Optimum Stimulation Level and Exploratory Consumer Behavior in An Emerging Consumer Market PDF

Intern. J.
of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131 150

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijresmar
Optimum stimulation level and exploratory consumer behavior

in an emerging consumer market
Jan-Benedict E.M. Steenkamp a,*, Steven M. Burgess b
a
Department of Marketing, Tilburg University, P.O. Box 90153, 5000 LE Tilburg, The Netherlands
b
Graduate School of Business, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
Received 27 March 2001; received in revised form 14 January 2002; accepted 23 January 2002
Abstract
More than 80% of the worlds consumers live in emerging consumer markets and transitional economies (ECMs). A fuller
understanding of consumer behavior and further advancement of consumer research as an academic discipline require that the
validity of theories and models of consumer behavior developed in a Western cultural context be examined in ECMs as well. In
this paper, we examine the measurement invariance and nomological relations involving optimum stimulation level (OSL) in
one of Africas most important ECMsSouth Africa. Our research setting presents an especially stringent context for testing
consumer behavior theories. Many respondents are challenged by severe economic and educational disadvantages, many have
probably never had a job, and some are illiterate. Nevertheless, the results provide evidence on the cross-cultural
generalizability of OSL and exploratory consumer behavior theory. We found a high degree of stability in the OSL structure
across the three major cultural-ethnic groups in South Africa. Meaningful and theoretically predictable nomological relations
are obtained with values, sociodemographics, and exploratory consumer behaviors. Moreover, we find systematic effects of
gender, income, and level of education on exploratory consumer behaviors. Suggestions for future research on OSL and for
consumer behavior research in general in ECMs are discussed. D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: International marketing; Optimum stimulation level; Exploratory consumer behavior; Emerging consumer markets; Cross-cultural
research; Values; Sociodemographics
1. Introduction
Although many theories of consumer behavior have
been fashioned by borrowing eclectically across the
behavioral sciences (Robertson & Ward, 1973), consumer researchers have been less eclectic when selecting populations in which to test their theories. Much of
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +31-13-4662916; fax: +31-134662875.
E-mail addresses: J.B.Steenkamp@kub.nl
(J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp), sburgess@gsb.uct.ac.za (S.M. Burgess).
what we know has been derived from empirical studies

of consumers in Western countries, especially in the
USA. This research has yielded a valuable stock of
theoretical and empirical findings. However, more than
80% of the worlds consumers live in emerging consumer markets and transitional economies (collectively
referred to as ECMs hereafter). These countries differ
significantly culturally, economically, and demographically from Western countries and experience a
historically unique and rapid rate of sociopolitical and
economic change (Batra, 1999). Very little consumer
research has been conducted in ECMs, even less with
0167-8116/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 7 - 8 11 6 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 6 3 - 0
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J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150
large, broadly representative samples. The further

advancement of consumer research as an academic
discipline requires that the validity of our theories
and models and their degree of generalizability and
boundary conditions be examined in non-Western,
ECM contexts (Bagozzi, 1994; Douglas & Craig,
1997; Lee & Green, 1991; Parker & Tavassoli, 2000).
It is in this vein that Monroe (1993) urges consumer
behavior researchers to move beyond the relative
security of our own backyards and investigate issues
relative to consumption on an international basis and
that Gatignon (2000) calls for more research on international marketing and consumer behavior.
The current study contributes to filling the paucity
of consumer behavior research in ECM settings. In
our work, we focus on the important construct of
optimum stimulation level (OSL). OSL is a personality
trait referring to the amount of stimulation individuals
prefer in life (McReynolds, 1971). Previous research
has shown that OSL is an important factor in explaining a wide variety of consumer behaviors with strong
exploratory components such as risk taking, innovativeness, variety seeking, browsing, and evaluation of
arousing stimuli such as fear-appeal ads (Baumgartner
& Steenkamp, 1996; Celsi, Rose, & Leigh, 1993;
Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; Joachimsthaler &
Lastovicka, 1984; McAlister & Pessemier, 1982;
Mittelstaedt, Grossbart, Curtis, & Devere, 1976; Raju,
1980, 1984; Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1992; Steenkamp, Baumgartner, & Van der Wulp, 1996; Venkatraman & Price, 1990; Zuckerman, 1979, 1994). It is
not clear, though, whether OSL exhibits the same
nomological relations with exploratory consumer
behavior and other variables in ECM countries where
the consumer context is severely constrained by
external factors such as low income, impoverished
consumption environment, different cultures, and
large within-country diversity of cultures due to the
colonial past.
Our research environment is one of the most
important African ECM countries, viz., the Republic
of South Africa. The nature of the research environmentan ECM characterized by particularly tough
research challenges such as extreme diversity of
culture (there are three large cultural-ethnic groups
as well as many subgroups) and human development
(including illiteracy)provides a strong test of the
cross-cultural generalizability of current OSL theories
and models in consumer research. The focus in this

study will be on understanding rather than on prediction or managerial application.
The contribution of the study is threefold: crosscultural, conceptual, and practical. Cross-culturally, we
will test previously established relations between OSL
and exploratory consumer behaviors and sociodemographics in an ECM context. It is not obvious whether
previously established nomological relations can be
extended to an ECM setting (cf. Batra, 1999; McCrae,
2000). Moreover, we present extensive findings concerning the effects of sociodemographics on various
types of exploratory behaviors. These results are of
interest in their own right and are among the first
findings involving large samples in an ECM. Conceptually, we will extend previous research on OSL by
examining its relations with personal values using a
recently developed pan-cultural theory on values. Practically, we illustrate and address research and measurement issues that emerge when conducting consumer
research in ECM environments characterized by
limited educational development and large withincountry, between cultural-ethnic group diversity.
We proceed in the following manner. We outline
the construct of OSL and its relations with personal
values, sociodemographics, and exploratory consumer
behavior. We will then describe the data used in the
study and present the empirical results. The paper
ends with a discussion of the findings and their
implications for OSL research and for consumer
research in ECMs in general.
2. Theoretical foundations
2.1. Optimum stimulation level
The notion that human behavior is sometimes instigated by the mere desire to attain a satisfactory level of
stimulation has figured prominently among theories
investigating motivational tendencies as causes of
peoples actions (Berlyne, 1960; 1978; Fiske & Maddi,
1961). Research on this presumed need for stimulation
has shown that people tend to prefer intermediate levels
of stimulation referred to as the optimum stimulation
level in the literature and that there are reliable
individual differences in the amount of stimulation
considered optimal by a person (McReynolds, 1971).
The relations of OSL with conceptually similar

traits and its position within comprehensive multi-trait
personality systems have emerged in recent decades.
OSL correlates positively with the Big Five personality traits openness to experience and extraversion
and negatively with agreeableness and conscientiousness (McCrae & Costa, 1990, cited in Zuckerman,
1994). In the context of Eysencks three-factor theory,
OSL was most closely associated with the psychoticism and extraversion factors (Zuckerman, Kuhlman,
& Camac, 1988). High OSLs are higher on monotony
avoidance, need for cognition, impulsivity, curiosity,
and intolerance of ambiguity and lower on rigidity
and dogmatism (Baumgartner & Steenkamp, 1994;
Raju, 1980; Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1995). There
has been far less theoretical and empirical work on the
relations of OSL with a consumers value structure.
Before exploring the relations between OSL and
personal values, it is useful to reflect on the relevance
of OSL in ECM contexts. Given the substantial
cultural and economic differences between ECMs
and the Western countries in which (nearly) all OSL
research is conducted, one could wonder whether the
OSL trait is relevant universally or only in a more
limited set of Western consumers. Is it a relevant
construct in ECM countries? This is an important
issue that goes to the heart of conducting consumer
research in new cultural contexts. As McCrae (2000,
p. 23) recently noted, virtually the entire body of
research on personality can be considered an intracultural study of personality in Western societies.
McCraes observation applies to other consumer
behavior constructs as well.
We believe there is evidence attesting to the crosscultural relevance of OSL. There is no reason why
OSL is unique to Western countries. The notion
underlying OSL is that human behavior is sometimes
instigated by the mere desire to attain a satisfactory
level of stimulation. Nothing in this theorizing indicates that these motivational tendencies are unique to
Western countries. Moreover, much initial theorizing
on OSL was based on experiments with animals (rats,
monkeys, birds, sheep, etc.) where it was found that
mammals often performed behaviors to increase their
level of stimulation (see Berlyne, 1978; Leuba, 1955
for overviews). For example, Leuba (1955, p. 27)
concluded that mammals seek. . .situations which
even produce emotional stimulation to a mild degree.
133
Clearly, if the concept of OSL is consistent with other

