex lens of large radians of curvature is placed with its convex surface in
constant with a plane glass plate, an air film of gradually increasing thickness from the point of contact
is formed between the upper surface of the plate and lower surface of the lens. If monochromatic light is
allowed to fall normally on this film, then alternate bright and dark concentric rings with their centre
dark are formed. These rings are known as Newtons rings.
Experimental Arrangement: G= glass plate inclined at angle of 45 to the incident beam. L= planoconvex lens P= plane glass plate, S= monochromatic light source.
Fig.1. Experimental Arrangement
Page 21
Code 300218 (15)
Theory:
Fig.2.
The condition of maximum intensity of bright rings for air 1 is given by
2t
n
2
2t 2n 1
Or
Where n 1,2,3...........
(1)
The condition of minimum intensity of dark rings for air 1 is given by
2t
2n 1
2
2
2t n
Or
Where n 1,2,3,..............
(2)
Determination of Diameters of Bright & Dark Rings: Let r be the radius of Newtons ring. R be the
radius of curvature of the circle. t be the thickness of wedge shaped film. From the geometrical
property of a circle,
AD DB OD DE
r r OD2R OD
r 2 t 2R t
r 2 2Rt t 2
.(3)
Since t is very small compared to R , hence t 2 can be neglected. Hence
r 2 2Rt
r2
2t
R
Or
.. (4)
From eqn.(1) and (4), we have
Radius of n th bright ring
r2
2n 1
R
2
2n 1R
rn
2
(5)
The diameters of n th bright ring Dn 2rn ,
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Code 300218 (15)
2n 1R
Dn 2
2
42n 1R
Dn
Dn
Or
2n 12R
2n 1
2n 1
2R
.(6)
Thus, the diameter of bright rings are proportional to the square roots of the odd natural numbers.
From eqn. (2) and (4), radius of n th dark ring, we have
rn2
n
R
rn nR
2t
.(7)
The diameters of n th dark ring is given by
D n 2r n 2 nR 4nR n 4R
Dn n
Or
(8)
Thus, the diameter of dark rings are proportional to the square roots of natural numbers.
Determination of wavelength of sodium light using Newtons rings: From eqn.(8), we have
(9)
D2n 4nR
Similarly, the diameter of n p ring is given by
th
D 2n p 4(n p)R
(10)
From eqn. (9) and (10), we have
D 2n p D 2n 4(n p)R 4nR 4pR
D 2n p D 2n
(11)
4pR
20. Explain the formation of interference fringes by means of Fresnel biprism using
monochromatic source of light.
Answer: The biprism is a device to obtain two coherent sources to produce sustained interference. It is
a combination of two prisms of very small refracting angles, placed base to base. Actually, it is
constructed as a single prism with one of its angle about 179 and the other two about 30 each.
Production of Fringes: Let, S= A narrow adjustable slit; P= biprism; S1 and S2= virtual image &
coherence source
(a)
(b)
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Code 300218 (15)
Theory: Let, S= A narrow adjustable slit; P= biprism; S1 and S2= virtual image & coherence source
S1 S 2 d; S1 Q S 2 R D; PO x; OQ OR
Hence
d
2
From S1PQ and S2 PR , According to Pythagoras theorem
S1 P
S 1 Q QP
2
PO OQ
d
d2
2

2 2
D x D x xd
2
4
(1)
And S2 P 2 S2 R 2 PR 2 D 2 PO OR D 2 x
2
d
2 2
D x xd
4
..(2)
From eqn. (1) and (2), we have
But
d 2
d2
S 2 P 2 S 1 P 2 D 2 x xd
xd
4
4
S2 P S1PS2 P S1P 2xd

S2P S1P 2xd
S2P S1P
S2 P S1P D (approximately)
Path difference = S2 P S1P
For P be the centre of bright fringes; S 2 P S1 P
Or
.(4)
xd
n
D
D
n
d
D
2n 1
d
2
..(3)
2xd xd
2D
D
For the P to be the centre of a dark fringes; S2P S1P

