Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Facultad de Ingeniera
Escuela de Post Grado
Maestra en Mantenimiento
Tratamientos Trmicos
Cat.: Inga. Myrian O. Barragn
INTRODUCCION
TRATAMIENTOS TERMICOS MS USADOS
La utilizacin de tratamientos
t rmicos permite lograr las ms diversas
caractersticas del acero y sus aleaciones, as como de otros muchos metales.
En consecuencia dichos tratamientos tienen una importancia primordial en las
distintas fases de fabricacin de la industria moderna.
Los procedimientos en los tratamientos trmicos son muy numerosos y variados
segn el fin que se pretende conseguir. La gran cantidad de tratamientos
trmicos, las distintas aleaciones y sus reacciones y las diferentes exigencias
tcnicas requieren soluciones y conocimientos profundos de la materia. El
tratamiento trmico pretende endurecer o ablandar, eliminar las consecuencias
de un mecanizado, modificar la estructura cristalina o modificar total o
parcialmente las caractersticas mecnicas del material.
Podemos distinguir dos razones principales para efectuar tratamientos trmicos
en los cuales se pretende conseguir un endurecimiento (temple) o un
ablandamiento (recocido).
El tiempo que se mantenga la pieza a la temperatura mxima debe ser tal que
se obtenga una temperatura uniforme en toda la seccin transversal del acero.
Debe tenerse cuidado en evitar una prolongacin indebida del tiempo a esa
temperatura, porque esto puede dar por resultado un crecimiento indeseable
del grano, la formacin de cascarilla o la descarburizacin de la superficie.
Una cifra prctica que se utiliza con frecuencia para el tiempo total que ha de
estar una pieza en el horno caliente es de 12min/cm (alrededor deh/pulg) de
espesor de la seccin transversal. Cuando el acero haya alcanzado una
temperatura uniforme, la velocidad de enfriamiento debe ser tal que desarrolle
la estructura desea.
El acero al carbono para herramientas se puede endurecer al calentarse hasta
su temperatura crtica, la cual se adquiere aproximadamente entre los 1450 F y
1525 F (790 a 830 C) lo cual se identifica cuando el metal adquiere el color rojo
cereza brillante. Cuando se calienta el acero la perlita se combina con la ferrita,
lo que produce una estructura de grano fino llamada austenita. Cuando se
enfra la austenita de manera brusca con agua, aceite o aire, se transforma en
martensita, material que es muy duro y frgil.
1300
2370
1200
2190
1100
2010
1000
1830
950
1740
900
1650
850
1560
810
1490
780
1440
740
1360
680
1260
630
1170
550
1020
VELOCIDAD DE ENFRIAMIENTO
El tratamiento
t rmico es la operacin de calentamiento y enfriamiento de
un metal en su estado slido para cambiar sus propiedades fsicas. Con el
tratamiento
t rmico adecuado se pueden reducir los esfuerzos internos, el tamao
del grano, incrementar la tenacidad o producir una superficie dura con un
interior dctil.
Para conocer a que temperatura debe elevarse el metal para que se
reciba un tratamiento
t rmico es recomendable contar con los diagramas de
cambio de fases como el de hierro - carbono. En este tipo de diagramas se
especifican las temperaturas en las que suceden los cambios de fase (cambios
de estructura cristalina), dependiendo de los materiales diluidos.
Los tratamientos trmicos han adquirido gran importancia en la industria
en general, ya que con las constantes innovaciones se van requiriendo metales
con mayores resistencias tanto al desgaste como a la tensin.
Austenita
Enfriamiento
rpido:
se
forma
martensita. La martensita tiene una
estructura tetragonal centrada en el
cuerpo. Es la fase ms dura y frgil que
puede encontrarse en un acero
Austenitizado.
Recocido.
Normalizado.
Templado.
Revenido.
1.
2.
3.
PROCESO DE RECOCIDO:
Calentamiento hasta una temperatura prefijada
Mantenimiento de la temperatura anterior durante un tiempo conveniente
Enfriamiento lento hasta temperatura ambiente, pero tambin realizado a
una velocidad conveniente
TIPOS DE RECOCIDO
Aceros con
The Iron Age is based on this diagram--it's also color coded for temperature.
Cast iron and steel exist because of the strange and wonderful chemical
interactions between carbon and iron.
Our
area
of
interest,
the
blue
line
is
0.76%
carbon.
The thing to take away from this graphic is that as steel cools it experiences
changes in crystalline structure.
Una vez calentado, la forma en que el acero se enfra (la ruta que toma)
determinara sus propiedades. Las rutas de enfriamiento son una representacin
grafica de la funcin entre la temperatura y el tiempo. Para cada acero hay una
grafica llamada Curva TTT (tiempo, temperatura transformacin) o algunas
veces llamada Diagrama de transformacin Isotrmica; abajo se muestra una
porcin de una curva TTT generalizada.
EL TEMPLE
El tratamiento
t rmico del acero conocido como temple, es un proceso
que supone el calentamiento de la pieza desde la temperatura ambiente hasta
la temperatura de austenitizacin completa, la cual varia segn el tipo de acero
que se este tratando y de aqu llevar un enfriamiento brusco hasta una
temperatura muy baja, entendindose esta en el orden de 80 a 150 C, con el
objeto de evitar la transformacin de austenita en perlita mas ferrita,
conservando el acero una estructura completa o parcial de martensita. Algunos
conceptos sobre temple, se mencionan a continuacin.
endurecido de metales) y luego enfriarlo con agua, aceite, aire o en una cmara
refrigerada. El endurecimiento produce una estructura granular fina que
aumenta la resistencia a la traccin (tensin) y disminuye la ductilidad.