mammals, it is reasonable to assume it is also relevant
for other humans.
Third, fundamental work on the origins of OSL
yields the same conclusion. Zuckerman (1994) summarizes the large body of research on the biological
bases of OSL. Of course, biological factors alone
cannot fully explain a persons OSL, but the huge
body of evidence reviewed and discussed by Zuckerman (1994) indicates that biological factors such
as, but not limited to, the amount of the enzyme
monoamine oxidase (MAO) in the brain has a
systematic effect on OSL. There is neither reason
(nor evidence) that these biological factors only are
present in certain cultures (in fact, this enzyme is
also present in the brain of other primates). Again,
this attests to the cross-cultural relevance of OSL as
its biological bases are universal. However, validity
of a construct in other sociocultural settings cannot
be proven but can be made more plausible if
nomological relations with other constructs are supported (Bagozzi, 1980). This is what we attempt to
do in this study.
2.2. OSL and values
2.2.1. Schwartzs value theory
Values may be defined as beliefs pertaining to
desirable end states or modes of conduct which transcend specific situations (e.g., consumer-related contexts), guide selection, or evaluation of behavior and
are ordered by importance vis-a-vis each other to form a
system of value priorities (Rokeach, 1973). The value
priorities of people represent central goals that relate
to all aspects of behavior (Smith & Schwartz, 1997,
p. 79). Schwartz (e.g., Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz &
Bilsky, 1987, 1990; Schwartz & Sagiv, 1995) probably has conducted the most important programmatic
stream of research on personal values in the last
decade. In Schwartzs work, the crucial aspect that
distinguishes among values is the type of motivational goal they express. Ten distinct types of values
were derived that reflect a continuum of related
motivations. Table 1 provides a definition and lists
exemplary values for each motivational value type.
This continuum gives rise to a circular structure (see
Fig. 1) that captures the notion that the pursuit of
different value types can be compatible or in conflict,
134
Table 1
Value types in Schwartzs value theory
Value type
Definition
Exemplary values
Power
Social status and prestige,

control or dominance over people and resources.
Social power, authority, wealth
Achievement
Personal success through demonstrating

competence according to social standards.
Successful, capable, ambitious
Hedonism
Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself.
Pleasure, enjoying life
Stimulation
Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
Daring, varied life, an exciting life
Self-direction
Independent thought and

action choosing, creating, exploring.
Creativity, curious, freedom
Universalism
Understanding, appreciation, tolerance,

and protection for the welfare of all people and nature.
Broadminded, social justice, equality,

protecting the environment
Benevolence
Preservation and enhancement of the

welfare of people with whom one
is in frequent personal contact.
Helpful, honest, forgiving
Tradition
Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the

customs and ideas that culture or religion provide.
Humble, devout, accepting my portion in life
Conformity
Restraints of actions, inclinations,

and impulses likely to upset or harm others
and violate social expectations or norms.
Politeness, obedient,
honoring ones parents or elders
Security
Safety, harmony, and stability of society,

of relationships, and of self.
Social order, clean
Source: excerpted from Schwartz (1992).
depending on how close the value types are (Schwartz,

1992). Adjacent value types are most compatible.
Conflict increases in proportion to the distance between value types, with value types in opposing positions from the center of the structure being in greatest
competition. For example, in the context of exploratory
consumer behavior, seeking novelty (a stimulation
value) by visiting a new retail outlet or buying a new
product may be compatible with the pursuit of curiosity
(a self-direction value) but in conflict with compliance
with social norms (a conformity value).
The 10 value types are organized in four higher
order value domains openness to change, self-transcendence, conservation, and self-enhancement. The
structure and content of Schwartzs value system (see
Fig. 1) has received impressive empirical support in
research in more than 200 samples from 60 countries
from every continent, involving over 100,000 persons

(Schwartz, 1992; Schwartz et al., 2001). Schwartzs
theory can truly be called pan-cultural.
2.2.2. Linking OSL to Schwartzs value theory
Traits and personal values are distinct yet related
personality concepts (Bilsky & Schwartz, 1994;
Burgess, 1992; Winter, John, Stewart, Klohnen, &
Duncan, 1998). Each plays an important but different role in regulating behavior and life outcomes.
Traits define the individual from an external perspective, presuming that actions flow from what
people are like regardless of their intentions,
whereas values refer to the individuals motivational
goals and intentions. Traits are often described as
referring to peoples stylistic and habitual patterns
of cognition, affect, and behavior, rather than to
Fig. 1. Schwartzs model of relations among motivational types of

values and higher order value types.
their wishes, desires, and motivations. Personality

traits vary in terms of how much of a characteristic
an individual exhibits, whereas values vary in terms
of the importance an individual attributes to particular motivational goals.
The associations between different values and
specific traits have not received much attention in
the literature. Both research streams have developed
largely independently (cf. Winter et al., 1998). In
this study, we will examine the relations of OSL
with personal values in detail using Schwartzs
theory. OSL is related most closely to Schwartzs
value type of stimulation. As Schwartz (1992, p. 7)
notes: Stimulation values derive from the presumed organismic need for variety and stimulation
in order to maintain an optimal level of activation.
However, OSL is broader than stimulation values
only. Previous research suggests that it also may be
associated with other motivational goals such as
hedonism, self-direction, and achievement (Zuckerman, 1979).
Schwartzs specific structure of the value types and
domains allows for a fine-grained and systematic
135
examination of the associations of OSL with values.

According to this theory, associations of any external
variable, such as OSL, should decrease monotonically
as one goes around the circular structure of value
types in both directions from the most positively
associated value type (i.e., stimulation) to the most
negatively associated value type (i.e., tradition, conformity, security) (Schwartz, 1992). This creates a
sinusoid curve of associations from the most positive
to the most negative and back. The specific content of
Schwartzs theory allows us to derive predictions that
are not generated from existing knowledge about the
association between OSL and particular value types
(e.g., universalism, power).
In terms of value domains, OSL is clearly most
closely associated with openness to change and it is in
conflict with conservation. Schwartzs theory predicts
the same type of sinusoid curve at the level of value
domains, showing the strongest positive relation with
openness to change and the strongest negative association with conservation, with self-transcendence and
self-enhancement in between. Within the context of
the sinusoid pattern, we expect OSL to be more
strongly associated with self-enhancement than with
self-transcendence. Self-enhancement values are individualistically oriented such that they motivate people
to enhance their personal interests even at the expense
of others when necessary. In contrast, self-transcendence values motivate people to transcend selfish
concerns and promote the welfare of others (Schwartz,
1992). OSL serves individual interests primarily, if
not entirely (Zuckerman, 1979). Thus, we hypothesize
the following.
H1a. The association between OSL and the importance attached to the 10 value types follows a sinusoid
pattern with the strongest positive relationship
observed for stimulation values and the strongest
negative relationship for tradition, conformity, and
security values.
H1b. The association between OSL and the importance attached to the four value domains follows a
sinusoid pattern with the strongest positive relationship observed for openness to change and the
strongest negative relationship for conservation.
H1c. OSL exhibits a positive association with selfenhancement and a negative association with selftranscendence.
136
2.3. Sociodemographic correlates of OSL