Or
2xd
where n= 0,1,2,3,.
.(5)
xd
2n 1
D
2
where n= 0,1,2,3,..
(6)
Let x n and x n 1 denote n th and n 1 bright fringes. Then the distance between n 1 and n th bright
fringes is given by
th
x n 1 x n
Or
th
D
d
n 1 n n 1 n
X x n 1 x n
D
d
.(7)
And let x n and x n 1 denote n th and n 1 dark fringes. Then the distance between n 1 and n th
dark fringes is given by
th
th
Page 24

x n 1 x n
D
d
2n 1 1
D
d
2n 1
Code 300218 (15)
X x n 1 x n
Or
D
d
2n 1 1 2n 1
D
d
D
d
2n 3 2n 1
. (8)
Where X is known as width of fringes.

Experimental Arrangement and Adjustment: The apparatus used for this purpose are optical bench
with four uprights, biprism sodium lamp, a convex lens, plumb line, bench error rod and reading lamp.
Following procedure is adopted for obtaining sharp fringes:1. The optical bench is made horizontal with the help of sprit level.
2. Widen the slit and focus the eyepiece on the cross wires. One of the cross wires is set vertical by
means of a plumb-line.
3. Rotate the slit with the help of tangent screw provided in the plane of the slit so that its image
coincided with the vertical cross-wires. Hence the slit becomes vertical.
4. Using the tangent screw provided with the biprism mount and the slit will be nearly parallel.
5. The line joining slit and the edge of the biprism is made parallel to the length of the optical bench
by removing the lateral shift.
The following measurements are now made:1. Measurements of Fringe Width X :-Adjust the vertical cross wire of the eyepiece on a bright
fringe. Take the reading. Then the eyepiece is moved laterally so that the vertical cross-wire
coincides with successive bright fringes and the corresponding readings are noted. From these
readings the fringe-width X is determined.
2. Measurement of D :- Takes the reading of position of the slit and the eyepiece on the optical
bench. The difference these readings gives D .
3. Measurement of d the distance between Virtual Sources in Biprism:- the distance between
the two virtual sources in biprism is determined by any of the following two methods:I.
Displacement Method and
II.
Deviation Method
15. Discuss the Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit. Derive the necessary conditions for minima
and maxima produced.
Answer: This phenomenon of bending of light corners and spreading the region of geometrical shadow
of an object is called Diffraction.
There are two types:I.
II.
Fresnel diffraction and

Fraunhofer diffraction
Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit: Let wavelength of parallel beam of monochromatic light,
e width of narrow slit AB, L Convex lens, angle of diffraction
Page 25
Code 300218 (15)
Fig.1.
Let the disturbance caused at P by the wavelet from width of the slit at C be
y0 A cos t
. (1)
Then the wavelet from with dx at C, when it reaches P has the amplitude Adx and phase t
sin .
Let this small disturbance be dy, we have
2x sin
dy Adx cos t
.(2)
For the total disturbance at the point of observation at an angle , we get

e
A cos t
2x sin
dx
But we know that cosA B cos A. cos B sin A. sin B
e
2
2x sin
2x sin
sin t. sin
dx
Acos t. cos
e
2
e
2
e
2
2x sin
2x sin
A cos t cos
dx A sin t sin
dx
e
e
e
2x sin 2
2x sin 2

sin
cos
y A cos t
A
sin
2 sin
2 sin
2e sin
2e sin
2e sin
2e sin
sin

cos

sin
cos

y A cos t
A sin t
2e sin
2e sin
We know that sin sin and cos cos
Page 26
Code 300218 (15)
2e sin
2e sin
2e sin
2e sin
sin

