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FundamentalrightsinIndia
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
[1]

FundamentalrightsisacharterofrightscontainedintheConstitutionofIndia.Itguaranteescivilliberties
suchthatallIndianscanleadtheirlivesinpeaceandharmonyascitizensofIndia.Theseincludeindividual
rightscommontomostliberaldemocracies,suchasequalitybeforelaw,freedomofspeechandexpression,
andpeacefulassembly,freedomtopracticereligion,andtherighttoconstitutionalremediesforthe
protectionofcivilrightsbymeansofwritssuchashabeascorpus.Violationoftheserightsresultin
punishmentsasprescribedintheIndianPenalCodeorotherspeciallaws,subjecttodiscretionofthe
judiciary.TheFundamentalRightsaredefinedasbasichumanfreedomswhicheveryIndiancitizenhasthe
righttoenjoyforaproperandharmoniousdevelopmentofpersonality.Theserightsuniversallyapplytoall
citizens,irrespectiveofrace,placeofbirth,religion,casteorgender.Aliens(personswhoarenotcitizens)
arealsoconsideredinmatterslikeequalitybeforelaw.Theyareenforceablebythecourts,subjecttocertain
restrictions.TheRightshavetheiroriginsinmanysources,includingEngland'sBillofRights,theUnited
StatesBillofRightsandFrance'sDeclarationoftheRightsofMan.
ThesevenfundamentalrightsrecognisedbytheIndianconstitutionare:[2]
1.Righttoequality:Whichincludesequalitybeforelaw,prohibitionofdiscriminationongroundsof
religion,race,caste,genderorplaceofbirth,andequalityofopportunityinmattersofemployment,
abolitionofuntouchabilityandabolitionoftitles.
2.Righttofreedom:Whichincludesspeechandexpression,assembly,associationorunionor
cooperatives,movement,residence,andrighttopracticeanyprofessionoroccupation(someoftheserights
aresubjecttosecurityoftheState,friendlyrelationswithforeigncountries,publicorder,decencyor
morality),righttolifeandliberty,righttoeducation,protectioninrespecttoconvictioninoffencesand
protectionagainstarrestanddetentionincertaincases.
3.Rightagainstexploitation:Whichprohibitsallformsofforcedlabour,childlabourandtrafficofhuman
beings
4.Righttofreedomofreligion:Whichincludesfreedomofconscienceandfreeprofession,practice,and
propagationofreligion,freedomtomanagereligiousaffairs,freedomfromcertaintaxesandfreedomfrom
religiousinstructionsincertaineducationalinstitutes.
5.CulturalandEducationalrights:Preservetherightofanysectionofcitizenstoconservetheirculture,
languageorscript,andrightofminoritiestoestablishandadministereducationalinstitutionsoftheir
choice.
6.Righttoconstitutionalremedies:WhichispresentforenforcementofFundamentalRights.
7.Righttolife:Whichgivestherighttolivewithhumandignity.Thisincludesrightssuchasrightto
education,health,shelterandbasicamnestiesthatthestateshallprovide.
FundamentalrightsforIndianshavealsobeenaimedatoverturningtheinequalitiesofpreindependence
socialpractices.Specifically,theyhavealsobeenusedtoabolishuntouchabilityandthusprohibit
discriminationonthegroundsofreligion,race,caste,sex,orplaceofbirth.Theyalsoforbidtraffickingof
humanbeingsandforcedlabour.Theyalsoprotectculturalandeducationalrightsofethnicandreligious
minoritiesbyallowingthemtopreservetheirlanguagesandalsoestablishandadministertheirown
educationinstitutions.
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Contents
1Genesis
2Significanceandcharacteristics
3Righttoequality
4Righttofreedom
5Rightagainstexploitation
6Righttofreedomofreligion
7Righttolife
8Culturalandeducationalrights
9Righttoconstitutionalremedies
10Criticalanalysis
11Amendments
11.1Righttoproperty
11.2Righttoeducation
12Seealso
13References
14Footnotes