Although sociodemographic variables are not
directly part of the psychological explanation of
OSL and exploratory consumer behavior, they are
relevant to obtain a better understanding of the profile
of the stimulation seeker in ECMs. Different sociodemographic variables suggest alternative hypotheses
of explanation, some having to do with social learning
and some with biological development tendencies
(Zuckerman, 1994).
OSL declines from late adolescence onwards
(Raju, 1980) and longitudinal studies indicate that
this negative relation is due to real age changes rather
than to generational differences (Zuckerman, 1994).
Furthermore, on the average, men exhibit higher
OSLs than women. This effect was found across the
entire age span considered (Zuckerman, Eysenck, &
Eysenck, 1978). Zuckerman (1988) developed a biochemical explanation for the findings concerning age
and gender. Briefly, he reviewed research showing
that (1) OSL is significantly negatively correlated with
the level of the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO),
(2) females have higher levels of MAO than males at
nearly all ages, and (3) MAO levels increase with age.
Raju (1980) found a positive relation between OSL
and level of education. Cognitive stimulation is an
important component of OSL (Pearson, 1970), and
higher educated people are more capable and prone
to deal with cognitive challenges. Raju (1980) also
expected a positive relation of OSL with income.
People with higher incomes are in a better position to
take the risks involved in stimulation-seeking behavior.
However, no such relation was found in his study, but
he did not control age in his analysis (income typically
increases with age, while OSL decreases with age).
We are not aware of previous research linking OSL
to the number of people living in the household.
However, especially in ECMs where interpersonal
influences tend to be generally stronger, we speculate
that the OSL is negatively associated with the number
of people in the household. We reason that the
demands of living in close proximity to others (average of six or seven people) in small dwellings (typically one to four rooms) emphasize the importance of
interpersonal influences and subordination of individual preferences for stimulation, while OSL is a construct closer to self-direction and self-interest.
Single and divorced people have been found to be

higher on OSL than others (Zuckerman & Neeb,
1980). Divorce may lead to a resurgence of a need
for stimulation akin to the situation of being single,
which might have been frustrated during marriage.
Alternatively, people with high OSLs are more likely
to stay single or get divorced as the routine, and
predictability of married life might bore them more
easily. Finally, OSL has been found to be associated
negatively with religious practice. People with higher
church attendance are lower on OSL. This is not
surprising, given the antidogmatic and liberal attitudes
that characterize many high OSLs (Zuckerman &
Neeb, 1980).
The empirical evidence reviewed above was obtained in Western countries. It is unclear whether
the same relations exist in ECMs. However, in a
Bayesian spirit, it seems preferable to use existing
evidence as a point of departure and test whether it
extends to ECM settings. Thus, we hypothesize the
following.
H2a. OSL is related negatively to age.
H2b. OSL is higher for men than women.
H2c. OSL increases with level of education.
H2d. OSL is related positively to income.
H2e. OSL is related negatively to household size.
H2f. OSL is higher for single and divorced people.
H2g. OSL is related negatively to religious practice.
2.4. OSL and exploratory consumer behavior
To attain a satisfactory level of stimulation, a person
may engage in exploration of the environment (Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1992). Exploratory behavior is
behavior with the sole function of changing the
stimulus field (Berlyne, 1963, p. 288). Psychologists
and consumer behavior researchers have studied
exploratory tendencies extensively, and the general
finding has been that OSL systematically influences
consumer behaviors with strong exploratory tendencies. As stated by Raju (1980, p. 272): The magnitude
of OSL, therefore, leads to attempts to adjust stimulation from the environment. Such behavior, aimed at
modifying stimulation from the environment, can be
termed exploratory behavior.
Consumers seeking thrills, adventure, disinhibition, new experiences, fantasies, sensory stimulation,
escape from boredom, and alternation among familiar
things have been identified as engaging in exploratory
consumer behaviors in order to raise their level of
stimulation in life (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982;
McAlister & Pessemier, 1982; Raju, 1980; Steenkamp
& Baumgartner, 1992; Zuckerman, 1979). High OSLs
tend to have a greater interest in traveling, physical
activity in general and outdoor activities and sports in
particular (Zuckerman, 1979, 1994). OSL is positively
related to risky behaviors such as using drugs, drinking alcohol, gambling, and volunteering for unusual
experiments (e.g., hypnosis) (Zuckerman, 1979).
They have a greater preference for emotionally
charged stimuli such as fear-arousing ads (Steenkamp
et al., 1996) and have a greater interest in pursuing
fantasies and fun (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982).
Consistent with Holbrook and Hirschman (1982),
Zuckerman (1979) reported that OSL is related positively to movie attendance and reading fiction and
nonfiction books. Furthermore, high OSLs exhibit a
greater degree of curiosity-motivated behavior. They
engage more often in information search out of
curiosity, generate more curiosity-based thoughts
when exposed to ambiguous ads, and experience
greater tedium during repeated exposure to the same
ad (Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1992). They have a
greater interest in knowing about novel or complex
products and brands out of curiosity (Raju, 1980).
OSL is also related to exploratory purchase behavior (Baumgartner & Steenkamp, 1994, 1996). High
OSLs have a decreased tendency to stick to the same
purchase response over time. OSL is related positively
to a persons tendency to purchase new products and
brands (Raju, 1980; Venkatraman & Price, 1990) and
to variety seeking and the number of different brands
tried out in a category (McAlister & Pessemier, 1982;
Raju, 1980, 1984; Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1992).
Mittelstaedt et al. (1976) reported that OSL had a
positive effect on innovativeness with respect to retail
outlets. High OSLs tried out and adopted more retail
outlets than low OSLs. This is consistent with Rajus
(1980) finding that OSL is correlated positively with
exploration through shopping.
In sum, previous (Western) research supports the
basic proposition that OSL has a positive impact on
exploratory consumer behavior. This body of research
137
indicates that certain individuals are more susceptible

to drive-increasing motives because of a higher
chronic preferred level stimulation. This will be manifested in various types of exploratory consumer
behavior that have the potential to generate stimulation (i.e., are higher on arousal potential). This general
principle is expected to be applicable to ECM settings
as well. More specifically, in the present study, we test
the following specific hypotheses.
H3a. Individuals with higher OSLs are more
interested in products, services, and activities that
involve the potential to invoke risks, curiosity, new
experiences, and physical activity than individuals
with lower OSLs.
H3b. Individuals with higher OSLs exhibit a greater
degree of innovativeness in the adoption of new
products than individuals with lower OSLs.
H3c. Individuals with higher OSLs (1) try out a larger
number of brands and (2) currently use a larger
number of brands than individuals with lower OSLs.
H3d. Individuals with higher OSLs (1) have patronized more retail outlets and (2) currently patronize
more retail outlets than individuals with lower OSLs.
We will also study the effects of the sociodemographics, namely, age, gender, level of education,
household income, household size, religious practice,
and marital status on the various types of exploratory
consumer behaviors. However, given the focus of the
paper on OSL and the dearth of previous theoretical
and empirical research concerning their likely effects
on exploratory behaviors, we will not develop formal
hypotheses but rather examine these effects in an
exploratory fashion.
3. Methodology
3.1. Sample
Data were collected by a leading professional
marketing research company among a representative
national sample of 3328 South Africans. The questionnaire was developed in English and translated into
Afrikaans, North Sotho, South Sotho, Tswana, Venda,
Xhosa, and Zulu using back-translation techniques
(Brislin, Lonner, & Thorndike, 1973). People were
138
personally interviewed in their homes. All interviewers were from the cultural-ethnic group of the
respondents and were chosen and trained to fit into the
respondents social class.
Social identity is an important consideration in
consumer research, because members of different
groups experience the changing social order differently and modify their value priorities and meaning
accordingly (Bardi & Schwartz, 1996). Social identity
is an especially important issue in ECMs (Burgess &
Harris, 1999). The national boundaries of many
ECMs, especially, but not only, in Africa, are not
the outcome of a long historical process but were quite
arbitrarily drawn by colonial powers, without due
regard for the cultural and ethnic makeup of the
territory in question. Moreover, the forces pushing
towards national cultural integration, such as mass
media, education, or common language (Hofstede,
1991), have up to now been less powerful in ECMs.
Some of the culturally unifying forces may be absent
(e.g., common language), or different groups may
have had a different degree of exposure to such forces
(e.g., mass media, education). Consequently, in ECMs,
researchers often will have to deal with very large
within-country and between cultural-ethnic group
diversity. If anything, this applies even more strongly
to South Africa, due to its Apartheid legacy.
In South Africa, the three largest ethnic-cultural
groups are (1) people indigenous to sub-Saharan
Africa (typically denoted within and outside of South
Africa as Blacks), (2) people of European ancestry
(typically denoted as Whites), and (3) people of
mixed ancestry (typically denoted as Coloureds).
Note that the South African government uses these
labels, and most South Africans perceive their ethnicity according to these three groups (see Heuchert,
Parker, Stumpf, & Myburgh, 2000). Consequently, we
adopt their use in our paper. Our sample included
2000 Blacks, 390 Coloureds, and 938 Whites.
Respondents who failed to respond or responded
dont know to a stimulus item on either the Portrait
Values Questionnaire (PVQ) or Change Seeker Index
(CSI) scale (see below) (306, 9.2%), provided the
same response for every item in the 7-item CSI scale
including the negatively scored items (43, 1.3%), or
consecutively provided the same response for 15 or
more items on the PVQ scale (13, 0.3%) were deemed
to have failed to respond to the survey either because
of failure to understand the entire scale or because of