cos

sin
cos

y A cos t
A sin t
2e sin
2e sin
2e sin
2e sin

2 sin
2 sin
y A cos t
0 Ae. cos t
2e sin
2e sin
sin
2e sin
and Ae A 0 , therefore we get y A 0
cos t
A sin
Resultant amplitude
R 0
2
sin 2
2
2 sin
I R A0
I0
The resultant intensity at P is given by
2
2
Where I0 A 02 represent the intensity at 0 .
Let
.(3)
(4)
21. Discuss the Fraunhofer diffraction at a N- slit. Derive the necessary conditions for minima
and maxima produced.
Answer: A diffraction grating is an arrangement equivalent to N number of parallel slits of equal widths
and separated from one another by equal opaque space.
Diffraction grating is made by ruling large number of fine, equidistant and parallel lines on an optically
plane glass plate with a diamond point makes diffraction grating. The ruled portion scatters the light
while unruled portion transmits light.
Fig.1.
Let amplitude of each N-waves A A 0
e d ; Width of each silt d
2e d sin
sin
; Phase difference
; Grating element
The resultant disturbance y is given by
y A cos t cost cost 2 .............. N terms
We know that cos
e i e i
; therefore
2
Page 27
Code 300218 (15)
e it e it
e i t e it e i t 2 e it 2
y A
............ N terms
2
2
2
it
it
it i
it i
it i 2
it i 2
e
e
e
e
e
e
y A
............. N terms
2
2
2
2
2
2
e it e it e it e i e it e i e it e 2i e it e 2i
y A
....... N terms
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
it
it
e
e
y A
1 e i e 2i ....... N terms A
1 e i e 2i ....... N terms
2
2
Using only real part of above equation, therefore
y A e it 1 e i e 2i ....... N terms
The above equation is GP (Geometric Progression) series, so we get
1 e iN
y A e it
i
1 e
Intensity I yy
(1)
(2)
where y is the complex conjugate of y.

iN
1 e iN
it 1 e
I A e it
A
e
i
i
1 e
1 e
iN
1 eiN 1 e iN
1 eiN iN
2 it it 1 e
I A A eit e it
A
e
1
e
i
i
i
i
1 e 1 e
1 e 1 e
iN
iN
1 e iN e iN e iN e iN
e iN e 0
e iN 1
2 0 1 e
2 1 e
A
IA e
Ae
i
i
i i
i
i
0
i
i
1 e e e e
1 e e e
1 e e 1
e iN e iN
iN
iN
iN
iN
1
e
e
1 cos N
2 1 2 e
2 2 e
2
2
I A
A
A 2
i
i
i
i
i
i
4 2e e
1 cos
2e e
1 e e
2 0
....(3)
We know that cos 2 1 2 sin 2 , therefore we get

2 1 N 2e d sin
2 Ne d sin
2 N
2 N
sin
2
sin
sin
sin
2
A2
2 A2
2 A2
I A 2
1
2
d
sin
d
sin
2
2
2 sin
sin
sin 2
sin 2
2
2
Since A A 0
sin
I A02
Therefore
where
(4)
sin 2 sin 2 N
.
2
sin 2
.(5)
(e d) sin
Page 28
Code 300218 (15)
Hence the intensity distribution is product of two terms. The first term A 02
sin 2
represent the
2
sin 2 N
diffraction pattern due to a single slit and second term
represent the interference pattern due
sin 2
to N-slits.
2
sin 2 sin 2
2 sin
IA
A0
2 sin 2
2
For N=1
For N=2 I A
Or
Hence for N-slit
(single slit diffraction)
2
0
2
0
2
sin 2 sin 2
sin 2
2
0
sin 2 2 sin cos

2
sin 2
sin 2
cos 2
2
2
sin cos 2 N
I A 02
2 cos 2
I 4A 02
A 02
2
2
sin 2 4 sin cos
sin 2
(double slit diffraction)

(generalized expression)
Principal Maxima
Intensity would be maximum when
Or when
Also
Thus
sin 0
n ;
sin N 0
sin N 0
sin
0
where n=0,1,2,3,
i.e. indeterminate.
To solve this, we will use L Hospitals rule i.e.
sin N
sin N
sin N
N
N sin N
N
Lim
Lim
Lim
N sin N. Lim
sin N.1 N
n sin
n N sin
n
n

A 2 sin 2 2
Ip 0 2
N
..(6)
Theses maxima are most intense and are called Principal maxima.
Now as
Or
where
This is known as grating equation.
n
e d sin
n
e dsin n
(7)
n=0,1,2,3..
22. What is ruby laser? Describe the construction and action of the ruby laser.
Answer: A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses a synthetic ruby crystal as its gain medium. The first
working laser was a ruby laser made by Theodore H. "Ted" Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories on
May 16, 1960.
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Fig.1. Ruby Laser