El acero al carbono para herramientas se puede endurecer al calentarse hasta
su temperatura crtica, la cual se adquiere aproximadamente entre los 1450 F y
1525 F (790 a 830 C) lo cual se identifica cuando el metal adquiere el color rojo
cereza brillante. Cuando se calienta el acero la perlita se combina con la ferrita,
lo que produce una estructura de grano fino llamada austenita. Cuando se
enfra la austenita de manera brusca con agua, aceite o aire, se transforma en
martensita, material que es muy duro y frgil.
http://www.aprendizaje.com.mx/Curso/Proceso1/Temario1_VI.html#dos
TRATAMIENTO TERMICO
MARCOS SCHROEDER
una
dureza
elevada.
se
pretenden
obtener.
bainita.
http://www.metalunivers.com/Tecnica/Hemeroteca/ArticuloCompleto.asp?ID=25
06
Tomado de http://www.navaching.com/forge/heat.html
La transferencia de calor
Esto no representa
un gran
El extremo
cortante debe ser muchsimo mas duro que la cabeza y la zona intermedia debe
ser cuidadosamente mezclada para prevenir una lnea de demarcacin. Un
mtodo de revenido usado frecuentemente para cinceles y similares, es uno en
el cual el extremo cortante es calentado por el calor residual del extremo
opuesto de la misma herramienta. Para templar y revenir cinceles por este
mtodo, se calienta a la temperatura apropiada de temple y luego llevar la punta
cortante a sumergirse en el bao de enfriamiento, metiendo y sacando el cincel
del mismo, manteniendo siempre el extremo cortante debajo de la superficie.
Este mtodo enfra al aire la cabeza del cincel mientras la punta cortante es
enfriada en el medio lquido. El resultado es una cabeza tenaz, un extremo
cortante totalmente templado y una combinacin adecuada en el resto del
cuerpo.
http://www.tpub.com/steelworker1/11.htm
Tomado de http://www.navaching.com/forge/heattreat.html
TIPOS DE TEMPLE
El manual Marks del ingeniero mecnico nos dice Para el temple, hay tres
tratamientos de uso general. Primero, un enfriamiento por inmersin directa
desde la temperatura de carburizacin dentro de un medio de inmersin
adecuado. Este mtodo no se empleo hasta recientemente, excepto con piezas
de forma regular, a causa del peligro de agrietamiento y distorsin. Con el
descubrimiento de aceros que mantienen un tamao fino de grano a las
temperaturas de carburizacin, se ha visto que la distorsin es menor por
enfriamiento directo por inmersin que por cualquier otro mtodo. Un segundo
tratamiento consiste en enfriar lentamente desde la temperatura de
carburizacin, recalentar por encima de la temperatura crtica de la envolvente
superficial y enfriar por inmersin. Esto facilita el manejo de grandes cantidades
de piezas carburizadas entregadas en una forma discontinua a un horno de
Templado a la llama
Flame hardening is another procedure that is used to harden the surface of
metal parts. When you use an oxyacetylene flame, a thin layer at the surface of
the part is rapidly heated to its critical temperature and then immediately
quenched by a combination of a water spray and the cold base metal. This
process produces a thin, hardened surface, and at the same time, the internal
parts retain their original properties. Whether the process is manual or
mechanical, a close watch must be maintained, since the torches heat the metal
rapidly and the temperatures are usually determined visually.
Flame hardening may be either manual or automatic. Automatic equipment
produces uniform results and is more desirable. Most automatic machines have
variable travel speeds and can be adapted to parts of various sizes and shapes.
The size and shape of the torch depends on the part. The torch consists of a
mixing head, straight extension tube, 90-degree extension head, an adjustable
yoke, and a water-cooled tip. Practically any shape or size flame-hardening tip
is available (fig. 2-1).
carbon content of more than 0.70% are likely to surface crack unless the
heating and quenching rate are carefully controlled.
The surface hardness of a flame-hardened section is equal to a section that
was hardened by furnace heating and quenching. The decrease in hardness
between the case and the core is gradual. Since the core is not affected by
flame hardening, there is little danger of spalling or flaking while the part is in
use. Thus flame
repeat the process over and over until the part is completely hardened. Each
pass or path of the torch should overlap the previous one to prevent soft spots.
STRAIGHT-LINE PROGRESSIVE METHOD. With the straight-line progressive
method, the torch travels along the surface, treating a strip that is about the
same width as the torch tip. To harden wider areas, you move the torch and
repeat the process. Figure 2-2 is an example of progressive hardening.
SPIRAL BAND PROGRESSIVE METHOD. For this technique a cylindrical part
is mounted between lathe centers, and a torch with an adjustable holder is
mounted on the lathe carriage. As the part rotates, the torch moves parallel to
the surface of the part. This travel is synchronized with the parts rotary motion
to produce a continuous band of hardness. Heating and quenching occur at the
same time. The number of torches required depends on the diameter of the
part, but seldom are more than two torches used.
CIRCULAR BAND SPINNING METHOD. The circular band spinning method
provides the best results for hardening cylindrical parts of small or medium
diameters. The part is mounted between lathe centers and turned at a high rate
of speed pasta stationary torch. Enough torches are placed side by side to heat
the entire part. The part can be quenched by water flowing from the torch tips or
in a separate operation.
When you perform heating and quenching as separate operations, the tips are
water-cooled internally, but no water sprays onto the surface of the part.
In flame hardening, you should follow the same safety precautions that apply to
welding (see chapter 3). In particular, guard against holding the flame too close
to the surface and overheating the metal. In judging the temperature of the
metal, remember that the flame makes the metal appear colder than it actually
is.
http://www.tpub.com/steelworker1/10.htm
STAGE ONE:
The screw driver blade is heated, slowly at first, warming up the whole blade.
Then the heat is concentrated on the area at the end of the blade. This
gradually becomes red hot.