response style and were not included in the analyses.
According to these criteria, 353 respondents (10.6%)
were dropped, leaving an effective sample size of
2975. When compared to the overall sample, the
dropped respondents were somewhat more likely to
be Black (71.7% of the dropped respondents were
Black, while 60.1% of the total sample were Black)
and have not completed high school (71.7% versus
64.9%), but the association between being dropped
and race or education was not strong in either instance
(Cramers V V 0.085).
3.2. Measures
3.2.1. Optimum stimulation level
Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1992) concluded
that Garlington and Shimotas (1964) 95-item Change
Seeker Index (CSI) is a preferred instrument to
measure OSL.1 Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1995)
developed a new shortened 7-item form of the CSI
and validated it cross-culturally in Belgium, the Netherlands, Great Britain, and the USA (Baumgartner &
Steenkamp, 1998; Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1995).
Their findings indicated that, compared to the original
scale, the shortened scale not only reduces the data
collection burden for the respondent but has also
improved nomological validity and psychometric
properties. CSI is typically rated on a 5-point Likert
1
Several self-report measures have been developed to assess
OSL, among them the Change Seeker Index (CSI) of Garlington and
Shimota (1964), Zuckermans (1979) Sensation Seeking Scale,
version V (SSS-V), Mehrabians (1978) Arousal Seeking Tendency
scale, version-II (AST-II), and the Novelty Experiencing Scale (NES)
of Pearson (1970). CSI assesses the need for variation in ones
stimulus input in order to maintain optimal functioning (Garlington
& Shimota, 1964, p. 919). SSS-V measures an individuals need for
varied, novel, and complex sensations and experiences and the
willingness to take physical and social risks for the sake of such
experiences (Zuckerman, 1979, p. 10). AST-II measures a persons
preferred arousal level. NES assesses a persons tendency to
approach versus a tendency to avoid novel experiences (Pearson,
1970, p. 199). Despite the different labels, all scales purportedly
measure OSL (McReynolds, 1971; Raju, 1980). Steenkamp and
Baumgartner (1992) and Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996)
analyzed the empirical relations between these four scales using
confirmatory factor analysis and concluded that these four measurement instruments converge to indicate the underlying construct of
OSL (Baumgartner & Steenkamp, 1996, p. 128).
scale. However, in the present study, we use the same

6-point scale as used for the measurement of value
priorities (see below) to reduce potential respondent
confusion. Before analyses, scores were reversed so
that high ratings indicate high OSL.
3.2.2. Values
Schwartz, Lehmann, and Roccas (1999) recently
developed a new instrument called the Portrait Values
Questionnaire (PVQ) to assess the value priorities of
less advantaged populations for which the standard
57-item Schwartz Value Survey (SVS; Schwartz,
1992) is less suitable because of its length and high
level of abstractness. This permits extension of values
research to many ECMs not studied effectively in the
past (Schwartz et al., 2001). The PVQ includes short,
textual portraits of 29 different people. Each portrait
describes a person to whom certain goals, aspirations,
and wishes all expressive of the same single value
type are important. For each portrait, respondents
are asked: How much like you is this person? They
check one of six boxes labeled: very much like me,
like me, somewhat like me, a little like me, not like
me, and not like me at all. In the current research, we
added a seventh box labeled do not know in order
to lessen the incidence of I-can-answer-any-question bias and courtesy bias (cf. Brislin et al., 1973)
and to encourage respondents who found a particular
scale item too challenging to respond accurately.
Before analyses, scores were reversed so that high
ratings indicated high value importance.
Schwartz et al. (1999, 2001) have presented evidence that the PVQ and the SVS measure the same
motivational value types. However, the PVQ takes
much less time to complete (usually less than 10 min
versus on average 25 min for the SVS) and is
cognitively less demanding. An index of the importance of a value type was obtained by averaging the
ratings for the values within the value type in question. Similarly, the importance of a value domain was
obtained by averaging the importances attributed to
the value types within each domain.2 This procedure
ensures equal weighting of all values (value types) in
Schwartz (1992) argued that hedonism is related to openness, to

change, and to self-enhancement. Hence, we excluded hedonism
from the computation of the importance attached to value domains.
139
the construction of a particular value type (value

domain) (Schwartz, 1992).
3.2.3. Exploratory consumer behavior
Respondents answered a number of questions
related to various aspects of exploratory consumer
behavior. They indicated whether or not they were
interested in each of the following 10 consumer products, services, and activities that have the potential to
generate arousal (cf. Zuckerman, 1979, 1994): novelty
toys, educational toys, fiction books, nonfiction books,
food and wine, travel and holiday overseas, travel and
holiday in South Africa, health and fitness, sport and
outdoor activities, and investment opportunities. An
index of interest in exploratory products, services, and
activities was constructed by summing the number of
affirmative responses (cf. Epstein, 1979).
Questions about brand purchase behavior were
asked for seven categories (alcoholic beverages, cigarettes, soft drinks, major food chains, major clothing
retailers, gas stations, and food products). For each
category, a comprehensive list of up to 12 brands was
shown, and respondents were asked to indicate which
of these brands they had ever used and which brand(s)
they currently used. Other brands not listed could be
added. The number of different brands the respondent
had ever used (currently used) per category was
summed across categories into an index of the consumers generalized tendency to try out brands (an
index of the consumers generalized tendency to
purchase multiple brands at the same time).
Consumption of innovative products was measured
within the context of financial services products. For
each of 13 financial services products (whole life
policy, endowment policy, retirement annuity, medical
insurance, short-term casualty insurance, cheque
account, savings account, transmission account,
investment account, credit card, gas/garage card,
ATM card, and a loan from a bank) respondents
indicated whether they had ever used it, and an index
of purchase innovativeness was constructed.3
Questions about patronage of retail outlets were
asked by presenting respondents with a list of 14 types
Most, if not all, of these products would not be considered