Ruby lasers produce pulses of visible light at a wavelength of 694.3 nm, which is a deep red color.
Typical ruby laser pulse lengths are on the order of a millisecond.
Working and theory: A ruby laser most often consists of a ruby rod that must be pumped with very
high energy, usually from a flashtube, to achieve a population inversion. The rod is often placed between
two mirrors, forming an optical cavity, which oscillate the light produced by the ruby's fluorescence,
causing stimulated emission. Ruby is one of the few solid-state lasers that produce light in the visible
range of the spectrum, lasing at 694.3 nanometers, in a deep red color, with a very narrow line width of
0.53 nm.
The ruby laser is a three level solid-state laser. The active laser medium is a synthetic ruby rod that is
energized through optical pumping, typically by a xenon flashtube. Ruby has very broad and powerful
absorption bands in the visual spectrum, at 400 and 550 nm, and a very long fluorescence lifetime of 3
milliseconds. This allows for very high energy pumping, since the pulse duration can be much longer
than with other materials. While ruby has a very wide absorption profile, its conversion efficiency is
much lower than other mediums.
Fig.2. Energy Level Diagram

Modern lasers often use rods with antireflection coatings, or with the ends cut and polished at
Brewster's angle instead. This eliminates the reflections from the ends of the rod. External dielectric
mirrors then are used to form the optical cavity. Curved mirrors are typically used to relax the
alignment tolerances and to form a stable resonator, often compensating for thermal lensing of the rod.
Ruby also absorbs some of the light at its lasing wavelength. To overcome this absorption, the entire
length of the rod needs to be pumped, leaving no shaded areas near the mountings. The active part of
the ruby is the dopant, which consists of chromium ions suspended in a sapphire crystal. The dopant
often comprises around 0.05% of the crystal, and is responsible for all of the absorption and emission of
radiation. Depending on the concentration of the dopant, synthetic ruby usually comes in either pink or
red.
23. What is He-Ne laser? Describe the construction and action of the He-Ne laser.
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Answer: A heliumneon laser or He-Ne laser is a type of gas laser whose gain medium consists of a
mixture of helium and neon inside of a small-bore capillary tube, usually excited by a DC electrical
discharge.
Working and theory: The gain medium of the laser, as suggested by its name, is a mixture of helium
and neon gases, in approximately a 10:1 ratio, contained at low pressure in a glass envelope. The gas
mixture is mostly helium, so that helium atoms can be excited. The excited helium atoms collide with
neon atoms, exciting some of them to the state that radiates 632.8 nm. Without helium, the neon atoms
would be excited mostly to lower excited states responsible for non-laser lines. A neon laser with no
helium can be constructed but it is much more difficult without this means of energy coupling.
Therefore, a He-Ne laser that has lost enough of its helium will most likely not lase at all since the
pumping efficiency will be too low. The energy or pump source of the laser is provided by a high voltage
electrical discharge passed through the gas between electrodes within the tube. A DC current of 3 to 20
mA is typically required for CW operation. The optical cavity of the laser usually consists of two concave
mirrors or one plane and one concave mirror, one having very high (typically 99.9%) reflectance and
the output coupler mirror allowing approximately 1% transmission.
Fig.1. Schematic diagram of a heliumneon laser

Commercial He-Ne lasers are relatively small devices, among gas lasers, having cavity lengths usually
ranging from 15cm to 50cm, and optical output power levels ranging from 0.5 to 50 mW.
The red He-Ne laser wavelength of 633 nm has an actual vacuum wavelength of 632.991 nm, or about
632.816 nm in air. The wavelength of the lasing modes lie within about 0.001 nm above or below this
value, and the wavelengths of those modes shift within this range due to thermal expansion and
contraction of the cavity. Frequency-stabilized versions enable the wavelength of a single mode to be
specified to within 1 part in 108 by the technique of comparing the powers of two longitudinal modes in
opposite polarizations. Absolute stabilization of the laser's frequency (or wavelength) as fine as 2.5
parts in 1011 can be obtained through use of an iodine absorption cell.
Fig.2. Energy level diagram of a He-Ne laser