Genesis
ThedevelopmentofconstitutionallyguaranteedfundamentalhumanrightsinIndiawasinspiredby
historicalexamplessuchasEngland'sBillofRights(1689),theUnitedStatesBillofRights(approvedon
17September1787,finalratificationon15December1791)andFrance'sDeclarationoftheRightsofMan
(createdduringtherevolutionof1789,andratifiedon26August1789).[3]Undertheeducationalsystemof
BritishRaj,studentswereexposedtoideasofdemocracy,humanrightsandEuropeanpoliticalhistory.The
IndianstudentcommunityinEnglandwasfurtherinspiredbytheworkingsofparliamentarydemocracyand
Britisherspoliticalparties.
In1919,theRowlattActgaveextensivepowerstotheBritishgovernmentandpolice,andallowed
indefinitearrestanddetentionofindividuals,warrantlesssearchesandseizures,restrictionsonpublic
gatherings,andintensivecensorshipofmediaandpublications.Thepublicoppositiontothisacteventually
ledtomasscampaignsofnonviolentcivildisobediencethroughoutthecountrydemandingguaranteedcivil
freedoms,andlimitationsongovernmentpower.Indians,whowereseekingindependenceandtheirown
government,wereparticularlyinfluencedbytheindependenceofIrelandandthedevelopmentoftheIrish
constitution.Also,thedirectiveprinciplesofstatepolicyinIrishconstitutionwerelookeduponbythe
peopleofIndiaasaninspirationfortheindependentIndia'sgovernmenttocomprehensivelytacklecomplex
socialandeconomicchallengesacrossavast,diversenationandpopulation.
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In1928,theNehruCommissioncomposingofrepresentativesofIndianpoliticalpartiesproposed
constitutionalreformsforIndiathatapartfromcallingfordominionstatusforIndiaandelectionsunder
universalsuffrage,wouldguaranteerightsdeemedfundamental,representationforreligiousandethnic
minorities,andlimitthepowersofthegovernment.In1931,theIndianNationalCongress(thelargest
Indianpoliticalpartyofthetime)adoptedresolutionscommittingitselftothedefenceoffundamentalcivil
rights,aswellassocioeconomicrightssuchastheminimumwageandtheabolitionofuntouchabilityand
serfdom.[4]Committingthemselvestosocialismin1936,theCongressleaderstookexamplesfromthe
constitutionoftheerstwhileUSSR,whichinspiredthefundamentaldutiesofcitizensasameansof
collectivepatrioticresponsibilityfornationalinterestsandchallenges.
TaskofdevelopingaconstitutionforthenationwasundertakenbytheConstituentAssemblyofIndia,
composingofelectedrepresentatives.ConstituentAssemblyfirstmetonDecember9,1946underthe
presidencyofDr.SachidanandlaterDr.RajendraPrasadwasmadeitsPresident.Whilemembersof
Congresscomposedofalargemajority,Congressleadersappointedpersonsfromdiversepolitical
backgroundstoresponsibilitiesofdevelopingtheconstitutionandnationallaws.[5]Notably,BhimraoRamji
Ambedkarbecamethechairpersonofthedraftingcommittee,whileJawaharlalNehruandSardar
VallabhbhaiPatelbecamechairpersonsofcommitteesandsubcommitteesresponsiblefordifferent
subjects.AnotabledevelopmentduringthatperiodhavingsignificanteffectontheIndianconstitutiontook
placeon10December1948whentheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyadoptedtheUniversalDeclaration
ofHumanRightsandcalleduponallmemberstatestoadopttheserightsintheirrespectiveconstitutions.
ThefundamentalrightswereincludedintheFirstDraftConstitution(February1948),theSecondDraft
Constitution(17October1948)andfinalThirdDraftConstitution(26November1949),preparedbythe
DraftingCommittee.

Significanceandcharacteristics
Thefundamentalrightswereincludedintheconstitutionbecausetheywereconsideredessentialforthe
developmentofthepersonalityofeveryindividualandtopreservehumandignity.Thewritersofthe
constitutionregardeddemocracyofnoavailifcivilliberties,likefreedomofspeechandreligionwerenot
recognisedandprotectedbytheState.[6]Accordingtothem,"democracy"is,inessence,agovernmentby
opinionandtherefore,themeansofformulatingpublicopinionshouldbesecuredtothepeopleofa
democraticnation.Forthispurpose,theconstitutionguaranteedtoallthecitizensofIndiathefreedomof
speechandexpressionandvariousotherfreedomsintheformofthefundamentalrights.[7]
Allpeople,irrespectiveofrace,religion,casteorsex,havebeengiventherighttomovetheSupremeCourt
andtheHighCourtsfortheenforcementoftheirfundamentalrights.Itisnotnecessarythattheaggrieved
partyhastobetheonetodoso.Povertystrickenpeoplemaynothavethemeanstodosoandtherefore,in
thepublicinterest,anyonecancommencelitigationinthecourtontheirbehalf.Thisisknownas"Public
interestlitigation".[8]Insomecases,HighCourtjudgeshaveactedontheirownonthebasisofnewspaper
reports.
Thesefundamentalrightshelpnotonlyinprotectionbutalsothepreventionofgrossviolationsofhuman
rights.TheyemphasiseonthefundamentalunityofIndiabyguaranteeingtoallcitizenstheaccessanduse
ofthesamefacilities,irrespectiveofbackground.Somefundamentalrightsapplyforpersonsofany
nationalitywhereasothersareavailableonlytothecitizensofIndia.Therighttolifeandpersonallibertyis
availabletoallpeopleandsoistherighttofreedomofreligion.Ontheotherhand,freedomsofspeechand
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expressionandfreedomtoresideandsettleinanypartofthecountryarereservedtocitizensalone,
includingnonresidentIndiancitizens.[9]Therighttoequalityinmattersofpublicemploymentcannotbe
conferredtooverseascitizensofIndia.[10]
Fundamentalrightsprimarilyprotectindividualsfromanyarbitrarystateactions,butsomerightsare
enforceableagainstindividuals.[11]Forinstance,theConstitutionabolishesuntouchabilityandalso
prohibitsbegar.Theseprovisionsactasacheckbothonstateactionaswellastheactionofprivate
individuals.However,theserightsarenotabsoluteoruncontrolledandaresubjecttoreasonablerestrictions
asnecessaryfortheprotectionofgeneralwelfare.Theycanalsobeselectivelycurtailed.TheSupreme
Courthasruled[12]thatallprovisionsoftheConstitution,includingfundamentalrightscanbeamended.
However,theParliamentcannotalterthebasicstructureoftheconstitution.Featuressuchassecularismand
democracyfallunderthiscategory.Sincethefundamentalrightscanonlybealteredbyaconstitutional
amendment,theirinclusionisachecknotonlyontheexecutivebranch,butalsoontheParliamentandstate
legislatures.[13]
Astateofnationalemergencyhasanadverseeffectontheserights.Undersuchastate,therightsconferred
byArticle19(freedomsofspeech,assemblyandmovement,etc.)remainsuspended.Hence,insucha
situation,thelegislaturemaymakelawswhichgoagainsttherightsgiveninArticle19.Also,thePresident
maybyordersuspendtherighttomovecourtfortheenforcementofotherrightsaswell.