innovative services in Western countries. This is different in ECM
contexts (e.g., Wells, 1996).
140
of grocery retail outlets (varying from major nationwide chains to township supermarkets). Respondents
indicated (1) which retail outlet(s) they had ever
patronized, and (2) which outlets they currently
patronize for grocery purchases. Other retail outlets
could be added to the list. Two behavioral indices were
formed, one pertaining to the number of retail outlets
ever patronized, and one referring to the number of
retail outlets currently patronized.
3.2.4. Sociodemographics
Information on the following sociodemographics
was obtained: age (in years), gender (1 = male, 0 =
female), household income (in thousands of South
African rands per month), household size (in number
of persons living in the household), marital status
(single, married, living together, widowed, divorced,
separated), level of education (measured by years of
schooling), and religious practice (measured by frequency of participation in religious activities such as
going to church or temple, praying, etc. on a 6-point
labeled scale varying from never [ = 1] to everyday
[ = 6]; Zuckerman & Neeb, 1980), and ethnic-cultural
group (Blacks, Coloureds, Whites). For analyses,
marital status was grouped in two categories: 1 = single/divorced, 0 = other.
4. Results
4.1. Measurement validation of CSI and PVQ
4.1.1. Change Seeker Index
We assessed the measurement invariance of the
7-item CSI scale across the three largest South
African cultural-ethnic groups using the procedure
of Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998; see also
Deshpande, Farley, & Webster, 2000; Cadogan, Paul,
Salminen, Puumalainen, & Sundqvist, 2001). The
measurement validation analyses were conducted
on item covariances using LISREL 8. We assessed
configural and metric invariance. As CSI is conceptualized as a single-factor model (Steenkamp &
Baumgartner, 1995), configural invariance implies
that all factor loadings are significant and substantial
in all groups. Metric invariance means that the factor
loadings are equal across groups. Both types of
invariance are required for valid comparisons of
structural relations across groups (Steenkamp &

Baumgartner, 1998).
The fit of the configural model was not good.
Although the overall fit indices were acceptable, with
v2(42) = 502.22 ( p < 0.001), Goodness of Fit Index
(GFI) = 0.942, and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) =
0.933, a detailed examination of the results revealed
serious problems due to the two negatively scored
items. Their (within-group-standardized) factor loadings were unsatisfactory (on average 0.151, the highest loading in any group being 0.389), and we noted
unacceptably high residuals. We decided to drop both
negatively worded items.
Low factor loadings for the negative-scored items
were not observed in previous studies in Western
markets (Baumgartner & Steenkamp, 1998; Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1995). However, many South
African applied researchers, including the sponsoring
research agency, have reported problems concerning
negative scoring in the past. Interestingly, the results
for the two problematic items were somewhat better
for the White ethnic group (average loading of 0.355)
than for the other two ethnic groups (average loading
of 0.050). A possible explanation could be that
answering reverse-scored items is cognitively more
demanding and may pose special difficulty for less
educated people. On average, Whites are better educated than the other two groups.
Configural invariance for the remaining five items
was clearly supported: v2(15) = 31.39 ( p < 0.01),
GFI = 0.996, CFI = 0.997, Consistent Akaike Information Criterion (CAIC) = 438.73. All factor loadings
were significant ( p < 0.001). The average withingroup-standardized factor loading was 0.750, with
the smallest loading being a high 0.596. Composite
reliabilities were highly similar between groups and
ranged between 0.827 and 0.893.
Metric invariance was also supported: v2(23) =
80.11 ( p < 0.001), GFI = 0.993, CFI = 0.991, CAIC =
415.03. Although the increase in v2 was significant,
with Dv2(8) = 48.72 and p < 0.001, which is not surprising given the large sample size (Steenkamp & Van
Trijp, 1991), the decline in the goodness of fit indices
GFI and CFI is insubstantial (Widaman, 1985), while
CAIC, which takes into account goodness of fit as
well as model parsimony, actually improved. These
results provide strong evidence concerning the metric
invariance of CSI (Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1998).
4.1.2. Portrait Values Questionnaire

The multi-group confirmatory factor analysis procedure is not appropriate for analyzing the structure of
value relations as conceptualized in Schwartzs theory.
The value types and higher-order domains represent
fuzzy partitions on a circumplex continuum of values
rather than discrete clusters (Schwartz & Bilsky,
1990). Instead, following Schwartz and Bilsky
(1990), we used Similarity Structure Analysis (SSA;
Guttman, 1968; Borg & Shye, 1993) in order to verify
the hypothesized relationships between the motivational value types and the value domains. SSA is a
nonmetric multidimensional scaling technique in
which the distances between values are measured in
a multidimensional space presenting a configural
map of the correlations of perceived similarity
ratings for the 29 portraits of a person to whom a
value is important. Values emerge as points that can
be located within wedge-shaped regions, which are
contained by arbitrarily drawn partitioning lines. The
content of these regions and their arrangement relative
to one another form the basis of the analysis. The
rationale for this configural verification approach
(see Davison, 1983) is described more fully in
Schwartz (1992). SSAs were conducted for each of
the three cultural-ethnic cultural groups. The coefficients of alienation were less than 0.15 in all cases
141
(Blacks: 0.119, Coloureds: 0.088, Whites: 0.086),

indicating that the two-dimensional maps reproduced
the value correlations quite well. The SSAs largely
revealed the theoretical structure as shown in Fig. 1,
the most important exception being that security
values were more closely linked to self-transcendence
values (universalism, benevolence) rather than being
situated between conformity/tradition and selfenhancement values (power, achievement). This
seems to be unique to Southern Africa and indicates
that the security has a different meaning in the region
(Schwartz et al., 2001).
4.2. Value associations of OSL
The logic of the organization of the Schwartz
value structure means that hypothesized associations
between OSL and value priorities follow a sinusoid
curve for each cultural-ethnic group. Fig. 2 plots
the correlations between respondents OSL and the
importance attached by them to each value type.
The correlations are partialled for differences in
respondents mean scale use, as recommended by
Schwartz (1992). The hypothesized sinusoid pattern
was found for all three groups, which supports
H1a. As expected, the top of the sinusoid was
anchored on stimulation, while strong negative asso-
Fig. 2. Pattern of partial correlations between OSL and the motivational value types and higher order value domains.
142
ciations were observed for security, tradition, and

conformity. Between these two extremes, the magnitude of the correlations typically decreased monotonically.
Fig. 2 also shows the associations of OSL with the
value domains. As predicted (H1b), the correlations
followed a sinusoid pattern, with the top of the sinusoid
being anchored on openness to change (rBlacks = 0.371,
rColoureds = 0.461, rWhites = 0.568; p < 0.001). In two
cultural-ethnic groups, the strongest negative relation
was observed for conservation (rColoureds = 0.482,
rWhites = 0.456; p < 0.001). For Blacks, the correlation with conservation was also negative (r = 0.279,
p < 0.001) but slightly less so than for self-transcendence (r = 0.352, p < 0.001).
Finally, a respondents OSL was positively associated with the importance attached to self-enhancement values (r Blacks = 0.145, r Coloureds = 0.334,
r Whites = 0.189; p < 0.01) while being negatively
related to self-transcendence (r Blacks = 0.352,
r Coloureds = 0.400, r Whites = 0.399; p < 0.001),
which is consistent with H1c.
4.3. Relations with sociodemographics
We regressed the summated CSI score on age,
education, gender, monthly household income, household size, marital status, and religious practice for
each cultural ethnic group separately.4 The Chow test
revealed that pooling of the data across ethnic groups
is not appropriate ( p < 0.001). The results are reported
in Table 2. Unstandardized regression coefficients are
4
Four hundred twenty-three respondents provided incomplete
information on the sociodemographics (especially incomea
variable that also generates much non-response in Western countries)
and hence were not included in the testing of H2 and H3. Respondents
who refused to provide income details did not differ significantly
( p < 0.10) on age, gender, marital status, or OSL but were on average
higher educated, higher on religious practice, and have smaller
households. We examined the stability of the findings by conducting
all regression analyses without income and found that of the 93
significant non-income effects reported in Tables 2 5, only six were
no longer significant at p < 0.10. This is an especially encouraging
result as income has shared variance with other constructs (e.g.,
education), and hence, some changes are to be expected. Moreover,
and even more importantly, in none of the cases was there a change
from significance to nonsignificance or vice versa for the effect of our
focal construct OSL on exploratory behaviors.
Table 2
Effects of sociodemographics on OSL
Predictor Variables
Criterion variable
Optimum stimulation level
Black
Age
Education
Gender (male)
Household income
Household size
Marital status (single/divorced)
Religious practice
Intercept
R2
0.056a
0.204a
1.234a
0.250b
0.067
0.019
0.000
18.416a
0.098a
Coloured
0.107a
0.323a
2.669a
0.053
0.269c
0.065
0.007b
17.331a
0.240a
White
0.113a
0.015
1.677a
0.126b
0.014
0.332
0.001
20.546a
0.161a
Reported are unstandardized regression coefficients.