The mechanism producing population inversion and light amplification in a He-Ne laser plasma
originates with inelastic collision of energetic electrons with ground state helium atoms in the gas
mixture. As shown in the accompanying energy level diagram, these collisions excite helium atoms from
the ground state to higher energy excited states. This excitation energy transfer process is given by the
reaction equations:
He*(23S1) + Ne 1S0 He (1S0) + Ne* 2S2 + E and
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He*(21S) + Ne 1S0 + E He (1S0) + Ne*3S2

where (*) represents an excited state, and E is the small energy difference between the energy states of
the two atoms, of the order of 0.05 eV or 387 cm1, which is supplied by kinetic energy. The medium
becomes capable of amplifying light in a narrow band at 1.15 m and in a narrow band at 632.8 nm.
The remaining step in utilizing optical amplification to create an optical oscillator is to place highly
reflecting mirrors at each end of the amplifying medium so that a wave in a particular spatial mode will
reflect back upon itself, gaining more power in each pass than is lost due to transmission through the
mirrors and diffraction. When these conditions are met for one or more longitudinal modes then
radiation in those modes will rapidly build up until gain saturation occurs, resulting in a stable
continuous laser beam output through the front (typically 99% reflecting) mirror.
Spectrum of a helium neon laser illustrating its very high spectral purity. The 0.002 nm bandwidth of the
lasing medium is well over 10,000 times narrower than the spectral width of a light-emitting diode, with
the bandwidth of a single longitudinal mode being much narrower still.
The visible output of the red He-Ne laser, long coherence length, and its excellent spatial quality, makes
this laser a useful source for holography and as a wavelength reference for spectroscopy. Prior to the
invention of cheap, abundant diode lasers, red He-Ne lasers were widely used in barcode scanners at
supermarket checkout counters. Laser gyroscopes have employed He-Ne lasers operating at 0.633 m in
a ring laser configuration. He-Ne lasers are generally present in educational and research optical
laboratories.
24. Describe the construction and working of Nd:YAG laser.
Answer: Nd:YAG (neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet; Nd:Y3Al5O12) is a crystal that is used as
a lasing medium for solid-state lasers. The dopant, triply ionized neodymium, Nd(III), typically replaces
a small fraction of the yttrium ions in the host crystal structure of the yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG),
since the two ions are of similar size. It is the neodymium ion which proves the leasing activity in the
crystal, in the same fashion as red chromium ion in ruby lasers. Generally the crystalline YAG host is
doped with around 1% neodymium by atomic percent.
Laser operation of Nd:YAG was first demonstrated by J. E. Geusic et al. at Bell Laboratories in 1964.
Fig.1. Nd:YAG Laser

Working & Theory: Nd:YAG lasers are optically pumped using a flashtube or laser diodes. These are
one of the most common types of laser, and are used for many different applications. Nd:YAG lasers
typically emit light with a wavelength of 1064 nm, in the infrared. However, there are also transitions
near 940, 1120, 1320, and 1440 nm. Nd:YAG lasers operate in both pulsed and continuous mode. The
high-intensity pulses may be efficiently frequency doubled to generate laser light at 532 nm, or higher
harmonics at 355 and 266 nm.
Nd:YAG absorbs mostly in the bands between 730760 nm and 790820 nm. At low current densities
krypton flashlamps have higher output in those bands than do the more common xenon lamps, which
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Code 300218 (15)
produce more light at around 900 nm. The former are therefore more efficient for pumping Nd:YAG
lasers.
Fig.2. Energy level diagram of Nd:YAG Laser

The amount of the neodymium dopant in the material varies according to its use. For continuous wave
output, the doping is significantly lower than for pulsed lasers.
Nd:YAG lasers and variants are pumped either by flashtubes, continuous gas discharge lamps, or nearinfrared laser diodes (DPSS lasers). Prestabilized laser (PSL) types of Nd:YAG lasers have proved to be
particularly useful in providing the main beams for gravitational wave interferometers such as LIGO,
VIRGO, GEO600 and TAMA.
25. Give principle of propagation of light through optical fiber. Derive an expression for
acceptance angle.
Answer: Let us consider light propagation in an optical fibre. The end at which the light enters the fibre
is called launching end. Let the refracting index of the core be n1 and the refractive index of cladding be
n 2 (n 2 n1 ) . Let the outside medium from which the light is launched into the fibre have a refractive
index n 0 . Let the refracted angle r , with the axis and strikes the core-cladding interface at an angle .
Fig.1. Light propagation in fibers

If c (critical angle), the ray undergoes total internal reflection at the interface. As long as the angle
c , the light remains within the fibre.