STAGE TWO:
The screw driver blade is removed quickly from the brazing heart, with
blacksmiths tongs and plunged into clean, cold water. Steam boils off from the
water as the steel cools rapidly. At this stage the blade is very hard but brittle
and will break easily.
STAGE THREE:
The screw driver blade is cleaned with emery cloth and heated again on the
brazing hearth. Heat is concentrated at the end of the steel blade. The steel
must be watched very carefully as it changes colour quite quickly. A blue line of
heat will appear near the end of the blade and it travels towards the tip as the
temperature rises along the blade. When the line of blue reaches the tip the
brazing torch is turned off. The blue indicates the correct temperature of
tempering.
STAGE FOUR:
The screw driver blade is placed on a steel surface, such as an anvil face. This
conducts the heat away and allows slow cooling of the screw driver blade.
When cold, the blade should be tough and hard wearing and unlikely to break or
snap. This is due to the tempering process.
http://www.technologystudent.com/equip1/heat1.htm
Induction
Hardening:
rate of heating as well as the depth of heating can be controlled. This process is
well suited for surface heat treatment.
http://www.roymech.co.uk/index3.htm
=(
ou
eq.1
sendo:
= profundidade de penetrao, em metros;
= resistividade eltrica do metal, em .m;
0 = permeabilidade magntica no vcuo;
= permeabilidade magntica da pea;
f = freqncia do campo magntico alternado da bobina, em Hz.
A velocidade de aquecimento por induo de alta freqncia varia de 27 a
227C/s, o que chega a 100 vezes mais rpido que a velocidade de
aquecimento no forno convencional e condiciona importantes particularidades
da transformao microestrutural. Isto ocorre porque a velocidade de
nucleao da austenita cresce mais rapidamente que sua velocidade de
crescimento linear. Em decorrncia disto, acima das temperaturas de incio
(Ac1) e de fim (Ac3) da transformao em austenita, formam-se gros
austenticos pequenos, com tamanhos mdios variando de 2 a 7m[4]. Devido
elevada velocidade de aquecimento e curta exposio temperatura
mxima, os ciclos dos processos de difuso mostram-se incompletos e os
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S037044672004000100005&lng=pt&nrm=iso&tlng=pt
hardening with high power diode lasers
Steffen Bonss, Gunther Goebel, Marko Seifert, and Berndt Brenner
Fraunhofer-Institut fuer Werkstoff- und Strahltechnik (Germany)
Eckhard Beyer
Fraunhofer-Institut fuer Werkstoff- und Strahltechnik (Germany) and Technische
Univ. Dresden (Germany)
Laser Beam Hardening with High Power Diode Lasers is presented as an
excellent method for local heat treatment and minimum distortion. An overview
is given about several strategies for local heat treatment and different industrial
applications. Precise measuring and controlling of the surface temperature
makes the process very reliable and is an essential tool for industrial users. To
keep a constant penetration of the hardening zone at constant surface
temperatures the feed rate can be adapted to local heat flow conditions. A
former postprocessor of Fraunhofer IWS generates a CNC-program for the
treatment and changes the feed rate in dependence of the surface shape. The
new processor additionally considers local heat flow variations of a part caused
by boreholes, grooves and changing local thickness. The processing is very fast
and can be applied for solving daily problems of laser beam hardening. Some
examples
show
the
performance
of
the
new
postprocessor.
MEDIOS DE ENFRIAMIENTO
The cooling rate of an object depends on many things. The size, composition,
and initial temperature of the part and final properties are the deciding factors in
selecting the quenching medium. A quenching medium must cool the metal at a
rate rapid enough to produce the desired results.
Mass affects quenching in that as the mass increases, the time required for
complete cooling also increases. Even though parts are the same size, those
containing holes or recesses cool more rapidly than solid objects. The
composition of the metal determines the maximum cooling rate possible without
the danger of cracking or warping. This critical cooling rate, in turn, influences
the choice of the quenching medium.
The cooling rate of any quenching medium varies with its temperature;
therefore, to get uniform results, you must keep the temperature within
prescribed limits. The absorption of heat by the quenching medium also
depends, to a large extent, on the circulation of the quenching medium or the
movement of the part. Agitation of the liquid or the part breaks up the gas that
forms an insulating blanket between the part and the liquid.
Normally, hardening takes place when you quench a metal. The composition of
the metal usually determines the type of quench to use to produce the desired
hardness. For example, shallow-hardened low-alloy and carbon steels require
severer quenching than deep-hardened alloy steels that contain large quantities
of nickel, manganese, or other elements. Therefore, shallow-hardening steels
are usually quenched in water or brine, and the deep-hardening steels are
quenched in oil. Sometimes it is necessary to use a combination quench,
starting with brine or water and finishing with oil. In addition to producing the
desired hardness, the quench must keep cracking, warping, and soft spots to a
minimum.
The volume of quenching liquid should be large enough to absorb all the heat
during a normal quenching operation without the use of additional cooling. As
more metals are quenched, the liquid absorbs the heat and this temperature
rise causes a decrease in the cooling rate. Since quenching liquids must be
maintained within definite temperature ranges, mechanical means are used to
keep the temperature at prescribed levels during continuous operations.
LIQUID QUENCHING
The two methods used for liquid quenching are called still-bath and flush
quenching.
Instill-bath quenching, you cool the metal in a tank of liquid. The only movement
of the liquid is that caused by the movement of the hot metal, as it is being
quenched.
For flush quenching, the liquid is sprayed onto the surface and into every cavity
of the part at the same time to ensure uniform cooling. Flush quenching is used
for parts having recesses or cavities that would not be properly quenched by
ordinary methods. That assures a thorough and uniform quench and reduces
the possibilities of distortion.