a
p < 0.001.
b
p < 0.01.
c
p < 0.05.
d
p < 0.010.
reported to allow for valid comparisons between

groups (Pedhazur, 1982).
In all groups, OSL decreased significantly with
age (bBlacks = 0.056, bColoureds = 0.107, bWhites =
0.113; p < 0.001) and was also higher for men than
for women (b B lacks = 1.234, b Coloureds = 2.669,
bWhites = 1.677; p < 0.001). These findings indicate
that, e.g., a middle-aged woman of 55 years is predicted to be between 3.2 (Blacks) and 6.4 (Coloureds)
points lower in OSL (on a scale ranging from 6 to 30)
than a young man aged 20 years.
In all three cultural-ethnic groups, OSL increased
with the level of education, the effect being significant
for Blacks (b = 0.204, p < 0.001) and Coloureds
(b = 0.323, p < 0.001). OSL was also positively related
to income in all three groups, the effect being significant for two cultural-ethnic groups: bBlacks = 0.250
( p < 0.01), bWhites = 0.126 ( p < 0.01). Only among Coloureds was household size negatively associated with
OSL (b = 0.269, p < 0.05). No statistically significant
relation was found with marital status in any of the
groups. Finally, the relation between OSL and religious
practice was directionally supported in only one of the
three groups, but its only significant effect was contrary
to expectations (bColoureds = 0.007, p < 0.01).
With the exception of household size, marital
status, and religious practice, the direction of the
effects is consistent across ethnic-cultural groups
and as hypothesized. We tested H2a H2g formally
by testing whether, across the three ethnic-cultural

groups, there is evidence for a generalized, statistically significant association between a particular sociodemographic variable and OSL. To test the
hypotheses across groups, we used meta-analysis.
More specifically, we used the method of adding Zs
(Becker, 1994; Rosenthal, 1991) to test whether,
collectively, the three groups support the hypothesis.
We find support for a generalized positive association
across the three ethnic-cultural groups between OSL
and education and household income ( p < 0.001) and
a generalized negative association between OSL and
age ( p < 0.001). Furthermore, OSL is higher among
males than females ( p < 0.001). OSL is not significantly associated with household size, marital status,
or religious practice ( p > 0.10). Thus, H2a H2d are
supported, while H2e H2g are not supported.
4.4. Exploratory consumer behavior
All six indices of (1) interest in exploratory products, services, and activities, (2) adoption of innovative financial products, (3) generalized tendency to try
out brands, (4) generalized tendency to currently
purchase multiple brands, (5) number of grocery outlets ever patronized, and (6) number of grocery outlets
currently patronized were regressed on the summated
CSI score and the sociodemographics. For each
143
dependent variable, the Chow test indicated that

pooling was not warranted across cultural-ethnic
groups ( p < 0.001). The unstandardized regression
coefficients are reported in Tables 3 5.
4.4.1. Effects of OSL
OSL had a significant, positive effect on interest in
exploratory products, services, and activities in all
three groups: bBlacks = 0.067, bColoureds = 0.061, and
bWhites = 0.082 ( p < 0.01). Although OSL had a positive effect on the adoption of innovative financial
services for Blacks, Coloureds, as well as Whites, only
for Blacks was it significant (b = 0.012, p < 0.01). OSL
had a positive effect on the generalized tendency to try
out brands in all three groups, the effect being significant for Coloureds (b = 0.437, p < 0.001) and Whites
(b = 0.317, p < 0.001). In addition, OSL had a positive
effect on the size of the current brand set, the effect
being significant both in the Black ethnic group
(b = 0.062, p < 0.05) and the White ethnic group
(b = 0.153, p < 0.01). The effect was negative but nonsignificant among Coloureds. OSL also had a significant and positive effect on the number of grocery
outlets that were ever patronized by the respondent
(bBlacks = 0.020, p < 0.10; bColoureds = 0.068, p < 0.05;
bWhites = 0.041, p < 0.01) as well as on the size of the
current set of grocery outlets (bBlacks = 0.020, p < 0.01;
bColoureds = 0.036, p < 0.10; bWhites = 0.034, p < 0.05).
Table 3
Effects of OSL on exploratory interests and adoption of innovative financial products
Predictor variables
Criterion variables
Exploratory interests
Black
OSL
Age
Education
Gender (male)
Household income
Household size
Religious practice
Intercept
R2
0.067a
0.012b
0.146a
0.084
0.201a
0.014
0.029
0.001
0.084
0.208a

a
p < 0.001.
b
p < 0.01.
c
p < 0.05.
d
p < 0.10.
Coloured
0.061b
0.011
0.088c
0.233
0.240a
0.017
0.161
0.001
0.161
0.263a
Adoption of innovative financial products

White
0.082a
0.011
0.303a
0.246
0.038c
0.065
0.030
0.001d
1.342
0.130a
Black
0.012b
0.017a
0.087a
0.150b
0.357a
0.044a
0.316a
0.000d
1.193a
0.405a
Coloured
0.008
0.022b
0.188a
0.461c
0.164a
0.060
0.743a
0.001
1.340c
0.362a
White
0.008
0.022b
0.458a
1.006a
0.128a
0.250b
1.527a
0.001
1.694d
0.351a
144
Table 4
Effects of OSL on generalized tendency to try out brands and purchase multiple brands
Predictor variables
Criterion variables
Generalized tendency to try out brands
Black
OSL
Age
Education
Gender (male)
Household income
Household size
Religious practice
Intercept
R2
Coloured
0.055
0.040c
0.817a
3.198a
1.015a
0.182c
1.332c
0.003
12.068a
0.171a
0.437a
0.126c
1.103a
3.550b
0.407d
0.890b
4.714a
0.001
5.475
0.262a
White
Generalized tendency to purchase multiple brands currently

Black
0.317a
0.046
1.144a
3.813a
0.040
0.257
2.336c
0.007d
20.711a
0.107a
0.062c
0.016
0.399a
0.601c
0.601a
0.124c
1.025a
0.005b
5.072a
0.153a
Coloured
White
0.066
0.039
0.678a
0.044
0.315b
0.256d
2.441a
0.003
5.307c
0.247a
0.153b
0.003
0.281d
0.480
0.089d
0.429d
1.732c
0.005c
10.393a
0.066a

a
p < 0.001.
b
p < 0.01.
c
p < 0.05.
d
p < 0.10.
The direction of the effects is consistent across

ethnic-cultural groups and consistent with H3a H3d.
In fact, only in 1 out of 18 instances, the sign was
opposite to expectations. This is an especially powerful result, given the large economic, cultural, and
historical differences between these three groups.
H3a H3d were formally tested, using again the
meta-analytic technique of adding Zs. Across all three
groups, we find support for the positive effect of OSL
on exploratory interests (H3a; p < 0.001), adoption of
innovative financial products (H3b; p < 0.05), generalized tendency to try out brands and to currently
purchase multiple brands (H3c; p < 0.001 and p <
0.01, respectively), and the number of grocery stores
ever patronized and currently patronized (H3d; p <
0.001).
4.4.2. Effects of sociodemographics
Tables 3 5 reveal a number of interesting effects
concerning the sociodemographics. We found a con-
Table 5
Effects of OSL on number of grocery outlets patronized
Predictor variables
Criterion variables
Number of grocery outlets ever patronized
Black
OSL
Age
Education
Gender (male)
Household income
Household size
Religious practice
Intercept
R2
0.020d
0.005
0.227a
0.534a
0.267a
0.004
0.294c
0.000
1.514a
0.186a

a
p < 0.001.
b
p < 0.01.
c
p < 0.05.
d
p < 0.10.
Coloured
0.068c
0.028c
0.254a
0.735b
0.062
0.116d
0.260
0.003b
0.802
0.239a
White
0.041b
0.013c
0.189a
0.831a
0.004
0.064
0.287
0.003a
4.395a
0.124a
Number of grocery outlets currently patronized