Applying Snells law to the fibre, we get
sin i n1
sin r n 0
..(1)
Now largest value of i occurs when c

From ABC we have
sin r sin(90 ) cos
..(2)
From eqn.(1).
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sin i
When c ,
n1
n
sin r 1 cos
n0
n0
i max
sin max
But sin c
..(3)
n1
cos c
n0
..(4)
n1
n2
Therefore
cos c
n 12 n 22
.(5)
n0
Substituting the expression (5) into (4), we get
sin max
n 12 n 22
(6)
n0
If n12 n 22 n 02 , then for all values of i , total internal reflection will occur. Assuming n 0 1 , the
maximum value of sin i for a ray to be guided is given by
sin max n 12 n 22
max sin 1 n12 n 22
.........(7)
(8)
The angle m is called the acceptance angle of the fibre. Acceptance angle may be defined as the
maximum angle that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fibers and propagates down the fibre.
26. Give the construction and theory of Huygens eyepiece. Why cannot across wire be used with
it?
Answer: An eye-piece is a combination of lenses designed to magnify the image already formed by the
objective of a telescope and microscope. An eyepiece consists of two planoconvex lenses. F is called the
field lens and E the eye lens (Fig. 1.). The field lens has large aperture to increase the field of view. The
eye lens mainly magnifies the image. To reduce the spherical aberration, the lenses taken are planoconvex lenses. Further the focal lengths of the two lenses and their separation are selected in such a way
as to minimize the chromatic and spherical aberrations.
A combination of lenses is used in an eyepiece of a simple lens magnifier for the following reasons:
(i) The field of view is enlarged by using two or more lenses.
(ii) The aberrations can be minimized.
Fig.1. Eyepiece
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Code 300218 (15)
Construction: It consists of two plano- con vex lenses of focal lengths 3f (field lens) and f (eye lens),
placed a distance 2f apart [Fig.2.]. They are arranged with their convex faces towards the incident rays.
The eye-piece satisfies the following conditions of minimum spherical and chromatic aberrations.
(i). The distance between the two lenses for minimum spherical aberration is given by a=f1-f2. In
Huygen's eyepiece, a=f1-f2=3f-f=2f. Hence this eye-piece satisfies the condition of minimum spherical
aberration.
(ii). For chromatic aberration to be minimum a
f1 f 2
3f f
. In Huygens' eyepiece, a
2f . Hence
2
2
this eyepiece satisfies the condition of minimum chromatic aberration.
Fig.2.
Working: An eye-piece forms the final image at infinity. Thus the field lens forms the image I 2 the first
Field Lens focal plane of eye lens, i.e., at a distance f to the left of eye-lens. Now the distance between
the field lens and eye-lens is 2f. Therefore, the image I2 lies at a distance f to the right of field lens. The
image I1 formed by the objective of microscope or telescope acts as the virtual object for the field lens.
Thus we treat I1 as the virtual object for the field lens, and I2 as the image of I1 due to it (Fig.2.) or
v f , F 3f and u ? . We have
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
3f f 1
2f
3f