Quenching liquids must be maintained at uniform temperatures for satisfactory
results. That is particularly true for oil. To keep the liquids at their proper
temperature, they are usually circulated through water-cooled coils. Selfcontained coolers are integral parts of large quench tanks.
rim of the tank to circulate the liquid. This mechanical agitation aids in uniform
cooling.
Water
Water can be used to quench some forms of steel, but does not produce good
results with tool or other alloy steels. Water absorbs large quantities of
atmospheric gases, and when a hot piece of metal is quenched, these gases
have a tendency to form bubbles on the surface of the metal. These bubbles
tend to collect in holes or recesses and can cause soft spots that later lead to
cracking or warping.
The water in the quench tank should be changed daily or more often if required.
The quench tank should be large enough to hold the part being treated and
should have adequate circulation and temperature control. The temperature of
the water should not exceed 65F.
When aluminum alloys and other nonferrous metals require a liquid quench, you
should quench them in clean water. The volume of water in the quench tank
should be large enough to prevent a temperature rise of more than 20F during
a single quenching operation. For heavy-sectioned parts, the temperature rise
may exceed 20F, but should be kept as low as possible. For wrought products,
the temperature of the water should be about 65F and should never exceed
100F before the piece enters the liquid.
Brine
Brine is the result of dissolving common rock salt in water. This mixture reduces
the absorption of atmospheric gases that, in turn, reduces the amount of
bubbles. As a result, brine wets the metal surface and cools it more rapidly than
water. In addition to rapid and uniform cooling, the brine removes a large
percentage of any scale that may be present.
The brine solution should contain from 7% to 10% salt by weight or threefourths pound of salt for each gallon of water. The correct temperature range for
a brine solution is 65F to 100F.
Low-alloy and carbon steels can be quenched in brine solutions; however, the
rapid cooling rate of brine can cause cracking or stress in high-carbon or lowalloy steels that are uneven in cross section.
Because of the corrosive action of salt on nonferrous metals, these metals are
not quenched in brine. Oil
Oil is used to quench high-speed and oil-hardened steels and is preferred for all
other steels provided that the required hardness can be obtained. Practically
any type of quenching oil is obtainable, including the various animal oils, fish
oils, vegetable oils, and mineral oils. Oil is classed as an intermediate quench. It
has a slower cooling rate than brine or water and a faster rate than air. The
quenching oil temperature should be kept within a range of 80F to 150F. The
properties and average cooling powers of various quenching oils are given in
table 2-4.
Water usually collects in the bottom of oil tanks but is not harmful in small
amounts. In large quantities it can interfere with the quenching operations; for
example, the end of a long piece may extend into the water at the bottom of the
tank and crack as a result of the more rapid cooling.
Nonferrous metals are not routinely quenched in oil unless specifications call for
oil quenching.
Caustic Soda
A solution of water and caustic soda, containing 10 percent caustic soda by
weight, has a higher cooling rate than water. Caustic soda is used only for those
types of steel that require extremely rapid cooling and is NEVER used as a
quench for nonferrous metals.
WARNING
CAUSTIC SODA REQUIRES SPECIAL HANDLING BECAUSE OF ITS
HARMFUL EFFECTS ON SKIN AND CLOTHING. DRY QUENCHING
This type of quenching uses materials other than liquids. Inmost cases, this
method is used only to slow the rate of cooling to prevent warping or cracking.
Air
Air quenching is used for cooling some highly alloyed steels. When you use still
air, each tool or part should be placed on a suitable rack so the air can reach all
sections of the piece. Parts cooled with circulated air are placed in the same
manner and arranged for uniform cooling. Compressed air is used to
concentrate the cooling on specific areas of a part. The airlines must be free of
moisture to prevent cracking of the metal.
Although nonferrous metals are usually quenched in water, pieces that are too
large to fit into the quench tank can be cooled with forced-air drafts; however,
an air quench should be used for nonferrous metal only when the part will not
be subjected to severe corrosion conditions and the required strength and other
physical properties can be developed by a mild quench.
Solids
The solids used for cooling steel parts include castiron chips, lime, sand, and
ashes. Solids are generally used to slow the rate of cooling; for example, a castiron part can be placed in a lime box after welding to prevent cracking and
warping. All solids must be free of moisture to prevent uneven cooling.
http://www.tpub.com/steelworker1/12.htm
Tempering in Oil. -- Oil baths are extensively used for tempering tools
(especially in quantity), the work being immersed in oil heated to the required
temperature, which is indicated by a thermometer. It is important that the oil
have a uniform temperature throughout and that the work be immersed long
enough to acquire this temperature. Cold steel should not be plunged into a
bath heated for tempering, owing to the danger of cracking it. The steel should
either be pre-heated to about 300 degrees F., before placing it in the bath, or
the latter should be at a comparatively low temperature before immersing the
steel, and then be heated to the required degree. A temperature of from 650
degrees to 700 degrees F. can be obtained with heavy tempering oils; for higher
temperatures, a lead bath is generally used. A tempering oil which has given
satisfactory results in practice has the following characteristics: Composition,
mineral oil, 94 per cent; saponifiable oil, 6 per cent; specific gravity 0.920; flash
point, 550 degrees F.; fire test, 625 degrees F. The foregoing figures apply to
new oil. When the oil has been used long enough to be rendered practically
useless, an analysis shows the following changes: Composition, mineral oil, 30
per cent; saponifiable oil, 70 per cent; specific gravity, 0.950; flash point, 475
degrees F.; fire test, 550 degrees F. The great difference in the composition of
new and old oil is due to the loss of mineral oil, resulting from the high heats to
which tempering oil is frequently or constantly subjected; hence, the durability of
the tempering bath can be increased by occasionally adding new mineral oil.