Righttoequality
RighttoequalityisanimportantrightprovidedforinArticles14,15,16,17and18oftheconstitution.Itis
theprincipalfoundationofallotherrightsandliberties,andguaranteesthefollowing:
Equalitybeforelaw:Article14oftheconstitutionguaranteesthatallpeopleshallbeequally
protectedbythelawsofthecountry.ItmeansthattheState[6]willtreatpeopleinthesame
circumstancesalike.Thisarticlealsomeansthatindividuals,whethercitizensofIndiaorotherwise
shallbetreateddifferentlyifthecircumstancesaredifferent.[14]
Socialequalityandequalaccesstopublicareas:Article15oftheconstitutionstatesthatnoperson
shallbediscriminatedonthebasisofreligion,race,caste,sexorplaceofbirth.Everypersonshall
haveequalaccesstopublicplaceslikepublicparks,museums,wells,bathingghatsandtemplesetc.
However,theStatemaymakeanyspecialprovisionforwomenandchildren.Specialprovisionsmay
bemadefortheadvancementsofanysociallyoreducationallybackwardclassorscheduledcastesor
scheduledtribes.[15]
Equalityinmattersofpublicemployment:Article16oftheconstitutionlaysdownthattheState
cannotdiscriminateagainstanyoneinthemattersofemployment.Allcitizenscanapplyfor
governmentjobs.Therearesomeexceptions.TheParliamentmayenactalawstatingthatcertainjobs
canonlybefilledbyapplicantswhoaredomiciledinthearea.Thismaybemeantforpoststhat
requireknowledgeofthelocalityandlanguageofthearea.TheStatemayalsoreservepostsfor
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membersofbackwardclasses,scheduledcastesorscheduledtribeswhicharenotadequately
representedintheservicesundertheStatetobringuptheweakersectionsofthesociety.Also,therea
lawmaybepassedwhichrequiresthattheholderofanofficeofanyreligiousinstitutionshallalsobe
apersonprofessingthatparticularreligion.[16]AccordingtotheCitizenship(Amendment)Bill,2003,
thisrightshallnotbeconferredtoOverseascitizensofIndia.[10]
Abolitionofuntouchability:Article17oftheconstitutionabolishesthepracticeofuntouchability.
Practiceofuntouchabilityisanoffenceandanyonedoingsoispunishablebylaw.[17]The
UntouchabilityOffencesActof1955(renamedtoProtectionofCivilRightsActin1976)provided
penaltiesforpreventingapersonfromenteringaplaceofworshiporfromtakingwaterfromatank
orwell.
AbolitionofTitles:Article18oftheconstitutionprohibitstheStatefromconferringanytitles.
CitizensofIndiacannotaccepttitlesfromaforeignState.[18]TheBritishgovernmenthadcreatedan
aristocraticclassknownasRaiBahadursandKhanBahadursinIndiathesetitleswerealso
abolished.However,MilitaryandacademicdistinctionscanbeconferredonthecitizensofIndia.The
awardsofBharatRatnaandPadmaVibhushancannotbeusedbytherecipientasatitleanddonot,
accordingly,comewithintheconstitutionalprohibition".[19]TheSupremeCourt,on15December
1995,upheldthevalidityofsuchawards.