u 2 u
2
v u F
f u 3f
f 3f u
u
2
3f
3f
------- (1)
i.e. I1 should be formed at a distance 3f / 2 from the field lens. Therefore, the rays coming from the
objective which converge towards I1 are focused by the field lens at I2. The rays starting from I2 emerge
from the eye-lens as a parallel beam.
Fig.3.
Cardinal Points of Huygens Eyepiece: The equivalent focal length F of this eyepiece is
1
F
1
f1
1
f2
a
f1f 2
1
3f
1
f
2f
3f f
2
3f
3f
2
The second principal point is at a distance from the eye lens.
Page 35
f 2a
f1 f 2 a
Code 300218 (15)
f 2f
2f 2
f
3f f 2f
2f
The first principal point is a distance from the field lens.
f1a
3f 2f
6f 2
3f
f1 f 2 a 3f f 2f
2f
Fig.4.
The position of the principal points P1 and P2 and the principal focal point F1 and F2 are shown in Fig.4.
Since the system is in air, the nodal points coincide with the principal points.
27. Obtain the expression for the focal length of combination of two thin lenses. Also find the
positions of cardinal points for a lens combination.
Answer: Consider two thin convergent lenses L1 and L2 of focal length f1 and f2 placed coaxially at a
distance d apart. Let a ray AB parallel to the axis be incident at B on the lens L1 at a height C1B=h. It
surfers deviation through an angle 1 at the first lens and proceeds towards the principal focus F1. It
means the second lens at a point D at a height h2 from the axis on refraction it is further deviated
through an angle 2 and meets finally the axis at F2.
As the incident parallel ray PA after refraction through both the lenses meets the axis at F2, the point F2
must be the second principal focus of the combination. The lens of focal F placed at H2 is called the
equivalent lens, which can be replace the combination.
Fig.1
h1
F
h
1 1
f1
h
2 2
f2
Deviation produced by the equivalent lens

Deviation produced by the first lens
Deviation produced by the second lens
As both deviations are in the same direction, the total deviation is
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Code 300218 (15)
h1 h 2
f1 f 2
h 2 h 1 CD h 1 BC tan 1 h 1 d1
1 2
From fig.1
h
h 2 h1 d 1
f1
tan 1 1
h1 h1 1

F f1 f 2
dh1
1 1 1
d
1 1 1
d
1 1 1
d

h 1

f1
F f1 f 2 f1f 2
F f1 f 2 f1f 2
F f1 f 2 f1f 2
Where d f1 f 2 is known as the optical separation or optical interval between the two lenses. It
is numerically equal to the distance between the second principal focus of the first lens and the first
principal focus of the second lens.
Now find the position of the equivalent lens i.e., C2H2 or C1H2, sM2H2F2 and DC2F2 are similar
h2
h1
Now
C 2 F2
H 2 F2
C 2 F2 H 2 F2
d
1 F
h1
f1
h2
d
d
C 2 F2 H 2 F2 C 2 F2 F 1 F F
f1
f1
Let C 2 H 2 (conventionally is negative)
d
f1
Thus the equivalent lens must be placed at a distance
or
d
f1
Fd
in front of the second lens.
f1
Principal planes
The plane M2H2 where the deviation of the incident parallel ray coming from the left appears to occur is
called the second principal plane and the point H2 on the axis called the second principal point. The
second principal focus F2 is situated to the right of the point at a distance F.
The find the position of first principal focus of the lens system and the first principal plane and first
principal point consider a ray AB parallel to the principal axis. From fig.2., we have
Fig.2
f 1f 2
f1 f 2 d
Fd
df1
C2 H 2
f2
f1 f 2 d
C2 H 2
F
Suppose
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Code 300218 (15)
df1
Fd
f1 f 2 d
f2
C 2 H1 d d
and
Fd
F
d 1
f2
f2
The first principal focus F1 is situated to the left of the point H1 at a distance F. Hence we conclude that
the equivalent focal length is independent of the direction from which the light enters the system and
f 2 f1
Power of lens: The reciprocal of the focal length expressed in meters is called the power of a lens. It is
expressed in diopters.
1 1 1
d