Flash Point and Fire Test. -- The distinction between the "flash point" and the
"fire test" of an oil is as follows: The flash point is the temperature at which the
amount of vapor given off is sufficient to form an inflammable or explosive
mixture with the air over the surface of the oil, so that the gaseous mixture
ignites and burns with a momentary flash when a flame is applied. As the
temperature of the oil rises, more vapor is given off, and then the production of
vapor is rapid enough to maintain a continuous flame, the oil takes fire and
burns. The temperature at which this occurs is called the fire test, firing point or
burning point of the oil.
Tempering in a Lead Bath. -- The lead bath is commonly used for heating steel
preparatory to tempering, as well as for hardening. The bath is first heated to
the temperature at which the steel should be tempered; the pre-heated work is
then placed in the bath long enough to acquire this temperature, after which it is
removed and cooled. As the melting temperature of pure lead is 618 degrees
F., tin is commonly added to it to lower the temperature sufficiently for
tempering. Reductions in temperature can be obtained by varying the
proportions of lead and tin, as shown by the table, "Temperatures of Lead Bath
Alloys".
Melting
Temp.,
Deg. F.
510
500
490
480
470
Melting
Parts Parts
Temp.,
Lead Tin
Deg. F.
19
8
460
17
8
450
16
8
440
15
8
430
14
8
420
To Prevent Lead from Sticking to Steel. -- To prevent hot lead from sticking to
parts heated in it, mix common whiting with wood alcohol, and paint the part
that is to be heated. Water can be used instead of alcohol, but in that case the
paint must be thoroughly dry, as otherwise the moisture will cause the lead to
"fly". Another method is to make a thick paste according to the following
formula: Pulverized charred leather, 1 pound; fine wheat flour, 1-1/2 pound; fine
table salt, 2 pounds. Coat the tool with this paste and heat slowly until dry, then
proceed to harden. Still another method is to heat the work to a blue color, or
about 600 degrees F., and then dip it in a strong solution of salt water, prior to
heating in the lead bath. The lead is sometimes removed from parts having fine
projections or teeth, by using a stiff brush just before immersing in the cooling
bath. This is necessary to prevent the formation of soft spots.
Pots for Lead Baths. -- Melting pots for molten lead baths, etc., should,
preferably, be made from seamless drawn steel rather than from cast iron.
Experience has shown that the seamless pots will sometimes withstand six
months' continuous service, whereas cast iron pots will last, on average, only a
few days, under like conditions. Cast steel melting pots, if properly made, are as
durable as those made of seamless drawn steel.
temper is judged by the color. for tempering parts in quantity, sand tempering
machines have been developed. One well-known design has a horizontal
revolving cylinder containing rows of perforated pockets which become filled
with sand in steady streams upon the work. The drum revolves at different rates
of speed for different classes or work, usually making from 3 to 10 revolutions
per minute. The heat is supplied by a gas burner. The machine is equipped with
a thermometer, which does not indicate the actual temperature of the sand, but
a somewhat lower temperature than would be required for the same tempering
color, under other conditions. The thermometer reading, therefore, is relative
and not a precise indication of the tempering temperature.
(Fig. 10) Tempering by utilizing a Heated Inclined Plate on which the Objects
roll down to the Cooling Bath.
A plate arranged as shown in Fig. 10 will be found very convenient when
drawing small, round pieces. The pieces are rolled on the inclined plate which is
heated as indicated. The length of time the work is in contact with the plate can
be regulated by adjusting the amount of the incline, as well as the location of
the "stop". This arrangement can also be used for such work as punches, etc.,
in which case the plate, of course, should stand level and not in an inclined
position.
490 to 495
495 to 500
515 to 520
525 to 530
500 to 510
495
440 to 445
525 to 540
460 to 470
430 to 435
450 to 455
485
450
450
430
430 to 435
440 to 450
430
435 to 440
430 to 440
460
440 to 450
480
430 to 440
430
430
400
800
460 and 52
0
Taps 1/2 inch or over, for use on screw machines where they pass
through the work
Nut taps 1/2 inch and under
Taps 1/4 inch and under, for use on automatic screw machines
Thread dies to cut thread close to shoulder
Thread dies for general work
Thread dies for tool steel or steel tube
Circular thread chaser for use on lathes
Dies for bolt threader threading to shoulder
Thread rolling dies
Hollow mills (solid type) for roughing on automatic screw machine
work
Hollow mills (solid type) for use on the drill press
Knurls
Twist drills for hard service
Centering tools for automatic screw machine
Forming tools for automatic screw machine
Cut-off tools for automatic screw machine
Profile cutters for milling machine
Formed milling cutters
Milling cutters
Reamers
Counterbores and countersinks
Fly-cutters for use on the drill press
Cutters for tube or pipe-cutting machine
Dies for heading bicycle spokes
Punches for heading bicycle spokes
Backer blocks for spoke drawing dies
Drawing dies for bicycle spokes
Leaf or carriage springs
Snaps for pneumatic hammers -- harden full length, temper to 460
degrees, then bring point to 520 degrees.
furnace may be built these parts are, in most cases, hotter than the fluid itself. It
is, of course, just as important not to let the thermometer rest against any of
these parts in order to insure correct readings. After the pieces tempered are
taken out of the oil bath, they should immediately be dipped in a tank of caustic
soda (not registering over 8 or 9), and after that in a tank of hot water. This will
remove all oil which might adhere to the tools.
Fig. 7 shows an ordinary type of tempering furnace. In this the flame does not
strike the walls of the tank directly. The tools to be tempered are laid in a basket
which is immersed in the oil. In Fig. 8 is shown a tempering furnace in which
means are provided for preventing the tools to be tempered from coming in
contact with the walls or bottom of the furnace proper. The basket holding the
tools is immersed in the inner perforated oil tank. The same arrangement can,
of course, be applied to the furnace shown in Fig. 7.