Righttofreedom
TheConstitutionofIndiacontainstherighttofreedom,given[20]inarticles19,20,21,21Aand22,withthe
viewofguaranteeingindividualrightsthatwereconsideredvitalbytheframersoftheconstitution.Itisa
clusteroffourmainlaws.TherighttofreedominArticle19guaranteesthefollowingsixfreedoms:[21]
Freedomofspeechandexpression,onwhichtheStatecanimposereasonablerestrictionsinthe
interestsofthesovereigntyandintegrityofIndia,thesecurityoftheState,friendlyrelationswith
foreignStates,publicorder,decencyormoralityorinrelationtocontemptofcourt,defamationor
incitementtoanoffence.[22]
Freedomtoassemblepeacefullywithoutarms,onwhichtheStatecanimposereasonablerestrictions
intheinterestofpublicorderandthesovereigntyandintegrityofIndia.
FreedomtoformassociationsorunionsorcooperativesocietiesonwhichtheStatecanimpose
reasonablerestrictionsonthisfreedomintheinterestofpublicorder,moralityandthesovereignty
andintegrityofIndia.
FreedomtomovefreelythroughouttheterritoryofIndiathoughreasonablerestrictionscanbe
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imposedonthisrightintheinterestofthegeneralpublic,forexample,restrictionsmaybeimposed
onmovementandtravelling,soastocontrolepidemics.
FreedomtoresideandsettleinanypartoftheterritoryofIndiawhichisalsosubjecttoreasonable
restrictionsbytheStateintheinterestofthegeneralpublicorfortheprotectionofthescheduled
tribesbecausecertainsafeguardsasareenvisagedhereseemtobejustifiedtoprotectindigenousand
tribalpeoplesfromexploitationandcoercion.[23]Article370restrictscitizensfromotherIndianstates
andKashmiriwomenwhomarrymenfromotherstatesfrompurchasinglandorpropertyinJammu
&Kashmir.[24]
Freedomtopracticeanyprofessionortocarryonanyoccupation,tradeorbusinessonwhichthe
Statemayimposereasonablerestrictionsintheinterestofthegeneralpublic.Thus,thereisnoright
tocarryonabusinesswhichisdangerousorimmoral.Also,professionalortechnicalqualifications
maybeprescribedforpractisinganyprofessionorcarryingonanytrade.
21A.Righttoelementaryeducation.TheStateshallprovidefreeandcompulsoryeducationtoallchildren
oftheageofsixtofourteenyearsinsuchmannerastheStatemay,bylaw,determine.
Theconstitutionalsoimposesrestrictionsontheserights.Thegovernmentrestrictsthesefreedomsinthe
interestoftheindependence,sovereigntyandintegrityofIndia.Intheinterestofmoralityandpublicorder,
thegovernmentcanalsoimposerestrictions.However,therighttolifeandpersonallibertycannotbe
suspended.Thesixfreedomsarealsoautomaticallysuspendedorhaverestrictionsimposedonthemduring
astateofemergency.

Rightagainstexploitation
Therightagainstexploitation,giveninArticles23and24,
providesfortwoprovisions,namelytheabolitionoftraffickingin
humanbeingsandBegar(forcedlabour),[25]andabolitionof
employmentofchildrenbelowtheageof14yearsindangerous
jobslikefactories,mines,etc.Childlabourisconsideredagross
violationofthespiritandprovisionsoftheconstitution.[26]Begar,
practisedinthepastbylandlords,hasbeendeclaredacrimeandis
punishablebylaw.Traffickinginhumansforthepurposeofslave
tradeorprostitutionisalsoprohibitedbylaw.Anexceptionis
madeinemploymentwithoutpaymentforcompulsoryservicesfor
publicpurposes.Compulsorymilitaryconscriptioniscoveredby
thisprovision.[25]

ChildlabourandBegarisprohibited
underRightagainstexploitation.

Righttofreedomofreligion

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Righttofreedomofreligion,coveredinArticles25,26,27and28,providesreligiousfreedomtoall
citizensofIndia.TheobjectiveofthisrightistosustaintheprincipleofsecularisminIndia.Accordingto
theConstitution,allreligionsareequalbeforetheStateandnoreligionshallbegivenpreferenceoverthe
other.Citizensarefreetopreach,practiceandpropagateanyreligionoftheirchoice.
Religiouscommunitiescansetupcharitableinstitutionsoftheirown.However,activitiesinsuch
institutionswhicharenotreligiousareperformedaccordingtothelawslaiddownbythegovernment.
Establishingacharitableinstitutioncanalsoberestrictedintheinterestofpublicorder,moralityand
health.[27]Nopersonshallbecompelledtopaytaxesforthepromotionofaparticularreligion.[28]AState
runinstitutioncannotbeimparteducationthatisproreligion.[29]Also,nothinginthisarticleshallaffectthe
operationofanyexistinglaworpreventtheStatefrommakinganyfurtherlawregulatingorrestrictingany
economic,financial,politicalorothersecularactivitywhichmaybeassociatedwithreligiouspractice,or
providingforsocialwelfareandreform.[30]