Black
0.020b
0.002
0.132a
0.393a
0.185a
0.001
0.283a
0.001b
0.317
0.192a
Coloured
White
0.036d
0.022b
0.164a
0.618b
0.107b
0.032
0.282
0.001
0.684
0.228a
0.034c
0.013d
0.046
0.725a
0.043b
0.123d
0.018
0.001c
1.024
0.066a
sistent positive effect of income on various types of

exploratory consumer behavior. Furthermore, the
effect of income was strongest in the Black culturalethnic group and weakest in the White cultural-ethnic
group, with Coloureds in between. This rank order
parallels the rank order of average incomes in the
three groups. The classic budget constraint had the
strongest impact in the group with the least money to
spend. These findings are consistent with economic
theory and lend face validity to the results in general.
Across all behaviors and ethnic groups, higher
educated people exhibited the various exploratory
consumer behaviors to a greater degree. These behaviors are generally cognitively more demanding,
because they involve the processing of new and
possibly complex information related to new brands,
products, and retail outlets. Less educated individuals
are less competent in processing new and complex
information (Capon & Burke, 1980).
We also found evidence for family purchasing
roles. In all three groups, males had a greater tendency
to try new brands and to adopt innovative financial
products, while females were higher on the number of
grocery outlets patronized. This is consistent with
previous research, indicating that decisions concerning
grocery purchases are predominantly made by females
while males often have a dominant position when
financial products are involved (Green et al., 1983).
Another interesting and consistent result is that
single/divorced people were typically lower on exploratory purchase behaviors than others (overwhelmingly
married/living together). In all three groups and controlling for other effects, this effect could be observed
(although it was not always significant) for innovative
financial products, brands, and grocery outlets. This
might be due to the notion that single/divorced people
experience more time pressure since they are responsible for all domestic tasks as well. Sticking to previously learned responses is an efficient strategy to
simplify decision processes and hence to save time
(Hoyer, 1984).
The effects of age, household size, and religious
practice were generally weaker (taking t values as
measure of effect size) and less consistent across
either cultural-ethnic groups or behaviors. Nevertheless, some interesting effects can be observed. While
among Blacks, household size is associated negatively
with the tendency to try out different brands and the
145
tendency to currently purchase multiple brands, the

effect is positive among Coloureds and Whites. In
general, the larger the household, the higher the likelihood that there is significant within-household preference heterogeneity, which can be addressed by
purchasing multiple brands. This has been observed
in Western research (e.g., Seetharaman & Chintagunta, 1998), and we notice this relation among South
African Coloureds and Whites. However, among
Blacks, the opposite effect occurs. We surmise that
this may be due to fact that few Blacks own a car (5%,
which is less than one-tenth of the penetration in
White and Coloured households), and especially large
Black households typically live in less advanced
areas. The retail infrastructure in these areas is characterized by a high density of small, informal-sector
retailers with limited assortment. Thus, absence of
nearby larger retailers and lack of transportation
opportunities mean that larger Black households have
less opportunity to satisfy within-household preference heterogeneity by purchasing a variety of brands
than other households.
While exploratory interests tend to decline with
age, exploratory purchase behavior generally
increases with age. This can be understood by noting
that some measures will increase with age (e.g., older
people have had more opportunity to have used more
brands during their life), while financial services are
not always available (e.g., investment account) or may
be less pertinent (e.g., retirement annuity) to younger
people. Finally, religious practice exerted a weak but
very consistent positive effect on all exploratory
behaviors among all groups. Although it is significant
in only 9 out of 18 instances, in 17 out of 18 instances,
it is positive. A formal meta-analytic Z test is problematic (since the behaviors are not independent), but
this appears too consistent to be a coincidence. We
speculate that it may be an effect of religious affiliation. Religious beliefs emphasize varied aspects of
religiosity that consequently may affect the meaning
or goal of religious practice (Fontaine, Luyten, &
Corveleyn, 2000). The practice of Christianity and
Islam emphasize frequent and generally proscribed
religious acts as an affirmation of ones orientation
and dependency upon God and an aid in transcending
material anxieties and affective desires. Although
most Africans are deeply religious people, traditional
African religions are less likely to emphasize dogma,
146
time or place of worship, or practices such as long

prayers (Mbiti, 1990). Religious beliefs, economic
growth, and material development have frequently
been linked (e.g., Harrison & Huntington, 2000). In
the current research, religious practice was highest
among Protestant Christians and Muslims and lowest
among followers of traditional African religions.
These groups also have the highest and lowest education and household income, respectively.
5. Discussion
In this paper, we examined nomological relations
involving OSL in an ECM context. Substantively, our
results provide evidence on the cross-cultural generalizability of OSL and exploratory consumer behavior
theory. Notwithstanding the refinements made, we
found a high degree of stability in the OSL structure
across these three major cultural-ethnic groups in
South Africa. Meaningful and theoretically predictable nomological relations with values, sociodemographics, and exploratory consumer behavior were
obtained. In general, support was found for our
hypotheses across the ethnic groups. Our research
established that consumers OSL is systematically
and predictably related to their value structure. The
relation follows a sinusoid pattern for value types and
value domains, which is consistent with Schwartzs
theory and provides new insights into the motivational
goals of high (versus low) OSLs. High OSLs are
characterized by motivational goals emphasizing own
personal intellectual, emotional, and especially hedonistic interests in novel and unpredictable ways, which
they may pursue even at the expense of others. This
pattern of motivational goals is consistent with Holbrook and Hirschmans (1982) theorizing. High OSLs
attach less importance to the security of the status quo
and certainty it provides in relationships with close
people, institutions, and traditions. They are much less
motivated than low OSLs to transcend selfish concerns and promote the welfare of others and of nature.
Consistent with our expectations, men are higher on
OSL than women; OSL decreases with age and
increases with income and education. These findings
are consistent with earlier research in Western countries (e.g., Raju, 1980; Zuckerman, 1994). No generalized relation was found with household size or
marital status. The latter finding might be due to the