F f 1 f 2 f 1f 2
P P1 P2 dP1P2
The power of a lens is the measure of its ability to produce convergence of a parallel beam of light.
28. Calculate the percentage contraction of rod moving with a velocity 0.8c in a direction inclined
at 60 to its own length.
Answer: the component of the length of the rod along its direction of motion
L 0 cos 60
1
L0
2
And the component of its length, perpendicular to its direction of motion
L 0 sin 60
3
L0
2
Where L0= length of the rod, placed along the x-axis, in frame S(at rest).
In this case cos component undergoes change in length.
0.8c 0.3c
1
L0 1
2
c2
3
L0
L0
2
2
L0
Hence
Other component
Total length of the rod in frame S (moving frame) is
0.3L 0
L0
2
3
0.09L 20 L 20
4
0.84 L 0 0.9165L 0
The percentage contraction produced in length of the rod
L 0 0.9165L 0
100 8.34%
L0
29. For an empty assembly hall 201510 m3 the reverberation times is 3.5 sec. Calculate the
average absorption coefficient of the hall. What area of the wall should be covered by the curtain
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Code 300218 (15)
so as to reduce the reverberation time to 2.5 sec. Given absorption coefficient of curtain cloth is
0.5.
Answer: Reverberation time is
Total absorption
Average absorption coefficient
0.165V
aS
0.165 20 15 10
aS
141.4
3.5
141.4
70.7
a
0.108
220 15 15 10 10 20 650
When the walls are covered with curtain cloth
2.5
0.165 20 15 10
495
2.5141.4 0.5 S 495 141.4 0.5 S
198
141.4 0.5 S
2.5
0.5 S 198 141.4 56.5 S
56.5
113m 2
0.5
30. Newtons rings are formed in reflected light of wavelength 6000 with a liquid between the
plane and curved surfaces. If the diameter of the sixth bright ring be 3.1 mm and the radius of
curvature of the curved surface is 100 cm, calculate the refractive index of liquid.
Answer: The diameter of nth bright ring is given by
22n 1R
22n 1R
D 2n
D 2n
Or
Here n=6, =6000 =600010-10m, R=100 cm= 1m and Dn =3.1 mm= 3.110-3 m
22n 1R 22 6 16000 10 10 1
1.374
2
D 2n
3.1 10 3
31. A plane transmission grating has 16000 lines to an inch over a length of 5 inches. Find (i). the
resolving power of the grating in the second order, and (ii). The smallest wavelength difference
that can be resolved for light of wavelength 6000 .
Answer: (1). Here, number of lines per inch on the grating = 16000, length of ruled grating = 5 inch
Total number of lines on the grating = 516000 = 80000
= 6000 = 600010-8 cm, n=2

Resolving Power = Nn = 280000 = 160000
(ii). The smallest resolvable wavelength difference d is given by
6000 10 8
Nn 160000 d
0.0375
d
160000
160000
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32. Calculate the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of an optical fibre. Given refractive
index of fibre core = 1.6 and refractive index of cladding = 1.3.
Answer: Numerical aperture is given by
NA n12 n 22
Acceptance Angle,
1.62 1.32
2.56 1.69 0.87 0.93
sin 1 n12 n 22 sin 1 0.93 68.43
Page 40

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Code 300218 (15)

Fig.1. Experimental arrangement of Michelson-Morley experiment

Fig.2. Theory of the Michelson- Morley experiment

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

{By binomial expansion}

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

Fig.1. Two inertial frame in relative motion

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

From eq.(1) and (2), we get

The transformation between x and x coordinates is given by simple relation

Where k is constant, independent of x and t.

Where k is constant, independent of x and t.

Equating the coefficients of t2 on both sides of the eq. (9), we have

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

Substituting the value of k and k in eq. (6) and (8), we get

Thus the Lorentz transformations are

Where c is the velocity of light.

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

From the Lorentz transformations y y , hence y y and according to time dilation

Since the momentum of the particle is invariant, therefore Py=Py

The above expression gives the variation of mass with velocity.

On partial differentiation of eq. (8), we get

2mc 2 dm 2mv 2 dm 2m 2 vdv 0 2mc 2 dm 2mv 2 dm 2m 2 vdv

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

From eq. (7) and (9), we get

Hence gain in kinetic energy in acquiring the velocity v from rest is

Total energy of the particle E= kinetic energy + rest energy

The above equation is called the Einstein equation of mass-energy equivalence.

Fig.1: Chain Reaction

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

Fig.2: Nuclear Reactor

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

8. Write a short note on Fusion Reaction in Stars.

So, that we have

Fig.1: The proton-proton chain dominates in stars

Fig.2: The CNO cycle in stars

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

The overall process may be written as

9. What is mass spectrograph?

Fig.1. Bainbridge Mass-spectrographs

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur

Subject: Applied Physics [New]

Code 300218 (15)

As E, B and B are constants,

Aloke Verma, Department of Applied Physics, SRIT, New Raipur