In tempering, the best method is to immerse the pieces to be tempered in the oil
before starting to heat the latter. They are then heated with the oil.
Tempering High-Speed Steel. -- Heavy high-speed tools having well-supported
cutting edges (such as large planing or turning tools) are often used after
hardening and grinding, without tempering. Tools that are comparatively weak
should be toughened by tempering to suit the particular service required. The
steel is generally heated in a bath of lead, oil, or salts. The tempering
temperatures recommended by high-speed steel manufacturers usually vary
from 400 degrees to 1000 degrees F., so that definite information should be
obtained from the maker of the particular steel to be used. One well-known
manufacturer recommends re-heating hardened lathe tools to 1000 degrees F.,
and tools such as milling cutters, taps, dies, etc., to 500 degrees or 650 degrees
F. According to another manufacturer, it is desirable to temper most high-speed
steel tools in order to make them more resistant to shocks, the drawing
temperatures varying from 600 degrees to 1100 degrees F. Still another steel
maker advises tempering lathe and similar tools to 950 degrees F. Lower
temperatures varying from 400 degrees to 500 degrees F. are sometimes
recommended for tools such as cutters, dies, reamers, etc.
http://www.zianet.com/ebear/metal/heattreat4.html
1040 to 1050 steel Water quench from 1525 to 1550 F. Hardens to approx. RC
58. Very easy to get cracks with water quenching. Draw at 350 F. for spring
temper, best for daggers, etc. Shallow hardening and can be done with
beautiful, Japanese style temper lines.
1050 to 1095 steel Brine quench from 1475 to 1500 F. hardens to RC 60 to 65.
Draw immediately. Oil quench at the same temperatures for slightly lower
hardness. Shallow hardening and can be done in the Japanese style with a
decorative temper line.
4150, 5150, 6150 steel Oil quench from 1525 to 1600 F.
5160 steel Oil quench from 1525 to 1600 F.
52100 steel Oil quench from 1525 to 1600 F. Harden, cool and let the blade
settle for a day (24 hours). Re-harden twice more at the same interval. Cutting
edge toughness is fantastic. Draw at about 350 F, three times, and the spine
may be torch drawn to spring temper. Ed Fowler gets incredible cutting and
flexibility with this method.
O-1, O-2, O-6, O-7 steel Preheat slowly to 1200 F. Oil quench from 1450 to
1500 F. Draw at about 350 F. O-6 reaches RC 65.
W-1, W-2, W-3 steel Preheat slowly to 1050 F. Water (brine) quench from 1400
to 1500 F. Draw immediately. May also be oil hardened if cross sections are
radical, or simply for less chance of cracking. Shallow hardening and will work
with Japanese temper lines.
L-6, L-7 steel Quench from 1450 to 1550 F in water or brine. Doesn't really
need to be drawn. L-7 will give slightly more hardness.
D-2, D-7 steel Preheat at 1500 F. Harden from 1850 to 1875 F. Draw
immediately.
A-2 steel Preheat at 1450. Air harden from 1700 to 1800 F. Draw at 350 F.
S-1, S-2, S-5, S-7 steel Preheat at 1200 to 1300 F. Harden from 1650 to 1750 F
for S-1, 1550 to 1650 F for S-2, 1600 to 1700 F for S-5 and 1700 to 1750 F for
S-7. Draw at 350 to 400 F.
M-2 steel Preheat at 1400. Oil or air quench from 2175 to 2250 F. Draw at 1000
F.
440-C steel Air harden from 1850 to 1950 F. Draw at 325 F. Freezing to dry ice
temperature for several hours before the draw will enhance toughness and
hardness remarkably. Don't bother with 440-A or 440-B.
154 CM, ATS 34 steel Air harden from 1975 F. Straighten before they cool
below 250. Freeze at -220 F for 6 to 8 hours. Double draw at 950 F, two hours
each cycle. (Paul Bos method) Gives RC 59 - 60 and marvelous durability.
Damascus Harden to specifications of the highest carbon content component.
Damascus may be treated a bit rougher than homogenous alloys. San-mai
Damascus sometimes has severe shrinking problems which will pull apart the
center layer.
Water hardening is a mis-used
term. In virtually all cases where a
steel is referred to as water
hardening, they're actually talking
about quenching in brine, heated
to a temperature of 170 degrees,
(F) or above. Brine is made by
dissolving
non-iodized
salt
in
Drawing is normally done for 30 minutes when one has the equipment to
properly maintain the temperature. Flash drawing, that is, heating to show a
certain oxide color on the metal surface and then letting it cool, is fine for
softening a spine, but not best for the cutting edge.
Any steel which has a low draw temperature may be drawn to a softer temper
along the spine to give it better shock resistance. If this is done, the blade will
almost always curve a bit towards the softer part of the blade. This works better
on shallow hardening steel than on others but can be done on 5160, 52100, A2, 440-C and others.
http://www.engnath.com/public/harden.htm
TEMPLABILIDAD
Descarbonetao
resfriamento prossegue, a
http://www.navaching.com/forge/heattreat.html
AOS
Spectru Instrumental Cientfico Ltda
Informtica para Cincia, Ensino e Pesquisa.
Diviso Metalurgia / Tratamento Trmico
Hardened steel can be tempered or made softer and less brittle by reheating it to a certain temperature (depending on the nature of the steel and its
intended use), and then cooling. When steel is tempered by the color method,
the temper is gaged by the colors formed on the surface as the heat increases.