different cultural nature of marriage (such as tribal
marriages and polygamy) and widowhood (if needed,
the person is taken care of by the family or social
group). There was no relation with religious practice
either. In South Africa, we find a prevalence of different religions including Western Christianity, Africanized Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Judaism, and
traditional African religions. The customary participation rate in religious activities differs between these
religions, which renders comparisons more difficult.
The latter two findings illustrate that some findings
obtained in earlier research conducted in Western
countries may be less easily transferable cross-culturally than others. While the relations of OSL with
income, education, household size, marital status,
and religious practice are primarily due to social
learning, the effects of age and gender are at least
partially due to biochemical causes (Zuckerman,
1988). Biochemical causes are less dependent on the
sociocultural context in question than social learning.
Hence, these effects should be the most likely to be
replicated in an ECM context as well. Indeed, we
found that the hypotheses for gender and age were
supported, while three out of the five other variables
did not yield consistently significant relations across
the three groups.
Consistent effects of OSL on a number of exploratory consumer behaviors were found, even when we
control for age, education, gender, income, household
size, marital status, and religious practice. OSL had a
positive effect on the interest in exploratory products,
services and activities, adoption of innovative financial products, number of brands ever used and currently used, and number of grocery outlets currently
patronized and ever patronized. The findings provide
support for our hypothesis that OSL influences
exploratory consumer behavior in an ECM context.
The results were very consistent across cultural-ethnic
groups, although the magnitude of the effect of OSL
differed between groups. We computed the effect size
r of OSL for each group and each dependent variable
using the formulas of Hunter and Schmidt (1990) (see
also Geyskens, Steenkamp, & Kumar, 1999). The
mean effect size averaged over all significant effects
(the others are clearly not substantial) is 0.119. This
effect size was obtained while controlling for a large
number of other variables, which are ecologically
correlated with OSL. As such, it is a stringent test as

shared variance is partialed out. This translates into a
unique explained variance due to OSL of 1.4%. How
should this be evaluated? According to Cohen (1988)
and Cooper (1981), effects accounting for as little as
1.0% of explained variance may well be considered
either theoretically or practically important (quoted
from Peterson, Albaum, & Beltrami, 1985, p. 102).
Peterson et al. (1985, p. 102) go on to argue:
Indeed, if only research that reports large amounts
of explained variance was to be published, it could
be argued that the literature would be filled with
research findings that are essentially trivial. This
is because large effect sizes are more likely to
exist for relationships that are obvious and
thus represent situations in which no new knowledge is contributed by the research. By the
same token, not publishing research with small
effect sizes may cause important research to be
ignored.
Apart from the effects of OSL, exploratory consumer behavior was affected also by sociodemographics. The consistent effects of gender illustrate
the importance of traditional family purchasing roles
in ECMs. This is consistent with Green et al. (1983).
Income had a positive and substantial effect on all
types of exploratory consumer behavior considered.
This indicates that, apart from important psychological effects on exploratory behavior, the classic economic budget constraint plays an important role in
understanding consumer behavior with exploratory
components. The budget constraint will be in general
more important in ECM markets where incomes are
on average much lower than in affluent Western
countries. Across all behaviors and ethnic groups,
higher educated people exhibited the various exploratory consumer behaviors to a greater degree, which is
consistent with the greater ability of higher educated
people to process new and complex information
(Capon & Burke, 1980). Furthermore, single/divorced
people were typically lower on exploratory purchase
behaviors than others (overwhelmingly married/living
together). This might be explained by the time pressure often faced by single/divorced people. A number
of other group- or behavior-specific effects for age,
household size, and religious practice were also
147
observed. Nevertheless, even if we control for sociodemographics, it is important to note that OSL still
exhibited the hypothesized effects in environments
imposing such significant social and economic constraints on behavioral expressions. This attests to the
role of OSL in understanding exploratory consumer
behavior in ECMs.
Our research setting presented an especially stringent context for testing consumer behavior theory.
Many respondents were challenged by severe economic and educational disadvantages, many had probably never had a job, and some were illiterate. About
5% had never been to school and most had not
graduated from high school (Blacks: 80%, Coloureds:
77%, Whites: 27%). Nevertheless, the results are very
encouraging. In our experience, the percentage of
respondents that failed to produce usable answers
(10.6%) in this study is not much higher than those
typically found in Western large-scale field researches. Moreover, there was only a weak association
between inability to produce usable answers and
education (and ethnic group), which is especially
important as South Africa is characterized by extreme
differences in educational attainment not found in
Western countries. This provides encouraging evidence concerning the possibility of doing consumer
research in ECMs. With proper safeguards and
explanations, even advanced consumer scales can be
used in personal interviewing.
Future research should expand this study to other
ECMs. Our results on the relationships of OSL with
values indicate that it is essentially an individualistic
construct. It is related to personal goals that may be
achieved even at the expense of others. Such dispositions are more acceptable (within reasonable
bounds) in individualistic societies than in collectivistic societies, which are more conformity oriented
and give priority to in-group goals and welfare over
individual goals (Triandis, McCusker, & Hui, 1990).
As such, behavioral expressions of OSL might be
discouraged in collectivistic countries. This should
lead to weaker effects of OSL on various exploratory
consumer behaviors, especially directly observable
ones such as purchase behavior. Cross-national
research comparing individualistic and collectivistic
countries may test this hypothesis. Future research in
ECMs may study effects of OSL on other types of
exploratory consumer behavior including cognitive
148
responses to ads, ad repetition, information acquisition, and recreational shopping.

Until recently, ECMs did not attract much research
attention. The present study reveals the potential of
these countries to test consumer behavior theories.
Scales often will have to be adapted to render them
cognitively less demanding. Some consumer instruments may have to be adapted at least partially to the
local context. Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1998)
describe how such combined emic etic instruments
can still be used to compare results across countries.
Especially in ECMs, which are so different from the
cultural environments in which most of the measurement instruments are developed, the issue of measurement invariance comes to the fore. Future research
could validate other established measurement instruments in ECM contexts. We hope that the next edition
of the well-known Handbook of Marketing Scales
(Bearden & Netemeyer, 1999) will contain more
information on the validity of consumer behavior
scales in ECMs. This will be a major step in opening
up ECMs to consumer behavior research and allows
ECM researchers to build on previous efforts and
insights. A closely related avenue of future research
is to test other consumer behavior theories in ECM
settings. All these efforts will help to investigate
consumer behavior issues on an international basis
and thus to increase the generalizability of consumer
behavior theories and findings.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the
William Davidson Institute (University of Michigan
Business School) to Jan-Benedict E.M. Steenkamp
and by a grant from Markinor to Steven M. Burgess.
We gratefully thank Mari Harris and Sue Grant of
Markinor for their kind support.
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Intern. J.

of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131 150

Optimum stimulation level and exploratory consumer behavior

what we know has been derived from empirical studies

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

large, broadly representative samples. The further

and models in consumer research. The focus in this

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

The relations of OSL with conceptually similar

Clearly, if the concept of OSL is consistent with other

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

Social status and prestige,

Social power, authority, wealth

Personal success through demonstrating

Successful, capable, ambitious

Pleasure and sensuous gratification for oneself.

Pleasure, enjoying life

Excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.

Daring, varied life, an exciting life

Independent thought and

Creativity, curious, freedom

Understanding, appreciation, tolerance,

Broadminded, social justice, equality,

Preservation and enhancement of the

Helpful, honest, forgiving

Respect, commitment, and acceptance of the

Humble, devout, accepting my portion in life

Restraints of actions, inclinations,

Safety, harmony, and stability of society,

Social order, clean

Source: excerpted from Schwartz (1992).

depending on how close the value types are (Schwartz,

from every continent, involving over 100,000 persons

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

Fig. 1. Schwartzs model of relations among motivational types of

their wishes, desires, and motivations. Personality

examination of the associations of OSL with values.

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

2.3. Sociodemographic correlates of OSL

Single and divorced people have been found to be

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

indicates that certain individuals are more susceptible

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

of failure to understand the entire scale or because of

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

scale. However, in the present study, we use the same

Schwartz (1992) argued that hedonism is related to openness, to

the construction of a particular value type (value

Most, if not all, of these products would not be considered

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

structural relations across groups (Steenkamp &

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

4.1.2. Portrait Values Questionnaire

(Blacks: 0.119, Coloureds: 0.088, Whites: 0.086),

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

ciations were observed for security, tradition, and

Reported are unstandardized regression coefficients.

reported to allow for valid comparisons between

J.-B.E.M. Steenkamp, S.M. Burgess / Intern. J. of Research in Marketing 19 (2002) 131150

by testing whether, across the three ethnic-cultural

dependent variable, the Chow test indicated that

Reported are unstandardized regression coefficients.