Righttolife
Theconstitutionguaranteestherighttolifeandpersonalliberty,whichinturncitesspecificprovisionsin
whichtheserightsareappliedandenforced:
Protectionwithrespecttoconvictionforoffencesisguaranteedintherighttolifeandpersonal
liberty.AccordingtoArticle20,noonecanbeawardedpunishmentwhichismorethanwhatthelaw
ofthelandprescribesatthattime.Thislegalaxiomisbasedontheprinciplethatnocriminallawcan
bemaderetrospective,thatis,foranacttobecomeanoffence,theessentialconditionisthatitshould
havebeenanoffencelegallyatthetimeofcommittingit.Moreover,nopersonaccusedofany
offenceshallbecompelledtobeawitnessagainsthimself."Compulsion"inthisarticlereferstowhat
inlawiscalled"Duress"(injury,beatingorunlawfulimprisonmenttomakeapersondosomething
thathedoesnotwanttodo).Thisarticleisknownasasafeguardagainstselfincrimination.Theother
principleenshrinedinthisarticleisknownastheprincipleofdoublejeopardy,thatis,nopersoncan
beconvictedtwiceforthesameoffence,whichhasbeenderivedfromAngloSaxonlaw.This
principlewasfirstestablishedintheMagnaCarta.[31]
Protectionoflifeandpersonallibertyisalsostatedunderrighttolifeandpersonalliberty.Article21
declaresthatnocitizencanbedeniedhislifeandlibertyexceptbylaw.[32]Thismeansthataperson's
lifeandpersonallibertycanonlybedisputedifthatpersonhascommittedacrime.However,the
righttolifedoesnotincludetherighttodie,andhence,suicideoranattemptthereof,isanoffence.
(Attemptedsuicidebeinginterpretedasacrimehasseenmanydebates.TheSupremeCourtofIndia
gavealandmarkrulingin1994.Thecourtrepealedsection309oftheIndianpenalcode,underwhich
peopleattemptingsuicidecouldfaceprosecutionandprisontermsofuptooneyear.[33]In1996
howeveranotherSupremeCourtrulingnullifiedtheearlierone.[34])"Personalliberty"includesallthe
freedomswhicharenotincludedinArticle19(thatis,thesixfreedoms).Therighttotravelabroadis
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alsocoveredunder"personalliberty"inArticle21.[35]
In2002,throughthe86thAmendmentAct,Article21(A)wasincorporated.Itmadetherightto
primaryeducationpartoftherighttofreedom,statingthattheStatewouldprovidefreeand
compulsoryeducationtochildrenfromsixtofourteenyearsofage.[36]Sixyearsafteranamendment
wasmadeintheIndianConstitution,theunioncabinetclearedtheRighttoEducationBillin2008.It
isnowsoontobetabledinParliamentforapprovalbeforeitmakesafundamentalrightofeverychild
togetfreeandcompulsoryeducation.[37]
Rightsofapersonarrestedunderordinarycircumstancesislaiddownintherighttolifeandpersonal
liberty.Noonecanbearrestedwithoutbeingtoldthegroundsforhisarrest.Ifarrested,theperson
hastherighttodefendhimselfbyalawyerofhischoice.Alsoanarrestedcitizenhastobebrought
beforethenearestmagistratewithin24hours.Therightsofapersonarrestedunderordinary
circumstancesarenotavailabletoanenemyalien.Theyarealsonotavailabletopersonsdetained
underthePreventiveDetentionAct.Underpreventivedetention,thegovernmentcanimprisona
personforamaximumofthreemonths.Itmeansthatifthegovernmentfeelsthatapersonbeingat
libertycanbeathreattothelawandorderortotheunityandintegrityofthenation,itcandetainor
arrestthatpersontopreventhimfromdoingthispossibleharm.Afterthreemonthssuchacaseis
broughtbeforeanadvisoryboardforreview.[38]

Culturalandeducationalrights
AsIndiaisacountryofmanylanguages,religions,andcultures,the
Constitutionprovidesspecialmeasures,inArticles29and30,to
protecttherightsoftheminorities.Anycommunitywhichhasa
languageandascriptofitsownhastherighttoconserveand
developit.Nocitizencanbediscriminatedagainstforadmissionin
StateorStateaidedinstitutions.[39]
Allminorities,religiousorlinguistic,cansetuptheirown
educationalinstitutionstopreserveanddeveloptheirownculture.
TheFlagofIndia
Ingrantingaidtoinstitutions,theStatecannotdiscriminateagainst
anyinstitutiononthebasisofthefactthatitisadministeredbya
minorityinstitution.[40]ButtherighttoadministerdoesnotmeanthattheStatecannotinterfereincaseof
maladministration.Inaprecedentsettingjudgementin1980,theSupremeCourtheldthattheStatecan
certainlytakeregulatorymeasurestopromotetheefficiencyandexcellenceofeducationalstandards.Itcan
alsoissueguidelinesforensuringthesecurityoftheservicesoftheteachersorotheremployeesofthe
institution.Inanotherlandmarkjudgementdeliveredon31October2002,theSupremeCourtruledthatin
caseofaidedminorityinstitutionsofferingprofessionalcourses,admissioncouldonlybethrougha
commonentrancetestconductedbyStateorauniversity.Evenanunaidedminorityinstitutionoughtnotto
ignorethemeritofthestudentsforadmission.
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Righttoconstitutionalremedies
Righttoconstitutionalremedies[Article32to35]empowersthecitizenstomoveacourtoflawincaseof
anydenialofthefundamentalrights.Forinstance,incaseofimprisonment,thecitizencanaskthecourtto
seeifitisaccordingtotheprovisionsofthelawofthecountry.Ifthecourtfindsthatitisnot,theperson
willhavetobefreed.Thisprocedureofaskingthecourtstopreserveorsafeguardthecitizens'fundamental
rightscanbedoneinvariousways.Thecourtscanissuevariouskindsofwrits.Thesewritsarehabeas
corpus,mandamus,prohibition,quowarrantoandcertiorari.Whenanationalorstateemergencyis
declared,thisrightissuspendedbythecentralgovernment.[41]