First the surface is brightened to reveal the color changes, and then the steel is
heated either by placing it upon a piece of red-hot metal, a gas-heated plate or
in any other available way. As the temper increases, various colors appear on
the brightened surface. First there is a faint yellow which blends into straw, then
light brown, dark brown, purple, blue and dark blue, with various intermediate
shades. The temperatures corresponding to the different colors and shades are
given in the table on temperatures and colors for tempering. Turning and
planing tools, chisels, etc., are commonly tempered by first heating the cutting
end to a cherry-red, and then quenching the part to be hardened. When the tool
is removed from the bath, the heat remaining in the unquenched part raises the
temperature of the cooled cutting end until the desired color (which will show on
a brightened surface) is obtained, after which the entire tool is quenched. The
foregoing methods are convenient, especially when only a few tools are to be
treated, but the color method of gaging temperatures is not dependable, as the
color is affected, to some extent, by the composition of the metal. The modern
method of tempering, especially in quantity, is to heat the hardened parts to the
required temperature in a bath of molten lead, heated oil, or other liquids; the
parts are then removed from the bath and quenched. The bath method makes it
possible to heat the work uniformly, and to a given temperature with close
limits.
http://www.zianet.com/ebear/metal/heattreat4.html
http://www.navaching.com/forge/heattreat.html
Grados F Grados C
Tipos de aceros
Paja claro
430
220
Herramientas
machuelos
Paja
mediano
460
240
Paja
obscuro
490
255
Cizallas y martillos
Morado
520
270
Azul
obscuro
570
300
Azul claro
600
320
Destornilladores y resortes
como
brocas,
http://www.aprendizaje.com.mx/Curso/Proceso1/Temario1_VI.html#dos
AISI TYPE
WATER CARBON
Wl
HARDEN
ING
01
OIL
06
HARDEN
ING
A2
A6
COLD
WORK
AIR
HARDEN
ING
D2
DESCRIPTION
S7
H13
Chrome-moly-high vanadium.
For die-casting dies and
extrusion tooling.
M2
SHOCK RESISTING
HOT WORK
Tl
HIGH SPEED
420
PLASTIC MOLD
P20
http://www.metalshorts.com/tsa.htm
Hardenability
The hardenability is the ability of a steel to partially or to completely transform
from austenite to some fraction of martensite at a given depth below the
surface, when cooled under a given condition. For example, a steel of a high
hardenability can transform to a high fraction of martensite to depths of several
millimetres under relatively slow cooling, such as an oil quench, whereas a steel
of low hardenability may only form a high fraction of martensite to a depth of
less than a millimetre, even under rapid cooling such as a water quench. The
hardenability therefore describes the capacity of the steel to harden in depth
under a given set of conditions.
Steels with high hardenability are needed for large high strength components,
such as large extruder screws for injection moulding of polymers, pistons for
rock breakers, mine shaft supports, aircraft undercarriages, and also for small
high precision components such as die-casting moulds, drills and presses for
stamping coins.
Steels with low hardenability may be used for smaller components, such as
chisels and shears, or for surface hardened components such as gears.
Hardenability can be measured using the Jominy End Quench test.
temperature of 800 to
900 C.
The test
sample is quickly
transferred to the test
fixture which sprays a
controlled flow of
water onto one end of
the
sample.
The
cooling rate varies
along the length of the
sample from very
rapid at the quenched
end,
to
rates
equivalent
to
air
cooling at the other
end.
The
test
demonstrated
video tutorial.
in
is
a
The round specimen is then ground flat along its length to a depth of 0.38 mm
(15 thousandths of an inch) to remove decarburised material. The hardness is
measured at intervals from the quenched end. The interval is typically 1.5 mm
for alloy steels and 0.75 mm for carbon steels.
High hardness occurs where high volume fractions of martensite develop.
Lower hardness indicates transformation to bainite or ferrite/pearlite
microstructures.
Martensite
Ferrite/Pearlite
Jominy End Quench hardness data for two steels of different hardenability can
be seen in another part of this tutorial, with images of the microstructure
variation along the length of the sample.
Similar tests have been developed in other countries, such as the SAC test,
which uses a sample quenched from all sides by immersion in water. This is
commonly used in the USA.
The
Materials
Science
Internet
Microscope
Dr.
James
Marrow
Manchester Materials Science Centre, UMIST and University of Manchester.
.INSTRUMENTOS
METROLOGIA
DE
METALOGRAFIA
Mquina
Mquina para la prueba de la
templabilidad.
Esta prueba, segn Jominy,
consiste en calentar una probeta
cilndrica
de
dimensiones
establecidas, durante un tiempo, a
la temperatura de temple del
acero.
Luego la probeta se enfra desde
uno de sus extremos con un
chorro de agua y en condiciones
controladas. Ms tarde, se realizan
sobre
dicha
probeta
dos
superficies planas a lo largo de
dos generatrices opuestas. La
variacin de la dureza a lo largo de
estas generatrices partiendo de la
extremidad refrigerada, es lo que
caracteriza la templabilidad del
acero.
.
El equipo consiste en un horno de
mufla con su regulador de
temperatura, y en su base un
PRECISION
ENSAYOS
Jominy
Mesa
Jominy
Revenido de brocas.
a) Calentado una broca la rojo oscura y sumergindola en una solucin
concentrada de cloruro de zinc, puede taladrar el vidrio.
b) Se calienta la broca y se cubre con cianuro potasico, debiendo estar
aquella lo bastante caliente para que se funda el cianuro. Se calienta
otra vez al rojo cereza oscuro y se enfra en una salmuera muy concentrada
hecha con agua caliente. No debe calentarse asta que la temperatura de
temple. La broca queda blanca, pero dura y tenaz.
c) Se calienta la broca al rojo cereza en fuego de carbn, y despus se sumerge
en agua fra a la que se habr agregado un puado de sal. Se debe
calentar la broca asta en color paja plido.
Revenido de cinceles.
a) Se calienta el cincel a temperatura relativamente baja, para evitar que se
formen cascarilla, y se sumerge a continuacin en una salmuera compuesta de
10 partes de sal por 10 de agua. El temple que da la mayor dureza queda
acusado por el color trtola de acero.
b) Se calienta la herramienta al rojo cereza y se enfra en el liquido siguiente:
agua 6 litros, amoniaco 45 gr, vitriolo blanco 45 gr, sal
amoniaco 45 gr, espritu de nitro 45 gr, alumbre15 gr, sal 90 gr, y un puado de
raspaduras de casco de caballo. Este lquido debe conservarse en un
frasco muy bien tapado.
Revenido de calibradores de roscas.
Se calientan en plomo derretido, se enfran en agua fra o en
salmuera, y se bruen, revinindolos en bao de arena hasta color paja. Si el acero
es homogneo, no cambian nada en tamao en tamao ni se deforman.
Revenido de hojas de cuchillo.
Se calientan bien por igual y se sumergen de punta en un bao de
aceite de linaza crudo. En revenido debe darse sobre una plancha caliente,
pudindose calentar las hojas y endurecerse entre dos trozos de hierro.
Revenido de terrajas.
Se filtra la terraja y se calienta con unas tenazas o mordazas al rojo sangre, en
un fuego de carbn o en un mechero de Buncen, dndole vueltas para que no se
caliente una parte antes que otra. Se echa un puado de sal en una cubeta llena
de agua fra y limpia, que se agita para que se forme en un centro un remolino
en forma de embudo, en el que se introduce la terraja verticalmente, para que
c) Agua 8 litros, salitre 60 gr, alumbre 60 gr, sal amoniaco en polvo 30 gr, sal
comn 750 gr. se calienta el acero al rojo cereza y se echa en este
bao.
d) Agua 8 litros, salitre 15 gr, brax en polvo 15 gr, vitriolo 30 gr, salde litro.
e) Se echan 15 gr de sublimado corrosivo en 3 litros de agua y se agrega un
puado de sal comn. Este liquido es un veneno muy activo.
f) Alumbre30 gr, salitre 30 gr, sal amoniaco 30 gr, sal comn 375gr, agua 6 litros.
No hay que calentar despus.
g) Salitre 30 gr, brax 30 gr, sal comn 360 gr, agua 6 litros. tambin los cidos
aumentan el efecto que produce el agua en el revenido, tanto o mas que la sal
comn; se agregan estos en proporcin del 2 por 100 y con frecuencia
combinados con sales. Los cidos orgnicos (actico, ctrico, etc.) son
menos activos que los minerales (clorhdrico, ntrico, sulfrico, etc.)
El agua acidulada se emplea para revenir herramientas muy duras, como
las
que
se
sirven
para
cortar
o
trabajar
objetos
extraordinariamente duros, o cuando hay que dar una capa muy dura o una
clase de acero incapaz de endurecerse hasta el extremo que se necesita.
El alcohol hace bajar el punto de ebullicin del agua, dando lugar a una
evaporacin tan enrgica al ponerse esta en contacto con el metal al rojo,
que el revenido se retrasa bastante, en razn directa de la cantidad de alcohol
agregada al agua. El agua con mucho alcohol no sirve para
templar ni revenir. El jabn y el agua jabonosa no sirven para revenir
el acero, por lo cual se emplea para enfriarlo rpidamente cuando no se requiere
una gran dureza. Cuando se quiere que ciertas partes de acero
completamente templado pierdan su dureza, se calientan aquellas al rojo y se
enfran en jabonaduras. Esto es lo que se hace con la espiga
de las limas, cuchillos, serruchos, etctera.
Las sustancias orgnicas solubles retardan el revenido en proporcin con la
cantidad empleada;
estas sustancias (como leche, cerveza, etc.) se
usan en realidad muy poco.
Masas de revenido.
a) 1 carbn animal obtenido de cuerno quemado 24 partes, raspaduras de
cuerno 4 partes, cola 6 partes, nitrato potasico 9.5 partes, sal comn 55 partes. 2
Cianuro potasico 1 parte, salitre purificado 1 parte, pezuas
quemadas y pulverizadas 1 parte, goma arbiga 1/30 partes, acbar 1/30 partes,
sal comn parte. Se renen ambas mezclas despus de reducidos a polvo
todos los ingredientes, se extiende el producto resultante sobre el acero al rojo,
y si se trata de hierro forjado, al rojo blanco, y despus de
quemarse se enfra el metal como de ordinario.
Para controlar la temperatura de revenido hay que observar los colores que
toma la pieza pulida (colores de oxidacin). Cuando se alcanza el color deseado
se debe enfriar inmediatamente. En el revenido del exterior al interior, la pieza
se calienta en un horno o con la llama de un soplete.
En el revenido del interior al exterior, el calentamiento se produce por el calor
remanente de la pieza. Para ello, al efectuar el temple se enfra bruscamente
una parte de la pieza, por ejemplo, el filo de un cincel. El mango del cincel
conserva aun el calor suficiente para calentar el filo hasta la temperatura de
revenido.
Grado de dureza
Color
Temperatura Aplicacin
Muy duro
Blanco
amarillento
Amarillo
pajizo
Amarillo
oro
Pardo
amarillento
200 C
240 C
Rojo
260 C
Brocas, herramientas
punzonar, martillos
cinceles
Duro
220 C
230 C
Violeta
280 C
360 C
Instrumentos de medida,
cuchillas para cortar papel
Escariadores, fresas, sierras
para metales
Puntas trazadoras
para
Aceros (SAE)
900 a 925
870 a 900
845 a 870
815 a 845
1020 1035
1040
1045 1050
1060 -1095
Aceros (SAE)
870
900
925