Criticalanalysis
Thefundamentalrightshavebeenrevisedformanyreasons.Politicalgroupshavedemandedthattheright
towork,therighttoeconomicassistanceincaseofunemployment,oldage,andsimilarrightsbeenshrined
asconstitutionalguaranteestoaddressissuesofpovertyandeconomicinsecurity,[42]thoughthese
provisionshavebeenenshrinedintheDirectivePrinciplesofstatepolicy.[43]Therighttofreedomand
personallibertyhasanumberoflimitingclauses,andthushavebeencriticisedforfailingtocheckthe
sanctioningofpowersoftendeemed"excessive".[42]Thereisalsotheprovisionofpreventivedetentionand
suspensionoffundamentalrightsintimesofEmergency.TheprovisionsofactsliketheMaintenanceof
InternalSecurityAct(MISA)andtheNationalSecurityAct(NSA)areameansofcounteringthe
fundamentalrights,becausetheysanctionexcessivepowerswiththeaimoffightinginternalandcross
borderterrorismandpoliticalviolence,withoutsafeguardsforcivilrights.[42]Thephrases"securityof
State","publicorder"and"morality"areofwideimplication.Peopleofalternatesexualityarecriminalized
inIndiawithprisontermupto10years.Themeaningofphraseslike"reasonablerestrictions"and"the
interestofpublicorder"havenotbeenexplicitlystatedintheconstitution,andthisambiguityleadsto
unnecessarylitigation.[42]Thefreedomtoassemblepeaceablyandwithoutarmsisexercised,butinsome
cases,thesemeetingsarebrokenupbythepolicethroughtheuseofnonfatalmethods.[44][45]
"Freedomofpress"hasnotbeenincludedintherighttofreedom,whichisnecessaryforformulatingpublic
opinionandtomakefreedomofexpressionmorelegitimate.[42]Employmentofchildlabourinhazardous
jobenvironmentshasbeenreduced,buttheiremploymenteveninnonhazardousjobs,includingtheir
prevalentemploymentasdomestichelpviolatesthespiritandidealsoftheconstitution.Morethan16.5
millionchildrenareemployedandworkinginIndia.[46]Indiawasranked88outof159in2005,according
tothedegreetowhichcorruptionisperceivedtoexistamongpublicofficialsandpoliticiansworldwide.[47]
Therighttoequalityinmattersregardingpublicemploymentshallnotbeconferredtooverseascitizensof
India,accordingtotheCitizenship(Amendment)Bill,2003.[10]
AsperArticle19ofPart3oftheIndianconstitution,thefundamentalrightsofpeoplesuchasfreedomof
speechandexpression,gatheringpeaceablywithoutarmsandformingassociationsorunionsshallnot
effecttheinterestsofthesovereignty[48]andintegrityofIndiabutnotunityofIndia.Thewordssovereignty
andintegrityarethequalitiestobecultivated/emulatedbyIndianpeopleasurgedbytheIndian
constitutionbutnotusedrelatedtoterritoryofIndia.Article1ofPart1oftheIndianconstitution,defines
India(Bharat)asunionofsovereignstates.Innutshell,Indiaisitspeoplenotitslandasenshrinedinits
constitution.
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Amendments
Changestothefundamentalrightsrequireaconstitutionalamendmentwhichhastobepassedbyaspecial
majorityofbothhousesofParliament.Thismeansthatanamendmentrequirestheapprovaloftwothirdsof
thememberspresentandvoting.However,thenumberofmembersvotingshouldnotbelessthanthe
simplemajorityofthehousewhethertheLokSabhaorRajyaSabha.
TherighttoeducationatelementarylevelhasbeenmadeoneofthefundamentalrightsundertheEighty
SixthAmendmentof2002.[36]

Righttoproperty
TheConstitutionoriginallyprovidedfortherighttopropertyunderArticles19and31.Article19
guaranteedtoallcitizenstherighttoacquire,holdanddisposeofproperty.Article31providedthat"no
personshallbedeprivedofhispropertysavebyauthorityoflaw."Italsoprovidedthatcompensationwould
bepaidtoapersonwhosepropertyhasbeentakenforpublicpurposes.
Theprovisionsrelatingtotherighttopropertywerechangedanumberoftimes.TheFortyForth
Amendmentof1978deletedtherighttoproperty(http://ccs.in/internship_papers/2002/25.pdf)fromthelist
offundamentalrights[49]Anewprovision,Article300A,wasaddedtotheconstitutionwhichprovidedthat
"nopersonshallbedeprivedofhispropertysavebyauthorityoflaw".Thusifalegislaturemakesalaw
deprivingapersonofhisproperty,therewouldbenoobligationonthepartoftheStatetopayanythingas
compensation.TheaggrievedpersonshallhavenorighttomovethecourtunderArticle32.Thus,theright
topropertyisnolongerafundamentalright,thoughitisstillaconstitutionalright.Ifthegovernment
appearstohaveactedunfairly,theactioncanbechallengedinacourtoflawbycitizens.[42]
Theliberalisationoftheeconomyandthegovernment'sinitiativetosetupspecialeconomiczoneshasled
tomanyprotestsbyfarmersandhaveledtocallsforthereinstatementofthefundamentalrighttoprivate
property.[50]TheSupremeCourthassentanoticetothegovernmentquestioningwhytherightshouldnot
bebroughtbackbutin2010thecourtrejectedthePIL[51]

Righttoeducation
Article21AOn2April2010,Indiajoinedagroupoffewcountriesintheworld,withahistoriclaw
makingeducationafundamentalrightofeverychildcomingintoforce.[52]Makingelementaryeducationan
entitlementforchildreninthe614agegroup,theRightofChildrentoFreeandCompulsoryEducation
Actwilldirectlybenefitchildrenwhodonotgotoschoolatpresent.
PrimeMinisterManmohanSinghannouncedtheoperationalisationoftheAct.Children,whohadeither
droppedoutofschoolsorneverbeentoanyeducationalinstitution,willgetelementaryeducationasitwill
bebindingonthepartofthelocalandStategovernmentstoensurethatallchildreninthe614agegroup
getschooling.AspertheAct,privateeducationalinstitutionsshouldreserve25percentseatsforchildren
fromtheweakersectionsofsociety.TheCentreandtheStateshaveagreedtosharethefinancialburdenin
theratioof55:45,whiletheFinanceCommissionhasgivenRs.250billiontotheStatesforimplementing
theAct.TheCentrehasapprovedanoutlayofRs.150billionfor20102011.

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Theschoolmanagementcommitteeorthelocalauthoritywillidentifythedropoutsoroutofschool
childrenagedabovesixandadmittheminclassesappropriatetotheirageaftergivingspecialtraining.

Seealso
FundamentalRights,DirectivePrinciplesandFundamental
DutiesofIndia
DirectivePrinciplesinIndia

Wikisourcehasoriginal
textrelatedtothisarticle:
Constitutionof
India/PartIII

ConstitutionofIndia
GovernmentofIndia
ParliamentofIndia
WritsinIndianlaw

References
HistoryoftheRemovaloftheFundamentalRightto

ManekaGandhiv.UnionofIndiaAIR1978S.C.

Property(http://ccs.in/internship_papers/2002/25.pdf)

597,(1978).

RighttoPropertyundertheIndianConstitution
(http://www.lawyersclubindia.com/articles/Rightto
PropertyundertheIndianConstitution
3515.asp#.U1P9I6J7QuS)

Pylee,M.V.(1999)."India'sconstitution".New
Delhi:S.ChandandCompany.ISBN812191907
X..

Basu,DurgaDas(1988)."ShorterconstitutionofIndia".

Sinha,SavitaDas,SuptaRashmi,Neeraja(2005).

NewDelhi:PrenticeHallofIndia..

"SocialSciencePartII".NewDelhi:National

Basu,DurgaDas(1993)."Introductiontotheconstitution
ofIndia".NewDelhi:PrenticeHallofIndia..
"BodhisattwaGautamvs.SubhraChakraborty1995
ICHRL69"
(http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICHRL/1995/69.html).
WorldLegalInformationInstitute

CouncilofEducationalResearchandTraining,
India.ISBN817450351X..
Tayal,B.B.Jacob,A.(2005)."IndianHistory,
WorldDevelopmentsandCivics".DistrictSirmour,
HimachalPradesh:AvichalPublishingCompany.
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(http://www.worldlii.org/).Retrieved20060525.Date

O'Flaharty,W.D.J.D.M.,Derrett(1981)."The

ofruling15December1995

ConceptofDutyinAsiaAfricanCharteron

InTheKesavanandaCaseof1973,famouslyknownasthe
"FundamentalRightscase",theSupremeCourtdecidedthatthe
basicstructureoftheConstitutionofIndiawasunamendable.
"ConstitutionofIndia"
(http://india.gov.in/govt/constitutions_india.php).NIC.

HumanandPeople'sRightof1981".
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RightsandInternationalCovenantonCiviland
PoliticalRights.

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HindiandEnglish
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"ListofAmendmentstotheConstitutionofIndia"
(http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/coifiles/amendment.htm).
NIC.Retrieved20120324.ListofamendmentstoIndian
Constitutionincluding97thconstitutionalamendmentact
notifiedinJan2012
Laski,HaroldJoseph(1930)."LibertyintheModern
State".NewYorkandLondon:HarpersandBrothers..

Footnotes
1. ^political.fundamentalright.
2. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIFundamentalRights.
3. ^Tayal,B.B.&Jacob,A.(2005),IndianHistory,WorldDevelopmentsandCivics,pg.A23
4. ^Gandhi,Rajmohan.Patel:ALife.p.206.
5. ^UNI."SardarPatelwastherealarchitectoftheConstitution"(http://www.rediff.com/freedom/22patel.htm).
Rediff.com.Retrieved20060515.
6. ^abTheterm"State"includesallauthoritieswithintheterritoryofIndia.ItincludestheGovernmentofIndia,
theParliamentofIndia,theGovernmentandlegislatureofthestatesofIndia.Italsoincludesalllocalorother
authoritiessuchasMunicipalCorporations,MunicipalBoards,DistrictBoards,Panchayatsetc.Toavoid
confusionwiththetermstatesandterritoriesIndia,State(encompassingalltheauthoritiesinIndia)hasbeen
capitalisedandthetermstate(referringtothestategovernments)isinlowercase.
7. ^Laski,HaroldJoseph(1930).LibertyintheModernState.NewYorkandLondon:HarpersandBrothers.
8. ^"BodhisattwaGautamvs.SubhraChakraborty1995ICHRL69"
(http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICHRL/1995/69.html).WorldLegalInformationInstitute
(http://www.worldlii.org/).Retrieved20060525.ThiswasthecasewherePublicinterestlitigationwas
introduced(dateofruling15December1995).
9. ^Tayal,B.B.&Jacob,A.(2005),IndianHistory,WorldDevelopmentsandCivics,pg.A25
10. ^abc"Citizenship(Amendment)Bill,2003"
(http://web.archive.org/web/20060425230738/http://rajyasabha.nic.in/legislative/amendbills/XXXIX_2003.pdf)
(PDF).RajyaSabha(http://rajyasabha.nic.in/).p.5.Archivedfromtheoriginal
(http://rajyasabha.nic.in/legislative/amendbills/XXXIX_2003.pdf)on25April2006.Retrieved20060525.
11. ^"BodhisattwaGautamvs.SubhraChakraborty1995ICHRL69"
(http://www.worldlii.org/int/cases/ICHRL/1995/69.html).WorldLegalInformationInstitute
(http://www.worldlii.org/).Retrieved20060525.Thiswasthecasewherefundamentalrightswereenforced
againstprivateindividuals(dateofruling15December1995).
12. ^KesavanandaBharativs.TheStateofKeralaAIR1973S.C.1461,(1973)4SCC225Inwhatbecame
famouslyknownasthe"FundamentalRightscase",theSupremeCourtdecidedthatthebasicstructureofthe
ConstitutionofIndiawasunamendable
13. ^Tayal,B.B.&Jacob,A.(2005),IndianHistory,WorldDevelopmentsandCivics,pg.A24
14. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle14FundamentalRights.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_rights_in_India

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15. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle15FundamentalRights.
16. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle16FundamentalRights.
17. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle17FundamentalRights.
18. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle18FundamentalRights.
19. ^Basu,DurgaDas(1988).ShorterConstitutionofIndia.NewDelhi:PrenticeHallofIndia.Basu,DurgaDas
(1993).IntroductiontotheConstitutionofIndia.NewDelhi:PrenticeHallofIndia.
20. ^DemocraticPoliticsClass9.NCERT.
21. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle19FundamentalRights.
22. ^http://indiankanoon.org/doc/1218090/
23. ^Pylee,M.V.(1999).India'sConstitution.NewDelhi:S.ChandandCompany.ISBN812191907X.
24. ^VasudhaDhagamwar(4May2004)."ThepriceofaBill"(http://www.indianexpress.com/oldStory/46240/).
Retrieved24March2009.
25. ^abConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle23FundamentalRights.
26. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle24FundamentalRights.
27. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle26FundamentalRights.
28. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle27FundamentalRights.
29. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle28FundamentalRights.
30. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle25FundamentalRights.
31. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle20FundamentalRights.
32. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle21FundamentalRights.
33. ^NandanG(May1994)."Indiangrantsrighttosuicide"(http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/308/6941/1392).
BMJ308(6941):1392.doi:10.1136/bmj.308.6941.1392(https://dx.doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.308.6941.1392).
34. ^Paper3:AbolitionandRestorationofSection309IPCanoverviewbyBRSharma,ASharma,DHarish:
AnilAggrawal'sInternetJournalofForensicMedicine:Vol.7,No.1(JanuaryJune2006)
(http://www.geradts.com/anil/ij/vol_007_no_001/papers/paper003.html)
35. ^ManekaGandhiv.UnionofIndiaAIR1978S.C.597,(1978).
36. ^ab86thAmendmentAct,2002(http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend86.htm).
37. ^righttoeducationbill(http://www.indg.gov.in/primaryeducation/policiesandschemes/righttoeducationbill).
38. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle22FundamentalRights.
39. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle29FundamentalRights.
40. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle30FundamentalRights.
41. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIIIArticle32FundamentalRights.
42. ^abcdefTayal,B.B.&Jacob,A.(2005),IndianHistory,WorldDevelopmentsandCivics,pg.A33
43. ^ConstitutionofIndiaPartIVArticle41DirectivePrinciplesofStatePolicy.
44. ^SeniorInspectorjustifieslathicharge(http://web.midday.com/news/city/2006/may/137263.htm)duringthe
2006Indianantireservationprotests
45. ^LathiChargeinMumbai(http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=1029206&CatID=1)duringthe2006
Indianantireservationprotests
46. ^"ChildlabourinIndia"(http://www.indiatogether.org/photo/2006/chilabour.htm).IndiaTogether
(http://www.indiatogether.org).Retrieved20060627.
47. ^Indexofperceptionofcorruption,publishedbyTransparencyInternational.
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48. ^Sovereignmeanspossessingsupremeorultimatepower."inmoderndemocraciesthepeople'swillisintheory
sovereign"synonyms:supreme,absolute,unlimited,unrestricted,unrestrained,unbounded,boundless,infinite,
ultimate,total,unconditional,full,utter,paramountprincipal,chief,dominant,predominant
49. ^44thAmendmentAct,1978(http://indiacode.nic.in/coiweb/amend/amend44.htm).
50. ^Mahapatra,Dhananjay(28February2009)."Shouldrighttopropertyreturn?"
(http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India/Shouldrighttopropertyreturn/articleshow/4202212.cms).TheTimes
ofIndia.Retrieved8July2010.
51. ^"Courtrejectspleatomakepropertyafundamentalright"
(http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article836599.ece).TheHindu(Chennai,India).19October2010.
52. ^"Educationisnowafundamentalrightofeverychild"(http://www.hindustantimes.com/Educationisnowa
fundamentalrightofeverychild/Article1525653.aspx).HindustanTimes.1April2010.Retrieved8July2010.

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